Exit the Disease-Demon.—Medical Systems again.—Hom?opathy.—The Natural Sciences.—Chemistry, Electricity, Physiology2, Anatomy3, Medicine and Pathology.—Psychiatry.—Surgery.—Ophthalmology.
With the dawn of modern science was sounded the death-knell of the disease-demon and its twin brother “Visitation.” When the French Revolution, having at first intoxicated4 men, had had time to effect its really beneficent aims, the age of modern science was fairly inaugurated, and daily conferred some fresh blessing5 on the race. The beginning of the nineteenth century saw the steam engine rapidly approaching perfection. In 1801 took place the first experiment with steam navigation on the Thames. In 1814 steam was first applied6 to printing in the Times office. In 1829 locomotive steam-carriages were employed on railways at Liverpool. In the early years of the century the electric telegraph was being developed. Machinery7 began to take the place of hand labour in numberless branches of trade and industry. Nobler than these material blessings8, however, was the awakening9 of the English people to a new and higher humanity. It seemed that as Science began to shower her gifts on our nation, it yearned10 to become the almoner of mankind, and in its turn to bless the world with the precious gifts of freedom, education, improved sanitation11, and the means of developing the dormant12 higher powers of the species. The slave trade of England was abolished by Parliament in 1807. In 1834 the English government began to make annual grants in aid of education. Sanitary14 commissions were appointed in 1838 and 1844, which were of incalculable benefit, not only to our own national health, but in suggesting to other countries the means of improving the health and combating the ravages16 of preventable diseases. In the early years of the century Dr. Birkbeck founded Mechanics’ Institutions, thus commencing the era of enlightenment for the working classes, which has resulted in raising the mental condition of our labouring and lower middle classes to a higher level than444 that of any other nation of the old world. Everywhere schools sprung up, books and newspapers were multiplied, until everybody who could read had mental provender17 provided at a merely nominal18 rate.
In relation to the history of medicine, the science of the century has perhaps on the whole done greater service to the healing art by that which it has taught doctors to leave undone19 than by what it has taught them to do. It has arrested the murderous lancet of the blood-letter; it has stayed the hand of the purger20, who merely bled in another manner; it has rescued the unhappy victims of mental disorders21 from their dungeons23, their beds of straw, and the cruel lash24 of their keepers; it has liberated25 the invalid26 from the tyranny of the medicine-monger; it is no longer possible to force down any patient’s throat such a mass of filthy27 concoctions28 as the following items of medicine enumerated29 in an apothecary’s bill for attending one Mr. Dalby, of Ludgate Hill, which in five days amounted to ￡17 2s. 10d.
The items for one day (August 12) are:—
s. d.
An emulsion 4 6
A mucilage 3 4
A clyster 2 6
An ivory pipe 1 0
A cordial bolus 2 6
The same again 2 6
The same again 2 4
Another bolus 2 6
Another draught 2 4
A glass of cordial spirits 3 6
Blister to the arm 5 0
The same to the wrists 5 0
Two boluses again 5 0
Another emulsion 4 6
Another pearl julep 4 6
This is quoted in the Historical Sketch34 of the Progress of Pharmacy35 in Great Britain,1022 p. 17, not as an isolated36 case, but as an illustration of the practice of apothecaries37 when attending patients of the higher classes.
Hom?opathy did much to remedy this state of affairs, and by deluding38 people into believing that the billionth of a grain of a certain drug skilfully39 manipulated was more effectual than the bolus and decoction of the medicine-monger, tended gradually to destroy the popular faith in the dosing system.
The student of medical history is often reminded forcibly of Tennyson’s lines:—
“Our little systems have their day;
They have their day, and cease to be.”
As he reflects on the many schools, sects41, and systems which have445 dominated the practice of physic, he will often, as he passes them in review one by one, ask mournfully with Hans Breitmann:—
“Vhere ish dot barty now?”
Where now is the Iatro-mathematical School, the party of the Iatro-chemists, the Brunonian sect42? One and all vanished into the Ewigkeit!
To have maintained, in the zenith of their fame, that either of the great medical schools could ever have so completely perished would have been the rankest heresy43; to believe now that the germ theory of disease can ever be superseded44 is to be subjected to the charge, not of medical heresy alone, but of the completest ignorance of science. Yet there are some bold spirits who have dared even this. The history of the past forbids the cautious historian of medicine to make too sure of the permanence of any theory of disease or system of cure, but the germ theory has claims to our acceptance which far outweigh46 those of any other theories which we have reviewed. From the length of time it has been under construction, from the marvellous care and minute caution exercised by the profound scientists who have devoted47 their lives and utmost energies to the innumerable experiments which their researches have embraced, from the fact that not medical theorists merely, but sober-minded scientists as well as practical surgeons and physicians, have everywhere given their adherence48 to the germ theory of disease, we have good reason to believe that it will hold its ground as a theory of the cause—if not of much value as a system of cure—of a great number of the most serious maladies which afflict49 the races of men and animals.
Medical Systems.
Giovanni Rasori (1762-1837), of Milan, introduced a theory which was a revival50 of Methodism combined with that of Brunonianism. The Methodists held a status strictus and a status laxus, Brown a sthenic diathesis and an asthenic diathesis.
Rasori taught a combination of these theories modified by his own. His doctrines52 were accepted by a multitude of learned and eminent53 medical men, yet his teaching was simply atrocious, and a study of it almost makes one despair of any real advance for the healing art. His system of therapeutics consisted in the endeavour to make a diagnosis54 of the disease by watching the effects of the remedies which make it better or worse! Bleeding was held to be the best diagnostic means: if it did the patient good, the sthenic diathesis was assumed; if it made him worse, the asthenic was demonstrated.
