The Dogmatic School.
It was only natural that the philosophical2 Greeks should discuss medicine at as great a length as they discussed philosophy; accordingly, we find that no sooner had our art taken its place amongst the subjects worthy3 of being seriously considered by the Greek intellect, than it was as much talked about as practised, and wrangled4 over as though it were a system of religion. Sects6 arose which opposed each other with the greatest vehemence7; and Hippocrates had not long formulated8 his teaching when his disciples10 elevated his principles into a dogmatism which challenged, and shortly provoked, opposition11 of various kinds. Then arose the schools of medicine which ultimately became famous, as those of the Dogmatists, Empirics, Methodists, Pneumatists, etc. The Dogmatists boasted of being the Rational and Logical school. They held that there is a certain connection between all the arts and sciences, and that it is the duty of the physician to avail himself of all sorts of knowledge on every subject which bears any relationship to his own. They made, therefore, the most careful inquiry12 into the remote and proximate causes of disease. They examined the influence on the human body of airs, waters, places, occupations, diet, seasons, etc. They formulated general rules, not of universal application, but modified their treatment according to circumstances, availing themselves of whatever aid they could obtain from any source. Hippocrates had said, “The physician who is also a philosopher is equal to the gods,” and the Dogmatists elevated this into an article of their creed13. Hippocrates, Galen, Oribasius, ?tius, Paulus ?gineta, and the Arab physicians were dogmatists. The founders15 of the school were the sons of Hippocrates—Thessalus and Draco. The former was the eldest16 son of the great physician, and was the more famous of the two. He passed a188 great part of his life as physician in the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia.399 His brother, Draco, was physician to Queen Roxana, wife of Alexander the Great.
We may say, therefore, that the oldest, most famous, and worthy of the ancient medical sects arose about 400 b.c., and retained its power over the medical profession till the rise of the Empirical sect5 in the Alexandrian school of philosophy. We are indebted to Celsus for a lucid17 and admirable exposition of the doctrines18 professed20 by these two medical parties.400
The Dogmatists maintained that it was not enough for the physician to know the mere21 symptoms of his patient’s malady22. It does not suffice to know the evident causes of the disorder23, but he must acquaint himself with the hidden causes. To acquire this knowledge of the hidden causes, he must study the hidden parts, and the natural actions and functions of the body in health. He must know the principles on which the human machinery24 is constructed before he can scientifically treat the accidents and disturbances26 to which it is liable. It was not, therefore, a mere subject of philosophical interest to hold with some physicians that diseases proceed from excess or deficiency of one or other of the four elements, or with others, that the various humours or the respiration27 were at fault. It was not of merely academic interest to suppose that the abnormal flow of the blood caused inflammations, or that corpuscles blocked up the invisible passages. The doctor must do more than speculate on these things in his discussions. He must have a theory upon them which he could apply to the treatment of his patients, and the best physician would be the one who best knew how the disease originated. Experiments without reasoning were valueless; their chief use was to inform the experimenter whether he had reasoned justly or conjectured28 fortunately. When the physician is confronted by a new form of disease for which no remedy has been discovered, he must know its cause and origin, or his practice will be mere guess-work. Anybody can discover the evident causes—heat, cold, over-eating. These things the least instructed physician will probably know. It is the knowledge of hidden causes which makes the superior man. He who aspires29 to be instructed must know what we now call physiology30—why we breathe, why we eat, what happens to the food which we swallow, why the arteries31 pulsate32, why we sleep, etc. The man who cannot explain these phenomena33 is not a competent doctor. He must have frequently inspected dead bodies, and examined carefully their internal parts; but they maintained that it was much the better way to189 open living persons, as Herophilus and Erasistratus did, so that they could acquaint themselves in life with the structures whose disturbance25 or disease causes the sufferings which they were called upon to alleviate35. What is known as the “Humoral Pathology” formed the most essential part of the system of the Dogmatists.
Humoral pathology explains all diseases as caused by the mixture of the four cardinal36 humours; viz., the blood, bile, mucus or phlegm, and water. Hippocrates leaned towards it, but it was Plato who developed it. The stomach is the common source of all these humours. When diseases develop, they attract these humours. The source of the bile is the liver; of the mucus, the head; of the water, the spleen. Bile causes all acute diseases, mucus in the head causes catarrhs and rheumatism37, dropsy depends on the spleen.
Diocles Carystius, a famous Greek physician, said by Pliny401 to have been next in age and fame to Hippocrates himself, lived in the fourth century b.c. He wrote several treatises38 on medicine, of which the titles and some fragments are preserved by Galen, C?lius Aurelianus, Oribasius, and others. His letter to King Antigonus, entitled “An Epistle on Preserving Health,” is inserted at the end of the first book of Paulus ?gineta, and was probably addressed to Antigonus Gonatus, king of Macedonia, who died b.c. 239. This treatise39 is so valuable a summary of the medical teaching of the time that it will be useful to insert it in this place. “Since of all kings you are the most skilled in the arts, and have lived very long, and are skilled in all philosophy, and have attained40 the highest rank in mathematics, I, supposing that the science which treats of all things that relate to health is a branch of philosophy becoming a king and befitting to you, have written you this account of the origin of diseases, of the symptoms which precede them, and of the modes by which they may be alleviated42. For neither does a storm gather in the heavens but it is preceded by certain signs which seamen43 and men of much skill attend to, nor does any disease attack the human frame without having some precursory symptom. If, then, you will only be persuaded by what we say regarding them, you may attain41 a correct acquaintance with these things. We divide the human body into four parts: the head, the chest, the belly44, and the bladder. When a disease is about to fix in the head, it is usually announced beforehand by vertigo45, pain in the head, heaviness in the eyebrows46, noise in the ears, and throbbing47 of the temples; the eyes water in the morning, attended with dimness of sight; the sense of smell is lost, and the gums become swelled48. When any such symptoms occur, the head ought to be purged49, not indeed with any strong medicine, but, taking 190 the tops of hyssop and sweet marjoram, pound them and boil them in a pot, with half a hemina of must or rob; rinse50 the mouth with this in the morning before eating, and evacuate51 the humours by gargling. There is no gentler remedy than this for affections of the head. Mustard in warm, honied water also answers the purpose very well. Take a mouthful of this in the morning before eating, gargle and evacuate the humours. The head also should be warmed by covering it in such a manner as that the phlegm may be readily discharged. Those who neglect these symptoms are apt to be seized with the following disorders52: inflammations of the eyes, cataracts53, pain of the ears as if from a fracture, strumous affections of the neck, sphacelus of the brain, catarrh, quinsy, running ulcers54 called achores, caries, enlargement of the uvula, defluxion of the hairs, ulceration of the head, pain in the teeth. When some disease is about to fall upon the chest, it is usually announced by some of the following symptoms: There are profuse55 sweats over the whole body, and particularly about the chest, the tongue is rough, expectoration saltish, bitter, or bilious56, pains suddenly seizing the sides or shoulder-blades, frequent yawning, watchfulness57, oppressed respiration, thirst after sleep, despondency of mind, coldness of the breast and arms, trembling of the hands. These symptoms may be relieved in the following manner: Procure58 vomiting59 after a moderate meal without medicine. Vomiting also when the stomach is empty will answer well; to produce which first swallow some small radishes, cresses, rocket, mustard and purslain, and then by drinking warm water procure vomiting. Upon those who neglect these symptoms the following diseases are apt to supervene: pleurisy, peripneumony, melancholy60, acute fevers, frenzy61, lethargy, ardent62 fever attended with hiccough. When any disease is about to attack the bowels63, some of the following symptoms announce its approach: In the first place, the belly is griped and disordered, the food and drink seem bitter, heaviness of the knees, inability to bend the loins, pains over the whole body unexpectedly occurring, numbness65 of the legs, slight fever. When any of these occur, it will be proper to loosen the belly by a suitable diet without medicine. There are many articles of this description which one may use with safety, such as beets66 boiled in honeyed water, boiled garlic, mallows, dock, the herb mercury, honied cakes; for all these things are laxative of the bowels. Or, if any of these symptoms increase, mix bastard67 saffron with all these decoctions, for thereby68 they will be rendered sweeter and less dangerous. The smooth cabbage boiled in a large quantity of water is also beneficial. This decoction, with honey and salt, may be drunk to the amount of about four hemin?, or the water of chick-peas and tares69 boiled may be drunk in 191 the same manner. Those who neglect the afore-mentioned symptoms are apt to be seized with the following affections: diarrh?a, dysentery, lientery, ileus, ischiatic disease, tertian fever, gout, apoplexy, h?morrhoids, rheumatism. When any disease is about to seize the bladder, the following symptoms are its usual precursors70: A sense of repletion71 after taking even a small quantity of food, flatulence, eructation, paleness of the whole body, deep sleep, urine pale and passed with difficulty, swellings about the privy72 parts. When any of these symptoms appear, their safest cure will be by aromatic73 diuretics. Thus, the roots of fennel and parsley may be infused in white fragrant74 wine, and drunk every day when the stomach is empty in the morning, to the amount of two cyathi, with water in which carrot, myrtle, or elecampane has been macerated (you may use any of these you please, for all are useful); and the infusion75 of chick-peas in water in like manner. On those who neglect these symptoms the following diseases are apt to supervene: dropsy, enlargement of the spleen, pain of the liver, calculus76, inflammation of the kidney, strangury, distension77 of the belly. Regarding all these symptoms, it may be remarked that children ought to be treated with gentler remedies, and adults with more active. I have now to give you an account of the seasons of the year in which each of these complaints occur, and what things ought to be taken and avoided. I begin with the winter solstice. Of the winter solstice: This season disposes men to catarrhs and defluxions until the vernal equinox. It will be proper then to take such things as are of a heating nature, drink wine little diluted78, or drink pure wine, or of the decoction of marjoram. From the winter solstice to the vernal equinox are ninety days. Of the vernal equinox: This season increases phlegm in men, and the sweetish humours in the blood, until the rising of the pleiades. Use therefore juicy and acrid79 things, take labour, ... To the rising of the pleiades are forty-six days. Of the rising of the pleiades: This season increases the bitter bile and bitter humours in men, until the summer solstice. Use therefore all sweet things, laxatives of the belly.... To the summer solstice are forty-five days. Of the summer solstice: This season increases the formation of black bile in men, until the autumnal equinox. Use therefore cold water, and everything that is fragrant.... To the autumnal equinox are ninety-three days. Of the autumnal equinox: This season increases phlegm and thin rheums in men until the setting of the pleiades. Use therefore remedies for removing rheums, have recourse to acrid and succulent things, take no vomits80, and abstain81 from labour.... To the setting of the pleiades are forty-five days. Of the setting of the pleiades: This season increases phlegm in men until the winter solstice. Take therefore all 192 sour things, drink as much as is agreeable of a weak wine, use fat things, and labour strenuously82. To the winter solstice are forty-five days.”402
Praxagoras of Cos, who lived in the fourth century b.c., shortly after Diocles, was a famous physician of the Dogmatic sect, who especially excelled in anatomy83 and physiology. He placed the seat of all diseases in the humours of the body, and was one of the chief supporters of what is known as the “humoral pathology.” Sprengel403 and others state that he was the first who pointed84 out the distinction between the arteries and the veins86; but M. Littré denies this, and seems to prove that the differences were known to Aristotle, Hippocrates, and other writers.404 His knowledge of anatomy must have been very considerable, and his surgery was certainly bold; so that he even ventured, in cases of intussusception of the bowel64, to open the abdomen87 in order to replace the intestine88. In hernia he practised the taxis,405 i.e. replaced the bowel by the hand; and he amputated the uvula in affections of that organ. He had many pupils, amongst others Herophilus, Philotimus, and Plistonicus.
Aristotle, the founder14 of comparative anatomy and the father of the science of natural history, was the son of Nichomachus, physician to Amyntas II., king of Macedonia. He was born at Stageira, b.c. 334. His father was a scientific man of the race of the Asclepiads, and it was the taste for such pursuits and the inherited bent89 of mind which early inclined the son to the investigation90 of nature. He went to Athens, where he became the disciple9 of Plato, and remained in his society for twenty years. In his forty-second year he was summoned by Philip of Macedon to undertake the tuition of Alexander the Great, who was then fifteen years old. Of his philosophical works it is not here necessary to speak; it is his scientific labours, which had so important an influence on medical education, which chiefly concern us. He wrote Researches about Animals, On Sleep and Waking, On Longevity91 and Shortlivedness, On Respiration, On Parts of Animals, On Locomotion92 of Animals, On Generation of Animals. Aristotle inspired Alexander with a passion for the study of natural history, and his royal pupil gave him abundant means and opportunity to collect materials for a history of animals. The science of comparative anatomy, so important in relation to that of medicine, was thus established. He193 pointed out the differences which exist between the structure of men and monkeys; described the organs of the elephant, and the stomach of the ruminant animals. The anatomy of birds and the development of their eggs during incubation were accurately93 described by him; he dissected94 reptiles95, and studied the habits of fishes. He investigated the action of the muscles, regarded the heart as the origin of the blood-vessels96, named the aorta97 and the ventricles, described the nerves which he thought originated in the heart, but he confused the nerves with the ligaments and tendons. The heart he considered as the centre of movement and feeling406 and nourishment98, holding that it contains the natural fire, and is the birthplace of the passions and the seat of the soul; the brain he thought was merely a mass of water and earth, and did not recognise it as nervous matter. The diaphragm he considered had no other office than to separate the abdomen from the thorax and protect the seat of the soul (the heart) from the impure99 influences of the digestive organs. Superf?tation (or the conception of a second embryo100 during the gestation101 of the first) he held to be possible, and he first pointed out the punctum saliens.