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He administered enormous doses of powerful drugs, such as would be considered nothing less than simply poisonous now. Baas says he gave 1 to 4 grammes of gamboge for diarrh?a, and 60 to 90 grammes of saltpetre a day1023—doses which would be large for a horse.
The wonder is that anybody survived the treatment.
Hom?opathy, faith-healing, peculiar55-people treatment, anything, however heterodox, is better than this licensed56 system of murder, which actually received the adhesion of famous professors at Italian universities, where the art of medicine was supposed to be taught sixty years ago.
Johann A. Roeschlaub (1768-1835), a highly cultivated German physician, was the founder57 of a medical system on the “Theory of Excitement.” Life depends upon irritability58 which belongs to the natural disposition59. To be healthy, the body must be in a state of moderate irritation60 and moderate excitability. Disease disturbs the happy medium upwards61 as hypersthenia, or downwards62 as asthenia; in other words, by inducing too much strength or actual debility.
Johann Stieglitz (1767-1840) was an eminent physician who opposed the theory of excitement, saying, “There is no such thing as one only saving system.” He was the founder of Etiological diagnosis (or diagnosis dependent on a knowledge of the causes of disease).
C. W. von Hufeland (1762-1836), professor at Jena, and afterwards in Berlin, opposed the theory of excitement. He used to say, “Successful treatment requires only one-third science and two-thirds savoir faire,” and, “To him who fails to make a religion of the healing art, it is the most cheerless, wearisome, and thankless art upon earth; indeed, in him it must become the greatest frivolity63 and a sin.”
F. J. W. Broussais (1772-1838), a physician of the vitalist school, was a devoted follower64 of Bichat, who made it his chief aim to find an anatomical basis for all diseases. He is particularly known for his theory that all fevers arise from irritation or inflammation of the intestinal65 canal. His long-exploded theory led to an enormous misuse66 of bleeding. He christened his system “Physiological67 Medicine,” which by directing attention to the morbid68 changes in the organs, led to the rise of the pathological school of Corvisart, La?nnec, and Bayle. The systems of Brown and Broussais must have destroyed, says Dr. De Noé Walker, more human beings than the whole revolutionary wars from 1793 to 1815.
Samuel C. F. Hahnemann (1755-1843), the founder of Hom?opathy, was born at Meissen, near Dresden. He studied medicine at Leipsic, and afterwards at Vienna, graduating at Erlangen in 1779. In his first medical treatise69 he takes a despondent70 view of medical447 practice in general, and of his own in particular, as he is candid71 enough to own that most of his patients would have done better had they been let alone.
In a letter to Hufeland upon the necessity of a regeneration in medicine (1808), he declares that after eight years’ practice he had so learned the delusive72 nature of the ordinary methods of treatment as to be compelled to relinquish73 practice. He devoted much attention to the science of chemistry.
Berzelius said of him, “That man would have been a great chemist had he not been a great quack74.” He translated Cullen’s Materia Medica in 1790, and the necessary study of medicinal agents which this involved set him thinking of a new theory of disease and cure which should replace that which he had found so unsatisfactory; he came to the conclusion, as the result of his researches, that “medicines must only have the power of curing diseases similar to those which they produce in the healthy body, and only manifest such morbid actions as they are capable of curing in diseases.”1024
He thus proceeded to lay down the hom?opathic law that the power of medicines to alter the health must be proved on the healthy body. He endeavoured to discover a rule by which the effect of remedies might be ascertained75, and which should supersede45 the old method of working in the dark.
Considering the endless powers which medicines possess, and feeling sure that the Creator intended them to have some purpose, and that to lighten the afflictions of the race, he felt that there must be a better way of employing them than that which he considered had so grievously failed in the past He was therefore henceforth the enemy of all empiricism. Antipathy77, or the method by which contraries are cured by contraries, so that the diseased part is acted upon by something that opposes it, he considered a fatal error in medical practice. Contrary medicine he held could at best be palliative and temporary, not curative. He designated as Allopathy the method by which it is attempted to remove natural disease from one part by exciting artificial disease in another, or the principle of counter irritation.
The sciences of anatomy and physiology are quite superfluous79 to the hom?opathist; the remedies being merely addressed to symptoms, the knowledge of their causes can have little or no concern to those who follow Hahnemann’s doctrines. The application of a remedy for facial neuralgia, as Dr. Mapother points out,1025 has been applied over the motor nerve of the face, the inventor being ignorant that it has no connection with sensibility.
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Amongst other remedies for the itch, or psora, the swallowing of lice or a decoction of them was seriously recommended, because these parasites82 tickle83 the skin, and on the like-cures-like principle, would be beneficial for itch!1026
The Natural Sciences.
The Natural Sciences in the closing years of the eighteenth century began to render the most important services to the art of medicine, and from that time onwards it has marked its progress step by step with the advances of botany, chemistry, and physics. Linn?us invented a system of the classification of plants which Adanson, Jussieu, De Candolle, and others did much to improve; the anatomy and physiology, and even the pathology of plants were closely studied, with results of the greatest value to scientific medicine. Buffon excited the interest of men of science by his declaration that there is no essential difference between animals and plants, and that all organic life follows the same plan. He explained the geographical84 distribution of the animal kingdom. Hunter, Blumenbach, St. Hilaire, Cuvier, and others advanced the sciences of comparative anatomy and physiology, and Lamarck divided bony animals into vertebrata and invertebrata. Cuvier, by founding the doctrine51 of types, explained the general plan on which animals are modelled. Pander85 and Baer rendered the greatest services to the study of development—the former by his researches on the development of the chick, the latter by his observations on the cleavage in the ovum. To Hunter, Kielmeyer, and Owen in a later period we owe the most important discovery—that the higher animals, even man himself, in the embryo86 pass through the stages of development of the lower animals.
Chemists.
Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen in 1772, and thus introduced a new chemical era. Lavoisier, however, was the first to observe the vast importance of the discovery, and Cavendish established his theories by his researches on the composition of the air, water, and acids. It is to Lavoisier’s discoveries in relation to oxygen that physiology is indebted for the knowledge of the influence of that element on respiration87 and the blood. Doctors looked upon it as the “air of life,” and in its excess or deficiency saw the causes of certain diseases. Fourcroy applied himself to the study of medical chemistry.
Berthollet discovered the composition of ammonia, and the bleach449ing properties of chlorine. He discovered chlorate of potash, and founded the doctrine of chemical affinity88.
Dalton (1776-1844) by his atomic theory and his discovery of the law of multiple proportions still further advanced the science; in 1794 he first described colour-blindness.
Berzelius (1779-1848) developed the atomic theory and improved our knowledge of animal chemistry.
Gay-Lussac in 1805, with Alexander von Humboldt, discovered that water is composed of one volume of oxygen and two volumes of hydrogen.
Sir Humphry Davy (1788-1829) discovered the an?sthetic effect of nitrous oxide89 gas, invented the safety-lamp for miners, and greatly advanced the study of agricultural chemistry.
Dumas (1800-1884) investigated the alkaloids.
Pelletier in 1820 discovered quinine.
Orfila (1787-1853), one of the most eminent men of the French school of medicine, founded modern toxicology, the science of poisons. His fame chiefly rests on his Treatise of General Toxicology (1814), which is a vast mine of experimental research on the symptoms of every kind of poisoning.
Sir William Hyde Woolaston, M.D. (1766-1828), was a distinguished90 philosopher and chemist. One of his great discoveries was the malleability91 of platinum92, which is said to have produced him no less than thirty thousand pounds. He was even more famous as a student of ophthalmology than as a chemist.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) was the great chemist, whose glory in chemical science was overshadowed by his electrical discoveries.
Justus von Liebig (1803-1873) influenced the history of chemistry by his successful efforts to spread the knowledge of the science by improving the methods of investigation93, and above all by the application of chemistry to physiology, agriculture, and the arts.
Electricians.
The history of electricity has an important bearing on that of medicine. It will be necessary at least to indicate the chief points in its progress. Gilbert published a treatise on the magnet in 1600. He speaks of magnetic phenomena94, and the extravagant95 stories circulated about the attraction of magnets and amber96 by persons who gave no reason from experiment. He distinguished magnetic from electric forces,1027 and it is to him that we owe the term “electric” itself.1028
450
Boyle repeated the experiments of Gilbert, but seems to have made no discoveries. Otto Guericke, of Magdeburg, next discovered that there is electric force of repulsion as well as of attraction. Hawksbee, in his Physico-Mechanical Experiments, 1709, observed the effects of attraction and repulsion on threads hanging loosely. Dufay, in 1733, 1734, and 1737, observed that electric bodies attract all those that are not so, and repel97 them as soon as they are become electric by the vicinity or contact of the electric body. In 1729, Grey discovered the properties of conductors.
Franklin distinguished between positive and negative electricity in 1747, and demonstrated the identity of the electric spark and lightning in 1752. Galvani in 1791 laid the foundation of the Galvanic Battery. Volta discovered the “Voltaic pile” in 1800. Henceforward year by year the science progressed by leaps and bounds. The use of the magnet in medicine was known to Aetius, who lived a.d. 500. He says: “We are assured that those who are troubled with the gout in their hands or their feet, or with convulsions, find relief when they hold a magnet in their hand.” Beckmann says1029 this is the oldest account of this virtue98 of the magnet. The more ancient writers refer only to its internal uses. Lessing ascribes the external use of the magnet as a cure for toothache and other disorders to Paracelsus. Marcellus in the fifteenth century assures us that the magnet cures toothache, as also does Leonard Camillus in the sixteenth century. Wecker about the same period says it cures headache. Porta (1591) confirms this, and Kircher (1643) states that it was worn about the neck to prevent convulsions and nervous disorders. Magnetic toothpicks and ear-pickers were extolled99 as cures for disorders of the teeth, ears, and eyes about the end of the seventeenth century.1030
Joh. F. Blumenbach (1752-1840), professor in G?ttingen, was the founder of Anthropology. He collected a great museum of skulls101, and was famous as a comparative anatomist. He wrote on physiology, anatomy, and natural history.
Philosophers.
Von Schelling (1775-1854) taught that “God is the indifference103 of the ideal and real, soul and body, and the identity of subjectivity104 and objectivity. In a word, the All.” He held that health is the harmony of reproduction, irritability, and sensibility; disease, the alteration451 of dimensions of the organism, by which it ceases to be a pure, untroubled reflex of the All.