Theophrastus, whose real name was Tyrtamus, was born at Eresa in the island of Lesbos, 371 b.c., fourteen years after Aristotle. He was the originator of the science of plants; he first learned the details of their structure, the uses of their organs, the laws of their reproduction,—in a word, the physiology of the vegetable world. When Aristotle retired102 to Chalcis, he chose Theophrastus, to whom he gave that name, signifying “a man of divine speech,” as his successor at the Lyceum. This distinguished103 philosopher devoted104 himself alike to the exact and speculative105 sciences. The greater part of his works have perished; what is preserved to us consists of treatises on the history of the vegetable kingdom, of stones, and some fragments of works on physics, medicine, and some moral works. His History of Plants enumerates106 about five hundred different kinds, many of which are now difficult to identify. He made some attempts at a vague kind of classification, and has chapters on aquatic107, kitchen, parasite108, succulent, oleaginous, and cereal plants. He carefully explains the principles of the reproduction of vegetables, and the fecundation of the female flowers by the pollen109 of the male. He recognises hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers, and points out how the fecundation of the latter is effected by the wind, insects, and by the water in the case of aquatic plants. He knew that double flowers were sterile110. He devotes a chapter to the diseases of the vegetable kingdom; he almost recognised the characteristics which distinguish the monocotyledonous from the dicotyledonous plants. In a194 word, he laid the foundations on which our modern botanists111 have erected112 their science.407
The School of Alexandria.
“In the year 331 b.c.,” says Kingsley,408 “one of the greatest intellects whose influence the world has ever felt, saw, with his eagle glance, the unrivalled advantages of the spot which is now Alexandria; and conceived the mighty113 project of making it the point of union of two, or rather of three worlds. In a new city, named after himself, Europe, Asia, and Africa were to meet and to hold communion.” When Greece lost her intellectual supremacy114 with her national independence, the centre of literature, philosophy, and science was shifted to this unique position. With all the treasures of Egyptian wisdom around her, with all the stores of Eastern thought on the one hand and those of Europe on the other, Alexandria became in her schools the rallying-point of the world’s thought and activity. If we turn to an atlas115 of ancient geography, we shall be struck with the unrivalled facilities possessed116 by this city for gathering117 to itself the treasures, intellectual and material, of the conquered world of Alexander the Great. From the Danube, Greece, Ph?nicia, Palestine, Persia, Asia Minor118, India, Italy, and the Celtic tribes, there came embassies to Egypt to seek the protection and alliance of Alexander of Macedon, and each must have contributed something to the greatness of the city which he had founded. Just as every traveller in after years who passed through the place was compelled to leave a copy of any work which he had brought with him, to the Alexandrian library, so from the first foundation of the town was every visitor a donor119 of some idea to its stores of thought.
At the dismemberment of Alexander’s vast empire, after his death, the Egyptian portion fell to the share of Ptolemy Soter. It was this sovereign who founded the famous Alexandrian Library; a great patron of the arts and sciences, he placed this institution under the direction of Aristotle. He also established the Schools of Alexandria, and encouraged the dissection121 of the human body.
Chrysippus, the Cnidian, who lived in the fourth century B.C., was the father of the Chrysippus who was physician to Ptolemy Soter, and he was tutor to Erasistratus. Pliny says that he reversed the practice of preceding physicians in the most extraordinary manner. He would not permit bleeding, because the blood contains the soul; did not prac195tise purging122, though he sometimes permitted the use of enemata and emetics123. He wrote on herbs and their uses, and drove the blood out of limbs previous to their amputation124 on the principles recently re-introduced by Esmarch. He introduced the use of vapour baths in the treatment of dropsy. As there were several physicians of the name of Chrysippus, and as their works are lost, it is very difficult to distinguish their maxims125. Amongst the disciples of the Cnidian physician of this name were Medius, Aristogenes, Metrodorus, and Erasistratus, as we have said.
Herophilus, of Chalcedon in Bithynia, a pupil of Chrysippus of Cnidos and Praxagoras of Cos, was one of the most famous physicians of the ancient world. He was a great anatomist and physiologist126, and a contemporary of the philosopher Diodorus Cronos, and of Ptolemy Soter in the fourth and third centuries b.c. He settled at Alexandria, which under Ptolemy I. became the most famous centre of the science of the ancient Greeks. Here Herophilus founded with other physicians of the city the great medical school which ultimately became distinguished above all others, so that a sufficient guarantee of a physician’s ability was the fact that he had received his education at Alexandria. The foundation of the Alexandrian School formed a great epoch127 in the history of medicine. The dissection of the human body was of the utmost importance to the healing art. While the practice was forbidden, it could only have been performed furtively128 and in a hasty and unsatisfactory manner. The science of anatomy, on which that of medicine to be anything but quackery129 must be founded, now took its proper place in the education of the doctor. The bodies of all malefactors were given over for the purposes of dissection.409 Herophilus is accused of having also dissected alive as many as six hundred criminals. This fact has been denied by some of his biographers, and others have attempted to explain it away; but it is charged against him by Tertullian,410 and Celsus mentions it411 as though it were a well-known fact, and without the least suspicion that it was an unjust accusation130.
Asked who is the best doctor, he is said to have replied, “He who knows how to distinguish the possible from the impossible.”
In the course of his anatomical researches he made many discoveries and gave to parts of the human body names which remain in common use to this day. Dr. Baas thus sums up his anatomical and physiological131 knowledge. He knew the nerves, that they had a capacity for sensation, and were subject to the will, were derived133 from the brain, in which he discovered the calamus scriptorius, the tela choroidea, the196 venous sinuses, and torcular Herophili. He believed the fourth ventricle to be the seat of the soul. He discovered the chyliferous and lactiferous vessels. He described accurately the liver and Fallopian tubes, the epididymis and the duodenum, to which he gave its name, and also the os hyoides, the uvea, the vitreous humour, the retina, and the ciliary processes. He called the pulmonary artery134 the vena arteriosa, and the pulmonary vein85 the arteria venosa. He distinguished in respiration a systole, a diastole, and a period of rest. He founded the doctrine19 of the pulse, its rhythm, the bounding pulse and its varieties according to age. The pulse is communicated by the heart to the walls of the arteries. He distinguished between arteries and veins, and admitted that the arteries contain blood. He taught that diseases are caused by a corruption135 of the humours. Paralysis136 is due to a lack of nerve influence. He laid great stress upon diet, bled frequently, and practised ligation of the limbs to arrest bleeding. He was the first to administer cooking salt as a medicine. A good botanist, he preferred vegetable remedies, which he termed the “Hands of the gods.” He possessed considerable acquaintance with obstetric operations,412 and wrote a text-book of midwifery.413
Erasistratus, of Iulis in the island of Cos, a pupil of Chrysippus was one of the most famous physicians and anatomists of the Alexandrian school. Plutarch says that when he was physician to King Seleucus, he discovered that the young prince Antiochus had fallen in love with his step-mother Stratonice by finding no physical cause for the illness from which he was suffering, and that his heart palpitated, he trembled, blushed, and perspired137 when the lady entered the room. By adroit138 management he induced the king to confer on the prince the object of the young man’s passion. Similia similibus curantur. So successful was the treatment that the physician received a fee of 100 talents, which supposing the Attic139 standard to be meant would amount to ￡24,375, perhaps the largest medical fee on record.414 He lived for some time in Alexandria, and gave up medical practice in his old age, that he might devote his whole time to the study of anatomy.