G. W. F. Hegel (1770-1831) was the philosopher whose supreme105 principle was absolute reason, and to whom in a great measure is due what is known as Modern Materialism106. He was opposed by R. H. Lotze (1817-1884), a medical philosopher of G?ttingen, the author of the Mikrokosmos and works on pathology, physiology, and psychology107. He laid it down that the significance of the phenomena of life and mind would only unfold itself when by an exhausted108 survey of the entire life of man, individually, socially, and historically, we gain the necessary data for explaining the microcosm by the macrocosm of the universe. The world of facts and the laws of nature are only to be understood by the idea of a personal deity109.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882), grandson of Erasmus Darwin, startled and shocked the whole Christian110 world by his theory that man has possibly descended111 at a highly remote period from “a group of marine112 animals resembling the larv? of existing Ascidians.” He traced our ancestry113 through the fish, amphibian114, marsupial115, and ape species; a theory which, despite the original opposition116 it excited, is now generally accepted. He is best known in connection with medical science by his famous work, On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, 1859, his Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, 1871, and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 1872. At first his theory of the Descent of Man was held to teach that
“A very tall pig with a very long nose
And then by the name of an elephant goes.”
Darwin recognised not merely a God but a Creator.
Anatomists and Biologists.
Sir Richard Owen, M.D., F.R.S., etc. (1804-1892), the celebrated118 comparative anatomist and pal78?ontologist, made it possible for us to see what the extinct monsters were when he enabled us to construct scientifically the models of the megatherium, plesiosaurus, and other animals of remote ages. It has been well said of him that “the most characteristic of his faculties119 was a powerful scientific imagination. Fragments of bone which might be meaningless to less alert observers enabled him to divine the structure and to present the images of whole groups of extinct animal forms.”
At the suggestion of Dr. Abernethy (whose pupil he had been) he452 was invited in 1828 to prepare the catalogue of the Hunterian collection in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, of which Mr. Clift (whom he eventually succeeded and whose daughter he married) was conservator. This great work largely occupied some of the best years of Owen’s life, the three quarto volumes on the Fossil Vertebrates and Cephalopods of the collection not appearing till 1855. Meanwhile he had given to the world his Odontography, his Lectures on Comparative Anatomy and Physiology (which won a continental120 reputation), and his famous work on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton. In 1849 he issued an important memoir121 On Parthenogenesis.
In 1856 Owen was appointed Superintendent122 of the Department of Natural History in the British Museum, which, through his untiring exertions123, was at last to be suitably housed at South Kensington. In 1861 he published his manual of Paleontology; from 1865 to 1877 a succession of works on British Fossil Reptiles124 and the Fossil Reptiles of South Africa.
F. G. Henle (1809-1885) so early as 1840 advocated the germ theory of disease. It was first suggested, however, by Latour’s discovery of the yeast125 plant in 1836.
St. George Mivart, M.D., F.R.S. (born 1827), the distinguished anatomist and zoologist126, is to a certain extent the opponent of Darwin, as he denies that the doctrine of Evolution is applicable to the human intellect. He is the author of many works on anatomy, biology, and zoology127.
Thomas Huxley, F.R.S., M.D. (born 1825), the famous physiologist128 and comparative anatomist and biologist, is a well-known writer on natural science, and the most prominent of the scientific opponents of revealed religion.
Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace (born 1822), the eminent naturalist129, published his Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection in 1870, and in 1878, in his volume Tropical Nature, still further contributes to our knowledge of sexual selection, etc.
Ernst Haeckel (born 1834), a celebrated German naturalist and writer on science, is the chief supporter in Germany of Darwin’s theories. It may be remembered in this connection that these were anticipated to some extent by Lamarck (1744-1829) and Goethe (1749-1832).
Herbert Spencer (born 1820) has devoted his life mainly to the working out of his “System of Synthetic130 Philosophy,” which proposed “to carry out in its application to all orders of phenomena the general law of evolution.”
George J. Romanes, F.R.S. (born 1848), an ardent131 member of the Darwinian school, is a distinguished physiologist and biologist.
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Physicians and Pathologists.
Leopold Auenbrugger (1722-1809), a physician of Vienna, was the inventor of the method of detecting diseases of the chest by percussion132. By striking the chest directly with the tips of the fingers (not as we do now by interposing a finger of our left hand while we percuss the chest mediately133 with the fingers of the other hand) he diagnosed by the sound evoked134 the condition of the organs of the thorax. His system was at first received with contempt and ridicule135 by his profession; but in 1808, Corvisart translated Auenbrugger’s great work, the Inventum Novum, into French, and the method quickly achieved an European reputation.
René T. H. La?nnec (1781-1826), the celebrated French pathologist, was the inventor of the stethoscope. His great discovery was purely136 accidental—a fact which he declares in his famous work.
“In 1816 I was consulted by a young woman labouring under general symptoms of diseased heart, and in whose case percussion and the application of the hand were of little avail on account of the great degree of fatness. I happened to recollect138 a simple and well-known fact in acoustics139, and fancied it might be turned to some use on the present occasion. The fact I allude140 to is the great distinctness with which we hear the scratch of a pin at one end of a piece of wood, on applying our ear to the other. Immediately, on this suggestion, I rolled a quire of paper into a kind of cylinder142, and applied one end of it to the region of the heart and the other to my ear, and was not a little surprised and pleased to find that I could thereby143 perceive the action of the heart in a manner much more clear and distinct than I had ever been able to do by the immediate141 application of the ear.”1031
Jean N. Corvisart (1755-1821) introduced into France Auenbrugger’s method of percussion, one of the most important aids to physical diagnosis.
Gaspard L. Bayle (1774-1816) made those important researches on tubercle and the changes in the lungs and other organs in consumption which form the basis of our present knowledge of the subject. From this time French physicians introduced great precision in their study of symptoms, so as to invest them with a really scientific character. Combined with the perfected methods of anatomical observation, a new era in clinical medicine dates from this period.
Louis (1787-1872) made important researches on pulmonary consumption and typhoid fever, and introduced the numerical or statistical144 method in medical science, which was an important step towards making it an exact science.
454
Sir Robert Christison (1797-1882) discovered the effects and properties of Calabar bean, and was the most famous of all English investigators145 of poisons and poisoning.
John Cheyne (1777-1836), in conjunction with William Stokes (1804-1878), a great clinical teacher and author of works on diseases of the chest and heart, discovered the form of breathing in certain disordered conditions which is called “Cheyne-Stokes’ respiration.”
Robert J. Graves (1797-1853), a great observer and clinical teacher, gave his name to a disease.
Sir William Jenner, M.D. (born 1815), was the first to establish beyond dispute the difference between typhus and typhoid fevers.
John Hughes Bennett, M.D. (1812-1875), was the first to introduce the use of cod-liver oil in consumption into English practice (1841). He claimed also to have discovered leucocythemia before Virchow.
Alfred Swayne Taylor, M.D. (1806-1880), was the founder of forensic146 medicine in England, and his great work on Medical Jurisprudence (published 1836) has long been the standard authority in medico-legal cases.
Thomas Hodgkin (1797-1866) discovered the disease which goes by his name.
Sir Thomas Watson (1792-1882) was the author of the ever-popular lectures, The Practice of Physic, a work whose graces of style and elegance148 of phraseology entitle it to be considered a medical classic.
Matthew Baillie (1761-1823) was a famous pathologist. He devoted special attention to the pathology of the brain, heart, lungs, stomach, and intestines149. It was he who first described the grey miliary tubercle of consumption. In all his profound researches he never failed to remember their practical end in the cure of disease.
John Abercrombie (1780-1844) is celebrated for his researches on diseases of the brain and spinal150 cord.
Richard Bright (1789-1858), the reformer of renal pathology, was the discoverer of the disease which bears his name.
Thomas Addison (1793-1860) discovered the disease of the suprarenal bodies which is called after him.
Karl v. Rokitansky (1804-1878), one of the most famous of the founders151 of the New Vienna School, was so indefatigable152 a pathologist that he is said to have celebrated his thirty-thousandth post-mortem in 1866. His great work, The Handbook of Pathological Anatomy, was published in 1841.
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Joseph Skoda (1805-1881), a physician of the New Vienna School, improved physical diagnosis by his application of the laws of sound. He rendered percussion more perfect by correctly explaining the import of the various sounds heard on striking the chest. He threw great light upon our knowledge of the phenomena of heart diseases.
Hebra (1816-1880) created a revolution in the science of skin diseases by basing it upon pathological anatomy.
Wunderlich (1815-1877) introduced the use of the clinical thermometer as an important aid to diagnosis, and claimed that “pathology is the physiology of sick men.”
Rudolph Virchow (born 1821), the constructor of the cellular153 pathology, is a celebrated German pathologist and anthropologist154. On the basis of the cellular theory, which teaches that the cells live their own independent life, have their own active properties, proliferations and degenerations, Virchow built up his cellular pathology into a comprehensive system, attaching greater importance to the cell changes than to an altered condition of the circulation or quality of the blood, as was previously155 held to account for pathological changes. The theory explains many facts which were previously obscure, but is not wholly satisfactory. Virchow’s system led to the foundation of pathological histology.
Sir Andrew Clark, M.D., F.R.S., President of the College of Physicians, London (born 1826), is a physician distinguished alike for his profound scientific knowledge and his admirable skill in its application to the relief and cure of disease. As a physiologist, anatomist, and pathologist, especially in connection with the organs of respiration, the kidneys, and digestive functions, Sir Andrew Clark occupies the foremost place in English medical practice of the time. He has written extensively on diseases of the chest, is one of the most brilliant clinical lecturers of the day, and for many years has been a chief attraction in the teaching power of the London Hospital.
Sir Edward H. Sieveking, M.D., etc. (born 1816), was with Dr. H. Jones joint156-author of the well-known Manual of Pathological Anatomy (1854).
Samuel Wilks, M.D., F.R.S., etc. (born 1824), is an eminent pathologist and neurologist. He published his excellent Lectures on Pathological Anatomy in 1859.1032
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Brain and Nerve Specialists.
Philippe Pinel (1745-1826), a French physician, published a translation of Cullen’s Nosology (1785) in the language of his country. His claim to our gratitude157 rests on the fact that he was among the first to introduce the humane158 treatment of the insane. With his own hands he, when physician to the Bicêtre and Salpêtrière, removed the bonds of insane patients who had been chained to the wall for years.
Sir Charles Bell (1774-1842) made the greatest discoveries in physiology since those of Harvey. We owe to him the knowledge that in the nervous trunks are special sensory159 filaments160 whose office is to convey impressions from the periphery161 to the sensorium, and special motor filaments which convey motor impressions from the brain or other nerve centre to the muscles. This great discovery of the functions of the nerves, concerning which there previously existed much confusion amongst physiologists162, was published in 1807, and entitles England to claim that in Bell and Harvey she has given to science the two most distinguished physiologists of the world.
Franz J. Gall163 (1757-1828) was a skilful40 Viennese anatomist, who, by his researches upon the anatomy of the brain, came to the conclusion that the talents and dispositions164 of men may be inferred with exactitude from the external appearance of the skull102, and thus founded phrenology.
Caspar Spurzheim (1776-1832), an anatomist, was a pupil of Gall, and assisted in the development of phrenology.