Dr. Baas, in his account of the Anatomy, Physiology, and Medicine of Erasistratus, says that he divided the nerves into those of sensation and those of motion. The brain substance is the origin of the motor and the brain membranes141 that of the sensory142 nerves.415 Like Herophilus,197 he confounded the nerves and ligaments. He described accurately the structure, convolutions, and ventricles of the brain. He thought that the convolutions, especially those of the cerebellum, are the seat of thought, and located mental diseases in the brain. He knew the lymph and chyle vessels, and the chord? tendine? of the heart. He assumed the anastomoses of the arteries and veins. The pneuma in the heart is vital spirits, in the brain is animal spirits. Digestion143 is due to the friction144 of the walls of the stomach. He thought that the bile is useless, as is the spleen and other viscera. He shows some acquaintance with pathological anatomy, as he describes induration of the liver in dropsy. His idea of the cause of disease is plethora145 and aberration146 of the humours. Inflammation is due to the detention147 of the blood in the small vessels by the pneuma driven from the heart into the arteries; fever occurs when the pneuma is crowded back to the heart by the venous blood, and blood gets into the large arteries. Dropsy always proceeds from the liver. He discarded bleeding and purgation; recommended baths, enemeta, emetics, friction, and cupping. He was, thinks Dr. Baas, a forerunner148 of Hahnemann in the doctrine of small doses, as he prescribed three drops of wine in bilious diarrh?a. He opened the abdomen to apply remedies directly to the affected149 part, and invented a kind of catheter.416
Erasistratus was the first to describe a species of hunger, to which he gave the name Boulimia—a desire for food which cannot be satisfied. In his account of the complaint he mentions the Scythians, who, when obliged to fast, tie bandages round their abdomens150 tightly, and this stays their hunger.417
The ancient apologists for the human vivisections of Herophilus and Erasistratus used to say that these anatomists were thus198 “enabled to behold151, during life, those parts which nature had concealed152, and to contemplate153 their situation, colour, figure, size, order, hardness or softness, roughness or smoothness, etc. They added that it is not possible, when a person has any internal illness, to know what is the cause of it, unless one is exactly acquainted with the situation of all the viscera; nor can one heal any part without understanding its nature: that when the intestines154 protrude155 through a wound, a person who does not know what is their colour when in a healthy state cannot distinguish the sound from the diseased parts, nor therefore apply proper remedies; while, on the contrary, he who is acquainted with the natural state of the diseased parts will undertake the cure with confidence and certainty; and that, in short, it is not to be called an act of cruelty, as some persons suppose it, to seek for the remedies of an immense number of innocent persons in the sufferings of a few criminals.”418
Ammonius of Alexandria, surnamed Lithotomus, probably lived in the reign120 of Ptolemy Philadelphus (b.c. 283-247). He is celebrated156 as having been the first surgeon who thought of crushing a stone within the bladder when too large for extraction entire; for this reason he was called λιθοτ?μο?. Celsus describes his method.419
Of the Herophilists we may mention Demetrius of Apam?a (b.c. 276), who named and described diabetes157, and was distinguished as an obstetrician.
Mantias, who, b.c. 250, first collected the preparations of medicines into a special book.
Demosthenes Philalethes, who, under Nero, was the most celebrated oculist158 of his time, wrote a work on diseases of the eye, which was the standard authority until about a.d. 1000. The work has perished, but ?tius and Paulus ?gineta have preserved some fragments of it. He wrote also on the pulse.
Hegeton was a surgeon of Alexandria who was mentioned by Galen as having lived there as a contemporary of several physicians who were known to have resided in that city at the end of the second or the beginning of the first century b.c. He was a follower159 of Herophilus, and wrote a book on the causes of diseases entitled Περ? Α?τι?ν, which has perished.
Of the school of Erasistratus we may mention Xenophon of Cos, who wrote a work on the names of the parts of the human body, and on botany and the diseases of women. Nicias of Miletus, a friend of the poet Theocritus; Philoxenos, who, according to Celsus, wrote several valuable books on surgery; and Martialis the Anatomist, who visited Rome about a.d. 165. He knew Galen, and wrote works on anatomy which were in great repute long after his death.
The followers160 of Herophilus and Erasistratus, though they founded schools, did not greatly influence the art of medicine, nor did they contribute much to its advancement161 beyond the point in which it was left by their great masters. They fell into fruitless speculations162 instead of pursuing their science by accumulating facts; in the words of Pliny, it was easier199 “to sit and listen quietly in the schools, than to be up and wandering over deserts, and to seek out new plants every day.”420 So Dogmatism fell into disrepute and made way for the advent163 of Empiricism.
School of the Empirics.
The School of the Empirics was the outcome of the system of Scepticism, introduced by Pyrrho and extended by Carneades, who taught that there is no certainty about anything, no true knowledge of phenomena, and that probability alone can be our guide. ?nesidemus carried this scepticism into the medicine of the Empirics, but the school was originally established under the title of the Teretics or Mnemoneutics. The Empirics rested their system on what was called the “Empiric tripod,”—that is, accident, history, and analogy. Remedies have come to us by chance, by the remembrance of previous cures, and by applying them to similar cases.
The sect of the Empiricists was founded by Serapion of Alexandria and Philinus of Cos in the third century b.c. They were in opposition to the Dogmatists, professing164 to derive132 their knowledge only from experience; they held that the whole art of medicine consisted in observation, experiment, and the application of known remedies which have constantly proved valuable in the treatment of one class of diseases to other and presumably similar classes. Celsus,421 in his account of the principles of this sect, says that “they admit that the evident causes are necessary, but deprecate inquiry into them because nature is incomprehensible. This is proved because the philosophers and physicians who have spent so much labour in trying to search out these occult causes cannot agree amongst themselves. If reasoning could make physicians, the philosophers should be the most successful practitioners165, as they have such abundance of words. If the causes of diseases were the same in all places, the same remedies ought to be used everywhere. Relief from sickness is to be sought from things certain and tried, that is from experience, which guides us in all other arts. Husbandmen and pilots do not reason about their business, but they practise it. Disquisitions can have no connection with medicine, because physicians whose opinions have been directly opposed to one another have equally restored their patients to health; they did not derive their methods of cure from studying the occult causes about which they disputed, but from the experience they had of the remedies which they employed upon their patients. Medicine was not first discovered in consequence of reasoning, but the theory was sought for after the discovery of medicine. Does reason, they ask, prescribe200 the same as experience, or something different? If the same, it must be needless; if different, it must be mischievous166.