Jean M. Charcot (born 1825) is a Paris physician greatly distinguished by his important investigations165 in diseases of the nervous system, upon which he has written many works.
Pierre Flourens (1794-1867), a distinguished French physiologist, sought to assign their special functions to the brain, corpora quadrigemina, and lesser166 brain by experiments. In 1847 he directed the attention of the Academy of Sciences to the an?sthetic effect of chloroform upon animals. Chloric ether in the same year was used at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital as an an?sthetic in operations by Dr. Furnell.
Armand Trousseau (1801-1866) was an eloquent167 and popular clinical lecturer on medicine. He introduced tracheotomy in croup, and largely contributed to our knowledge of laryngeal phthisis, etc.
Claude Bernard (1813-1878), the celebrated experimental physiologist and pathologist, made numerous researches on the digestion168 of fat by the pancreatic juice, the formation of sugar in the liver, and the artificial production of diabetes169 by puncturing170 the fourth457 ventricle of the brain, etc. He wrote Physiologie et Pathologie du Systeme nerveux, 1858.
Brown-Sequard (born 1817), the experimental physiologist, discovered the vaso-motor nerves. He has investigated the functions of the spinal cord, its normal and pathological states, the brain and sympathetic nerves and ganglions, the inhibitory and other nerves.
Paul Bert (1833-1886) was a physiologist and neuro-pathologist.
G. B. Duchenne (1806-1875) introduced electro-therapeutics by means of the induced current in diseases of the nervous system.
Robert Remak (1815-1865) still further pursued the treatment of nervous diseases by means of the constant current. He investigated the subject of the parasitic171 origin of certain diseases of the skin, and produced favus experimentally.
Elie von Cyon (born 1843) continued the investigation of electro-therapeutics.
Marshall Hall (1790-1857) discovered reflex action, which fact he communicated to the Royal Society in 1833.
James Braid, a Manchester surgeon, in 1841 investigated mesmerism, and discovered what is now called hypnotism. He found that he could artificially produce “a peculiar condition of the nervous system, induced by a fixed172 and abstracted attention of the mental and visual eye on one object, not of an exciting nature.” Thus Braid was the first to investigate the subject scientifically, and to trace the phenomena of mesmerism to their true physiological cause. Dr. Rudolf Heidenhain, of Breslau, has recently traced these phenomena to inhibitory nervous action.1033
Henry Maudsley, M.D. (born 1835), is the author of several important works on mental diseases: The Physiology of Mind, The Pathology of Mind, Body and Mind, and Responsibility in Mental Disease.
John Conolly (1796-1866) was physician to Hanwell Asylum173. To him is due the honour of having first in England pressed upon the notice of his profession the advantages of the “No Restraint” system in mental diseases.
Dr. Forbes Winslow was a popular and humane “mad doctor.”
John C. Bucknill, M.D., F.R.S., etc. (born 1817), is a distinguished student of mental diseases, and the author of several treatises174 on Unsoundness of Mind in relation to Crime and Drunkenness. He is one of the original editors of Brain, and for nine years he has edited the Journal of Mental Science.
David Ferrier, M.D., F.R.S., etc. (born 1843), a specialist in458 brain surgery, is well known for his researches in cerebral175 physiology and pathology, and has acquired great celebrity176 throughout the English-speaking world for his investigations connected with the localisation of the functions of the brain.
Paul Broca (1824-1880), the surgeon and anatomist, discovered that the faculty177 of speech lies in the third left frontal convolution of the brain, which in his honour is called Broca’s convolution.
Jules Beclard (1818-1887) was a distinguished French physiologist.
Henry C. Bastian, M.D., F.R.S. (b. 1837), is a pathological anatomist and cerebral physiologist. His Brain as an Organ of Mind, 1880, is one of his best known works, and his articles in Quain’s Dictionary of Medicine, on Diseases of the Spinal Cord and Nervous System generally, are equally valuable contributions to this department of medical science.
John Hughlings Jackson, M.D., F.R.S., although distinguished as an ophthalmologist, is more famous for his researches and discoveries in connection with the nervous system and the localisation of cerebral functions.
Dr. Julius Althaus has made many valuable contributions to our knowledge of the nervous system.
Victor A. H. Horsley, F.R.S., etc., pathologist and brain surgeon, is the author of many papers on the functions of the brain and spinal cord, and has made important contributions to our knowledge of the functions of the thyroid gland13, hitherto little understood, by which the treatment of myx?dema will, it is hoped, be greatly improved.
Surgeons.
The founding of museums of anatomy and surgical178 pathology by the Hunters, Dupuytren, Cloquet, Blumenbach, Barclay, and a great number of other anatomists and surgeons, has greatly assisted to advance the practical surgery of this century. Some of the more important improvements in the art as practised at the present time are the following, which are given in the article on Surgery in the Encyclop?dia Britannica:—The thin thread ligature for arteries179, introduced by Jones, of Jersey180 (1805); the revival of the twisting of arteries to arrest bleeding by Amussat (1829); the practice of drainage in large wounds and after operations by Chassaignac (1859); aspiration181 or the application of the principle of the air-pump for removing pus and fluid from tumours182, etc., by Pelletan and others; the plaster-of-Paris bandage and other similar immovable applications for fractures, etc. (an old Eastern practice recommended in Europe about 1814 by the English consul137 at Bassorah); the re-breaking of badly set fractures; galvano459caustics and écraseurs; the general introduction of resection of joints183 (Fergusson, Syme, and others); tenotomy by Delpech and Stromeyer (1831); operation for squint184 by Dieffenbach (1842); successful ligature of great arteries by Abernethy and Astley Cooper (1806); crushing of stone in the bladder by Gruithuisen of Munich (1819), and Civiale of Paris (1826); cure of ovarian dropsy by the removal of the cyst, discovery of the ophthalmoscope, and great improvements in ophthalmic surgery by Von Gr?fe and others; application of the laryngoscope in operations on the larynx by Czermak (1860) and others, together with additions to the resources of aural185 surgery and dentistry.
In the treatment of fractures English surgery was inferior to that of continental practice, especially French, in the early part of the present century. M. Roux in 1814 pointed15 out our shortcomings in this respect, contrasting English with French methods much to our disadvantage.1034
Sir Wm. Blizzard186 (1743-1835) was the first surgeon who tied the superior thyroid artery187 for goitre. He founded in conjunction with Maclaurin the medical school of the London Hospital.
Benjamin Bell (1763-1820), of Edinburgh, was the elder brother of Sir Charles Bell. He was professor of anatomy, surgery, and obstetrics, a man of letters and a famous operator. He published a System of the Anatomy of the Human Body and The Principles of Surgery.
John Abernethy (1764-1831), the celebrated surgeon and lecturer on anatomy, became the founder of the distinguished school of surgery and anatomy at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London.
Sir Benjamin Brodie (1783-1862) was an anatomist and physiologist, as well as a distinguished surgeon.
Abraham Colles, M.D. (1773-1843), was an eminent Dublin surgeon, the author of a work on Surgical Anatomy, who has given his name to the fracture of the radius190 at the wrist.
John Burns, M.D. (1775-1850), was a teacher of surgery and midwifery at Glasgow. His world-wide reputation was gained for him by his Principles of Midwifery.
James Wardrop (1782-1869) was the author of a well-known treatise on the pathology of the human eye.
Benjamin Travers (1783-1858) was celebrated for his theory of460 “Constitutional Irritation.”
Liston (1794-1847) was famous for his resections of the elbow and other joints.
Sir Wm. Laurence (1783-1867) was one of the greatest clinical teachers the British school of surgery has produced.
George Guthrie (1785-1856) accompanied Wellington in his campaigns, and was in his time the great English authority on military surgery.
James Syme (1799-1870) was a distinguished teacher of clinical surgery. He improved the operation of exarticulation at the knee-joint, and recommended the operation for amputating at the ankle which goes by his name.
Sir James Paget, F.R.S. (born 1814), the distinguished surgeon, is the author of the Pathological Catalogue of the Museum of the College of Surgeons, Lectures on Surgical Pathology, etc.
John Eric Erichsen, F.R.S. (born 1818), is the author of The Science and Art of Surgery, which has not only gone through nine large editions in this country, but has passed through many editions in America, and has been translated into German, Spanish, Italian, and Chinese (partly). Probably no treatise on English surgery has exercised so much influence on the progress of this branch of the healing art as Mr. Erichsen’s noble work.
Jonathan Hutchinson, F.R.S. (born 1828), one of the most distinguished surgeons of the Victorian age, is famous throughout the empire as a clinical teacher, especially in connection with specific and skin diseases.
Sir Henry Thompson (born 1820), the distinguished surgeon and pathologist, is famous for his researches in the pathology of the urethra and prostate gland, and for his clinical teaching in lithotomy and lithotrity. He has taken an active part in the cremation191 propaganda.
Sir W. J. Erasmus Wilson (1809-1884) was the famous specialist in skin diseases, whose munificent192 benefactions to the Royal College of Surgeons have enormously extended the resources of its museum and library.
Gyn?cologists.
Sir T. Spencer Wells, M.D. (born 1818), the celebrated ovariotomist, and Mr. Lawson Tait, well described by Dr. Baas as “the magical operator and despiser of antiseptics,” in abdominal diseases, especially those of women, are without rivals in the world as benefactors193 to humanity by their life-saving discoveries.
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Anatomy in England.
Until 1832 the bodies of executed murderers were ordered for dissection194, by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42, 1540. Surgeons were granted four bodies of executed malefactors for “anathomyes” which privilege was extended in the following reigns195; but in consequence of the crimes committed by “resurrection men” in order to supply the medical schools, a new statute196 was passed in 1832, which prohibited the dissection of murderers, and provided for the necessities of the dissecting197 room by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of unclaimed persons dying in workhouses, etc.
Inspectors198 of anatomy were appointed, and various regulations were made for the decent and reverent199 disposal of the remains200. The Anatomy Act was passed in consequence of the scandals connected with the great Anatomy School at Edinburgh, at which Dr. Knox was a celebrated teacher. It was discovered that a murderer named Burke provided bodies for surgeons by killing201 his victims by suffocation202, leaving no marks of violence. The crime was known as Burking, and to remove the temptation to such scandals as the robbery of graveyards203, and the murder of persons for the sake of the prices paid for their bodies, the wants of the surgeons were provided for in a legal manner.
French Surgeons.
Alexis Boyer (1757-1833), one of the most eminent French teachers of surgery, wrote a great work on surgical diseases and operations, in eleven volumes.
Jean D. Larry (1766-1842) was a famous military surgeon under Napoleon. His opportunities for studying his profession must have been unique, as he participated in sixty great battles and four hundred engagements. He wrote several treatises on military medicine and invented field ambulances.
Philibert J. Roux (1780-1854), surgeon to the H?tel Dieu at Paris, practised resections of joints, by which the articular diseased extremity204 of the bone is removed and a false joint formed.