“But what remains167 is also cruel, to cut open the abdomen and pr?cordia of living men, and make that art, which presides over the health of mankind, the instrument, not only of inflicting168 death, but of doing it in the most horrid169 manner; especially if it be considered that some of those things which are sought after with so much barbarity cannot be known at all, and others may be known without any cruelty: for that the colour, smoothness, softness, hardness, and such like, are not the same in a wounded body as they were in a sound one; and further, because these qualities, even in bodies that have suffered no external violence, are often changed by fear, grief, hunger, indigestion, fatigue170, and a thousand other inconsiderable disorders, which makes it much more probable that the internal parts, which are far more tender, and never exposed to the light itself, are changed by the severest wounds and mangling171. And that nothing can be more ridiculous than to imagine anything to be the same in a dying man, nay172, one already dead, as it is in a living person; for that the abdomen may indeed be opened while a man breathes, but as soon as the knife has reached the pr?cordia, and the transverse septum is cut, which by a kind of membrane140 divides the upper from the lower parts (and by the Greeks is called the diaphragm), the man immediately expires; and then the pr?cordia, and all the viscera, never come to the view of the butchering physician till the man is dead; and they must necessarily appear as such of a dead person, and not as they were while he lived; and thus the physician gains only the opportunity of murdering a man cruelly, and not of observing what are the appearances of the viscera in a living person. If, however, there can be anything which can be observed in a person which yet breathes, chance often throws it in the way of such as practise the healing art; for that sometimes a gladiator on the stage, a soldier in the field, or a traveller beset173 by robbers, is so wounded that some internal part, different in different people, may be exposed to view; and thus a prudent174 physician finds their situation, position, order, figure, and the other particulars he wants to know, not by perpetrating murder, but by attempting to give health; and learns by compassion175 that which others had discovered by horrid cruelty. That for these reasons it is not necessary to lacerate even dead bodies; which, though not cruel, yet may be shocking to the sight; since most things are different in dead bodies; and even the dressing176 of wounds shows all that can be discovered in the living” (Futvoye’s Translation).422
Philinus of Cos, the reputed founder of the school, was a pupil of201 Herophilus, and lived in the third century b.c. He declared that all the anatomy his vivisecting master had taught him had not helped him in the least in the cure of his patients. He has been compared with Hahnemann.
Serapion of Alexandria was also of the third century b.c. He must not be confounded with the Arabian physician of this name. He wrote against Hippocrates. He discarded all hypotheses. He was the first to prescribe sulphur in chronic177 skin diseases; and he used some singular and disgusting remedies in his treatment. One of these was crocodiles’ dung, which in consequence became scarce and costly178. Glaucias, who invented the “Empiric Tripod,” Zeuxis and Heraclides of Tarentum, lived about this period. The latter wrote commentaries on Hippocrates, and used opium179 to procure sleep. He mentions strangulated hernia in one of his treatises.
Many commentaries were written about this time on Hippocrates; and the art of pharmacy180, especially the preparation of poisons, was much studied in the second century b.c. Botanic gardens were established, and men began to experiment with antidotes182 for poisons. “Mithridaticum,” so called after Mithridates the Great of Pontus, was a famous antidote181 which was used even to recent times. Nicander of Colophon wrote poems on poisons, and antidotes, leeches183, and emetics for the first time appeared in poetry, and the symptoms of opium and lead-poisoning were not beneath the attention of the muse184. Attalus III., king of Pergamos, was in constant fear of being poisoned, says Plutarch,423 amused himself with planting poisonous herbs, not only henbane and hellebore, but hemlock185, aconite, and dorycnium. He cultivated these in the royal gardens, gathered them at the proper seasons, and studied their properties and the qualities of their juices and fruits.
Cleopatra is said by Baas424 to have written a work on the diseases of parturient and lying-in women, etc. She paid special attention, it would seem, to maladies of a specific character.
Le Clerc gives a list of the women who have exercised the profession of medicine in ancient times.425
Cleopatra treated the diseases of women. Artemisia, Queen of Caria, Isis, Cybele, Latona, Diana, Pallas, Angita, Medea, Circe, Polydamna, Agameda, Helen, ?none, Hippo, Ocryoe, Epione, Eriopis, Hygeia, ?gle, Panacea186, Jaso, Rome, and Aceso are the ladies of classic story who had more or less acquaintance with medicine for good or evil purposes. That women, subject to many202 disorders for which in any state of society their natural modesty187 would make it difficult for them to consult men, should become proficient188 in the treatment of complaints which are peculiar189 to their sex, is the most natural thing in the world, and it is probable that very much of our knowledge of the treatment of these cases may be due to feminine wisdom. An ancient law of the Athenians forbade women and slaves to exercise the art of medicine, so that even midwifery, which they considered a branch of it, could only be practised by men. Some Athenian ladies preferred to die rather than be attended by men in their confinements190. Women acted as accoucheuses in Egypt, Greece, and Rome, and some of them in classic times wrote books on medicine. ?tius gives some fragments in his works from a doctress named Aspasia.
Although the Greek physicians did not know anything of the circulation of the blood as we understand it, they were not wholly ignorant of the phenomena of the vascular191 system.
The arteries were so called by the ancients because they thought they contained air, as they were always found empty after death. Hippocrates and his contemporaries called the trachea an artery. Some of the ancient anatomists, however, knew that they contain blood, and they knew that when an artery is divided it is more dangerous and entails192 a longer recovery than the division of a vein. They knew also of the pulsation193 in the arteries which does not exist in the veins, and they were fully34 aware of the importance of this fact in its relation to diagnosis194 and treatment.
“The ancients chiefly regarded the odd days, and called them critical (κρισ?μοι), as if on these a judgment195 was to be formed concerning the patient. These days were the third, fifth, seventh, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth, and twenty-first; so that the greatest influence was attributed to the seventh, next to the fourteenth, and then to the twenty-first. And therefore, with regard to the nourishment of the sick, they waited for the fits of the odd days; then afterwards they gave food, expecting the approaching fits to be easier; insomuch that Hippocrates, if the fever had ceased on any other day, used to be apprehensive196 of a relapse.”426
These critical days were believed by Hippocrates and most of the other ancient physicians to be influenced by the moon.
Greek medicine was divided into five parts, and to this day these divisions are still maintained. They were (1) Physiology and Anatomy considered together; (2) ?tiology, or the doctrine of the causes of disease; (3) Pathology; (4) Hygiene197, or the art of preserving the203 health; (5) Semeiology, or the knowledge of the symptoms of disease and diagnosis, and Therapeutics, or the art of curing diseases.
As to the contending claims of the various Greek schools of medicine, Dr. Adams says,—
“There is no legitimate198 mode of cultivating medical knowledge which was not followed by some one or other of the three great sects into which the profession was divided in ancient times.”427
With respect to the professional income of Greek physicians, Herodotus states428 that the ?ginetans, about 532 b.c., paid Democedes one talent a year from the public treasury199 for his services, i.e. about ￡344. From the Athenians he afterwards received a sum amounting to about ￡406 per annum. When he removed to Samos, Polycrates paid him a salary of two talents, or ￡487 10s. A difficulty arises, however, as to this statement of Herodotus, and there may have been an error in the sums mentioned.429
The procuring200 of abortion201 was not in ancient Greece always considered a very great crime, and amongst the Romans it seems to have been unnoticed originally. It is related by Cicero that he knew of a case in Asia where a woman was put to death for having procured202 the abortion of her own child. Under the emperors, the punishment was exile or condemnation203 to the mines.
The Scythians.
Of medicine as practised amongst the Scythians, little is known.
Herodotus says430 that when the king of the Scythians was sick he sent for three soothsayers, who proceeded to discover by divination204 the cause of his majesty’s malady. The prophets generally said that such or such a citizen had sworn falsely by the royal hearth205, mentioning the name of the citizen against whom they brought the charge. The accused, having been arrested, was charged with causing the king’s illness. When he denied it, the king sent for twice as many more prophets; if these confirmed the charge, the offender206 was promptly207 executed; if they failed to do so, the first prophets were put to death. Abaris, the Hyperborean priest of Apollo, cured diseases by incantations, and delivered the world from a plague, according to Suidas. Anarcharsis, the Scythian philosopher, flourished 592 b.c.; if he knew anything of medicine, as has been said, he was probably acquainted with such knowledge of the art as was possessed by the Greeks.
204
The ancient physicians seemed to have had no idea of the necessity for observing any order in their interpretation208 of diseases; even in the middle ages, says Sprengel,431 they merely followed the position of the parts of the body, “passing from the head to the chest, from the thorax to the abdomen, and from the belly to the extremities209.”
In that branch of modern medical science which treats of the classification of diseases, and which is termed Nosology, a systematic210 arrangement is followed, and the prominent symptoms are taken as the basis of that classification.
Greek Medical Literature.
The following is Dr. Greenhill’s probably complete list of the ancient treatises on Therapeutics now extant.
Hippocrates: Seven Books (see p. 178 of this work). Aret?us, Περ? Θεραπε?α? ?ξ?ων κα? Χρον?ων Παθ?ν, De Curatione Acutorum et Diuturnorum Morborum, in four books. Galen, Τ?χνη ?ατρικ?, Ars Medica; Id. Θεραπευτικ? Μ?θοδο?, Methodus Medendi; Id. Τ? πρ?? Γλα?κωνα Θεραπευτικ?, Ad Glauconem de Medendi Methodo; Id. Περ? Φλεβοτομ?α? πρ?? ?ρασ?στρατον, De Ven?sectione adversus Erasistratum; Id. Περ? Φλεβοτομ?α? πρ?? ?ρασιστρατε?ου? το?? ?ν ??μη, De Ven?sectione adversus Erasistrateos Rom? Degentes; Id. Περ? Φλεβοτομ?α? Θεραπευτικ?υ Βιβλ?ον, De Curandi Ratione per Ven?sectionem; Id. Περ? Βδελλ?ν, ?ντισπασ?ω?, Σικ?α?, κα? ?γχαρ?ξεω?, κα? Καταχασμο?, De Hirudinibus, Revulsione, Cucurbitula, Incisione, et Scarificatione. Alexander Aphrodisiensis, Περ? Πυρετ?ν, De Febribus. Great part of the Σ?ναγωγα? ?ατρικα?, Collecta Medicinalia, of Oribasius, and also of his Σ?νοψι?, Synopsis211 ad Eustathium, treat of this subject. Palladius, Περ? Πυρετ?ν Σ?ντομο? Σ?νοψι?, De Febribus Concisa Synopsis. ?tius, Βιβλ?α ?ατρικ? ?κκα?δεκα, Libri Medicinales Sedecim. Alexander Trallianus, Βιβλ?α ?ατρικ? Δυοκα?δεκα, Libri de Re Medica Duodecim. Paulus ?gineta, ?πιτομ?? ?ατρικ?? Βιβλ?α ?πτα, Compendii Medici Libri Septem, of which great part relates to this subject. Theophanes Nonnus, ?πιτομ? τ?? ?ατρικ?? ?π?ση? Τ?χνη?, Compendium212 Totius Artis Medici?. Synesius, Περ? Πυρετ?ν, De Febribus. Joannes Actuarius, Methodus Medendi. Demetrius Pepagomenus, Περ? Ποδ?γρα?, De Podagra. Celsus, De Medicina, in eight books. C?lius Aurelianus, Celerum Passionum, Libri iii. Id. Tardarum Passionum, Libri v. Serenus Samonicus, De Medicina Pr?cepta Saluberrima, a poem on the art of Healing. Theodorus Priscianus, Rerum Medicarum, Libri iv.
Hippocrates: Seven Books (see p. 178 of this work). Aret?us, Περ? Θεραπε?α? ?ξ?ων κα? Χρον?ων Παθ?ν, De Curatione Acutorum et Diuturnorum Morborum, in four books. Galen, Τ?χνη ?ατρικ?, Ars Medica; Id. Θεραπευτικ? Μ?θοδο?, Methodus Medendi; Id. Τ? πρ?? Γλα?κωνα Θεραπευτικ?, Ad Glauconem de Medendi Methodo; Id. Περ? Φλεβοτομ?α? πρ?? ?ρασ?στρατον, De Ven?sectione adversus Erasistratum; Id. Περ? Φλεβοτομ?α? πρ?? ?ρασιστρατε?ου? το?? ?ν ??μη, De Ven?sectione adversus Erasistrateos Rom? Degentes; Id. Περ? Φλεβοτομ?α? Θεραπευτικ?υ Βιβλ?ον, De Curandi Ratione per Ven?sectionem; Id. Περ? Βδελλ?ν, ?ντισπασ?ω?, Σικ?α?, κα? ?γχαρ?ξεω?, κα? Καταχασμο?, De Hirudinibus, Revulsione, Cucurbitula, Incisione, et Scarificatione. Alexander Aphrodisiensis, Περ? Πυρετ?ν, De Febribus. Great part of the Σ?ναγωγα? ?ατρικα?, Collecta Medicinalia, of Oribasius, and also of his Σ?νοψι?, Synopsis211 ad Eustathium, treat of this subject. Palladius, Περ? Πυρετ?ν Σ?ντομο? Σ?νοψι?, De Febribus Concisa Synopsis. ?tius, Βιβλ?α ?ατρικ? ?κκα?δεκα, Libri Medicinales Sedecim. Alexander Trallianus, Βιβλ?α ?ατρικ? Δυοκα?δεκα, Libri de Re Medica Duodecim. Paulus ?gineta, ?πιτομ?? ?ατρικ?? Βιβλ?α ?πτα, Compendii Medici Libri Septem, of which great part relates to this subject. Theophanes Nonnus, ?πιτομ? τ?? ?ατρικ?? ?π?ση? Τ?χνη?, Compendium212 Totius Artis Medici?. Synesius, Περ? Πυρετ?ν, De Febribus. Joannes Actuarius, Methodus Medendi. Demetrius Pepagomenus, Περ? Ποδ?γρα?, De Podagra. Celsus, De Medicina, in eight books. C?lius Aurelianus, Celerum Passionum, Libri iii. Id. Tardarum Passionum, Libri v. Serenus Samonicus, De Medicina Pr?cepta Saluberrima, a poem on the art of Healing. Theodorus Priscianus, Rerum Medicarum, Libri iv.
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1
botanist
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| n.植物学家 | |
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philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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wrangled
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| v.争吵，争论，口角( wrangle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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sect
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| n.派别，宗教，学派，派系 | |
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sects
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| n.宗派，教派( sect的名词复数 ) | |
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vehemence
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| n.热切；激烈；愤怒 | |
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formulated
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| v.构想出( formulate的过去式和过去分词 )；规划；确切地阐述；用公式表示 | |
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disciple
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| n.信徒，门徒，追随者 | |
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disciples
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| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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creed
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| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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founders
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| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
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eldest
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| adj.最年长的，最年老的 | |
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lucid
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| adj.明白易懂的，清晰的，头脑清楚的 | |
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doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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malady
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| n.病，疾病(通常做比喻) | |
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disorder
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| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
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machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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disturbance
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| n.动乱，骚动；打扰，干扰；(身心)失调 | |
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disturbances
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| n.骚乱( disturbance的名词复数 )；打扰；困扰；障碍 | |
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respiration
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| n.呼吸作用；一次呼吸；植物光合作用 | |
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conjectured
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| 推测，猜测，猜想( conjecture的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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aspires
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| v.渴望，追求( aspire的第三人称单数 ) | |
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physiology
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| n.生理学，生理机能 | |
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arteries
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| n.动脉( artery的名词复数 )；干线，要道 | |
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pulsate
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| v.有规律的跳动 | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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alleviate
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| v.减轻，缓和，缓解(痛苦等) | |
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cardinal
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| n.(天主教的)红衣主教；adj.首要的，基本的 | |
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rheumatism
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| n.风湿病 | |
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treatises
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| n.专题著作，专题论文，专著( treatise的名词复数 ) | |
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treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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alleviated
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| 减轻，缓解，缓和( alleviate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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seamen
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| n.海员 | |
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belly
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| n.肚子，腹部；(像肚子一样)鼓起的部分，膛 | |
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vertigo
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| n.眩晕 | |
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eyebrows
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| 眉毛( eyebrow的名词复数 ) | |
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throbbing
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| a. 跳动的,悸动的 | |
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swelled
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| 增强( swell的过去式和过去分词 )； 肿胀； （使）凸出； 充满（激情） | |
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purged
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| 清除（政敌等）( purge的过去式和过去分词 )； 涤除（罪恶等）； 净化（心灵、风气等）； 消除（错事等）的不良影响 | |
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rinse
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| v.用清水漂洗，用清水冲洗 | |
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evacuate
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| v.遣送；搬空；抽出；排泄；大(小)便 | |
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disorders
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| n.混乱( disorder的名词复数 )；凌乱；骚乱；（身心、机能）失调 | |
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cataracts
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| n.大瀑布( cataract的名词复数 )；白内障 | |
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ulcers
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| n.溃疡( ulcer的名词复数 )；腐烂物；道德败坏；腐败 | |
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profuse
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| adj.很多的，大量的，极其丰富的 | |
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bilious
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| adj.胆汁过多的；易怒的 | |
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watchfulness
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| 警惕，留心； 警觉（性） | |
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58
procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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59
vomiting
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| 吐 | |
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60
melancholy
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|
| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
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61
frenzy
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| n.疯狂，狂热，极度的激动 | |
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62
ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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63
bowels
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| n.肠，内脏，内部；肠( bowel的名词复数 )；内部，最深处 | |
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64
bowel
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|
| n.肠(尤指人肠)；内部，深处 | |
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65
numbness
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|
| n.无感觉，麻木，惊呆 | |
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66
beets
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|
| 甜菜( beet的名词复数 )； 甜菜根； （因愤怒、难堪或觉得热而）脸红 | |
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67
bastard
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|
| n.坏蛋，混蛋；私生子 | |
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68
thereby
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|
| adv.因此，从而 | |
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69
tares
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| 荑；稂莠；稗 | |
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70
precursors
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|
| n.先驱( precursor的名词复数 )；先行者；先兆；初期形式 | |
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71
repletion
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| n.充满，吃饱 | |
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72
privy
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| adj.私用的；隐密的 | |
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73
aromatic
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|
| adj.芳香的，有香味的 | |
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74
fragrant
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|
| adj.芬香的，馥郁的，愉快的 | |
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75
infusion
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|
| n.灌输 | |
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76
calculus
|
|
| n.微积分；结石 | |
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77
distension
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|
| n.扩张，膨胀(distention) | |
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78
diluted
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| 无力的，冲淡的 | |
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79
acrid
|
|
| adj.辛辣的，尖刻的，刻薄的 | |
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80
vomits
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| 呕吐物( vomit的名词复数 ) | |
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81
abstain
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|
| v.自制，戒绝，弃权，避免 | |
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82
strenuously
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|
| adv.奋发地，费力地 | |
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83
anatomy
|
|
| n.解剖学，解剖；功能，结构，组织 | |
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84
pointed
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|
| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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85
vein
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|
| n.血管，静脉；叶脉，纹理；情绪；vt.使成脉络 | |
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86
veins
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|
| n.纹理；矿脉( vein的名词复数 )；静脉；叶脉；纹理 | |
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87
abdomen
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|
| n.腹，下腹(胸部到腿部的部分) | |
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88
intestine
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|
| adj.内部的；国内的；n.肠 | |
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89
bent
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|
| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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90
investigation
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|
| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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91
longevity
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|
| n.长命；长寿 | |
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92
locomotion
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|
| n.运动，移动 | |
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93
accurately
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|
| adv.准确地，精确地 | |
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94
dissected
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|
| adj.切开的，分割的，（叶子）多裂的v.解剖（动物等）( dissect的过去式和过去分词 )；仔细分析或研究 | |
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95
reptiles
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|
| n.爬行动物，爬虫( reptile的名词复数 ) | |
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96
vessels
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|
| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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97
aorta
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| n.主动脉 | |
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98
nourishment
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|
| n.食物，营养品；营养情况 | |
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99
impure
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|
| adj.不纯净的，不洁的；不道德的，下流的 | |
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100
embryo
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|
| n.胚胎，萌芽的事物 | |
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101
gestation
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|
| n.怀孕；酝酿 | |
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102
retired
|
|
| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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103
distinguished
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|
| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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104
devoted
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|
| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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105
speculative
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|
| adj.思索性的，暝想性的，推理的 | |
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106
enumerates
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|
| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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107
aquatic
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|
| adj.水生的，水栖的 | |
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108
parasite
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|
| n.寄生虫；寄生菌；食客 | |
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109
pollen
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|
| n.[植]花粉 | |
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110
sterile
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|
| adj.不毛的，不孕的，无菌的，枯燥的，贫瘠的 | |
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111
botanists
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|
| n.植物学家，研究植物的人( botanist的名词复数 ) | |
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112
ERECTED
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|
| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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113
mighty
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|
| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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114
supremacy
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|
| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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115
atlas
|
|
| n.地图册，图表集 | |
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116
possessed
|
|
| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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117
gathering
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|
| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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118
minor
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|
| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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119
donor
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| n.捐献者；赠送人；(组织、器官等的)供体 | |
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120
reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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121
dissection
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|
| n.分析；解剖 | |
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122
purging
|
|
| 清洗； 清除； 净化； 洗炉 | |
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123
emetics
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|
| n.催吐药( emetic的名词复数 ) | |
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124
amputation
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|
| n.截肢 | |
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125
maxims
|
|
| n.格言，座右铭( maxim的名词复数 ) | |
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126
physiologist
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|
| n.生理学家 | |
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127
epoch
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|
| n.(新)时代；历元 | |
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128
furtively
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|
| adv. 偷偷地, 暗中地 | |
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129
quackery
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|
| n.庸医的医术，骗子的行为 | |
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130
accusation
|
|
| n.控告，指责，谴责 | |
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131
physiological
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|
| adj.生理学的，生理学上的 | |
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132
derive
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|
| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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133
derived
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|
| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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134
artery
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|
| n.干线，要道；动脉 | |
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135
corruption
|
|
| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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136
paralysis
|
|
| n.麻痹(症)；瘫痪(症) | |
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137
perspired
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|
| v.出汗，流汗( perspire的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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138
adroit
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|
| adj.熟练的，灵巧的 | |
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139
attic
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| n.顶楼，屋顶室 | |
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140
membrane
|
|
| n.薄膜，膜皮，羊皮纸 | |
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141
membranes
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|
| n.（动物或植物体内的）薄膜( membrane的名词复数 )；隔膜；（可起防水、防风等作用的）膜状物 | |
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142
sensory
|
|
| adj.知觉的，感觉的，知觉器官的 | |
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143
digestion
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|
| n.消化，吸收 | |
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144
friction
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|
| n.摩擦，摩擦力 | |
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145
plethora
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|
| n.过量，过剩 | |
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146
aberration
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|
| n.离开正路，脱离常规，色差 | |
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147
detention
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|
| n.滞留，停留；拘留，扣留；(教育)留下 | |
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148
forerunner
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|
| n.前身，先驱（者），预兆，祖先 | |
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149
affected
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|
| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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150
abdomens
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|
| n.腹（部）( abdomen的名词复数 ) | |
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151
behold
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|
| v.看，注视，看到 | |
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152
concealed
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|
| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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153
contemplate
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|
| vt.盘算，计议；周密考虑；注视，凝视 | |
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154
intestines
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|
| n.肠( intestine的名词复数 ) | |
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155
protrude
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|
| v.使突出，伸出，突出 | |
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156
celebrated
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|
| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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157
diabetes
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| n.糖尿病 | |
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158
oculist
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|
| n.眼科医生 | |
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159
follower
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|
| n.跟随者；随员；门徒；信徒 | |
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160
followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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161
advancement
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|
| n.前进，促进，提升 | |
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162
speculations
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|
| n.投机买卖( speculation的名词复数 )；思考；投机活动；推断 | |
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163
advent
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| n.(重要事件等的)到来，来临 | |
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164
professing
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| 声称( profess的现在分词 )； 宣称； 公开表明； 信奉 | |
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165
practitioners
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| n.习艺者，实习者( practitioner的名词复数 )；从业者（尤指医师） | |
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166
mischievous
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|
| adj.调皮的，恶作剧的，有害的，伤人的 | |
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167
remains
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|
| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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168
inflicting
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|
| 把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的现在分词 ) | |
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169
horrid
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|
| adj.可怕的；令人惊恐的；恐怖的；极讨厌的 | |
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170
fatigue
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|
| n.疲劳，劳累 | |
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171
mangling
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| 重整 | |
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172
nay
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|
| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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173
beset
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|
| v.镶嵌；困扰，包围 | |
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174
prudent
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|
| adj.谨慎的，有远见的，精打细算的 | |
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175
compassion
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|
| n.同情，怜悯 | |
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176
dressing
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|
| n.(食物)调料；包扎伤口的用品，敷料 | |
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177
chronic
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|
| adj.(疾病)长期未愈的，慢性的；极坏的 | |
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178
costly
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|
| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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179
opium
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|
| n.鸦片；adj.鸦片的 | |
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180
pharmacy
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|
| n.药房，药剂学，制药业，配药业，一批备用药品 | |
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181
antidote
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|
| n.解毒药，解毒剂 | |
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182
antidotes
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|
| 解药( antidote的名词复数 )； 解毒剂； 对抗手段； 除害物 | |
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183
leeches
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|
| n.水蛭( leech的名词复数 )；蚂蟥；榨取他人脂膏者；医生 | |
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184
muse
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|
| n.缪斯（希腊神话中的女神），创作灵感 | |
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185
hemlock
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|
| n.毒胡萝卜，铁杉 | |
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186
panacea
|
|
| n.万灵药；治百病的灵药 | |
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187
modesty
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|
| n.谦逊，虚心，端庄，稳重，羞怯，朴素 | |
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188
proficient
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|
| adj.熟练的，精通的；n.能手，专家 | |
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189
peculiar
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|
| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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190
confinements
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|
| 限制，被监禁( confinement的名词复数 )； 分娩 | |
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191
vascular
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|
| adj.血管的，脉管的 | |
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192
entails
|
|
| 使…成为必要( entail的第三人称单数 )； 需要； 限定继承； 使必需 | |
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pulsation
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| n.脉搏，悸动，脉动；搏动性 | |
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diagnosis
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| n.诊断，诊断结果，调查分析，判断 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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apprehensive
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| adj.担心的，恐惧的，善于领会的 | |
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197
hygiene
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| n.健康法，卫生学 （a.hygienic） | |
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legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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treasury
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| n.宝库；国库，金库；文库 | |
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200
procuring
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的现在分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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abortion
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| n.流产，堕胎 | |
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202
procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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condemnation
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| n.谴责; 定罪 | |
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divination
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| n.占卜，预测 | |
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hearth
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| n.壁炉炉床，壁炉地面 | |
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offender
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| n.冒犯者，违反者，犯罪者 | |
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promptly
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| adv.及时地，敏捷地 | |
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interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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extremities
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| n.端点( extremity的名词复数 )；尽头；手和足；极窘迫的境地 | |
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systematic
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| adj.有系统的，有计划的，有方法的 | |
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synopsis
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| n.提要，梗概 | |
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compendium
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| n.简要，概略 | |
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