Jacques Lisfranc (1790-1847) was a famous amputator, whose operation for the partial removal of the foot is known by his name.
Armand Velpeau (1795-1867) was a celebrated teacher of clinical surgery.
Joseph Malgaigne (1806-1865) was a very distinguished writer on surgical anatomy and operative surgery.
Auguste Nelaton (1807-1874) was called462 “the Napoleon of Surgery.” He invented the probe by which he detected the bullet in the wound of Garibaldi.
German Surgeons.
Plastic operations were revived by C. F. von Graefe, of Warsaw (1787-1840), Delpech, Dieffenbach, B. Langenbeck, and others. After severe burns there is frequently great loss of skin; it was found that this could be repaired by the transplantation of very minute portions of skin from healthy surfaces; periosteum and bones were also successfully transplanted.
Von Kern (1769-1829), the great Viennese surgeon, emphatically insisted that surgery could not be divorced from medicine. He adopted the very opposite treatment of wounds to that followed now by Lister; instead of excluding the air for fear of the germs contained in it, he insisted that operative wounds should be freely exposed to the atmosphere. He applied the simplest dressings205 of wet lint206.
F. Schuh (1804-1865) greatly advanced scientific surgery by advocating the use of the microscope in pathological anatomy.
Von Walther (1782-1849) was a great and scrupulously207 careful surgical operator, who, like Kern, declared that surgery and medicine are indivisible.
Von Chelius (1794-1876), a famous teacher of clinical surgery at Heidelberg, was a well-known writer on surgery.
Conrad J. M. Langenbeck (1776-1851) and Bernhard Langenbeck (1810-1887) greatly contributed to found military surgery in Germany.
G. F. L. Stromeyer (1804-1876), a famous military surgeon of Germany, obtained great success in that department of operative surgery known as subcutaneous division of tendons for the relief and cure of deformities such as club foot.
Friedrich Esmarch (born 1823) is famous for his invention of the method of bloodless amputations of limbs by the use of the bandage of india-rubber which goes by his name.
American Surgeons.
Valentine Mott (1785-1865), the celebrated New York surgeon, is said to have tied more arteries for the relief or cure of surgical diseases than any other surgeon.
Samuel Gross (1805-1884), a great American teacher of surgery, was the author of the well-known System of Surgery.
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Ophthalmic Surgeons.
J. A. H. Reimarus (1729-1814), of Hamburg, first employed belladonna in ophthalmic surgery.
Joseph Barth (1745-1818), of Malta, founded an ophthalmic hospital, and first lectured on eye diseases and their treatment.
Dr. Thomas Young (1773-1829) rendered great services to optical science, and was the first to describe astigmatism209, or the want of symmetry in the anterior210 refracting surfaces of the eyeball—a disorder22 of vision which has considerable influence in causing headache.
J. A. Schmidt (1759-1809) first described syphilitic iritis; he called eye disease with great justice “the elegant diminishing mirror of diseases of the body.”
C. Himly (1772-1837) used mydriatics (dilators of the pupil, such as hyoscyamus and belladonna) in operations on the eye. Atropine afterwards superseded these.
G. J. Beer (1763-1821), a professor of Vienna, founded the famous teaching of the Vienna school of ophthalmology, and greatly improved the practice of the art and the instruments employed in it.
H. L. Helmholtz (born 1821) invented that powerful aid to the ophthalmic surgeon—the ophthalmoscope—in 1851. It is said that the observation of the reddening of the pupil in a drowning cat first suggested the invention to Méry in 1704. Helmholtz’s invention made scientific ophthalmology possible. This branch of surgery may be said to date from this great discovery.
Hermann Snellen (born 1834), an oculist211 of Utrecht, introduced test types for ascertaining212 the distinctness of vision.
R. Brudenell Carter, the eminent ophthalmologist, is a well-known and graceful213 writer on medical and scientific subjects.
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1
allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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physiology
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| n.生理学，生理机能 | |
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anatomy
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| n.解剖学，解剖；功能，结构，组织 | |
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intoxicated
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| 喝醉的，极其兴奋的 | |
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blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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blessings
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| n.（上帝的）祝福( blessing的名词复数 )；好事；福分；因祸得福 | |
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awakening
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| n.觉醒，醒悟 adj.觉醒中的；唤醒的 | |
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yearned
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| 渴望，切盼，向往( yearn的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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sanitation
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| n.公共卫生，环境卫生，卫生设备 | |
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dormant
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| adj.暂停活动的；休眠的；潜伏的 | |
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gland
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| n.腺体，(机)密封压盖，填料盖 | |
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sanitary
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| adj.卫生方面的，卫生的，清洁的，卫生的 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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ravages
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| 劫掠后的残迹，破坏的结果，毁坏后的残迹 | |
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provender
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| n.刍草；秣料 | |
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nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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undone
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| a.未做完的，未完成的 | |
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purger
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| 清除别人者 | |
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disorders
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| n.混乱( disorder的名词复数 )；凌乱；骚乱；（身心、机能）失调 | |
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disorder
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| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
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dungeons
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| n.地牢( dungeon的名词复数 ) | |
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lash
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| v.系牢；鞭打；猛烈抨击；n.鞭打；眼睫毛 | |
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liberated
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| a.无拘束的，放纵的 | |
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invalid
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| n.病人，伤残人；adj.有病的，伤残的；无效的 | |
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filthy
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| adj.卑劣的；恶劣的，肮脏的 | |
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concoctions
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| n.编造，捏造，混合物( concoction的名词复数 ) | |
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enumerated
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| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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hawthorn
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| 山楂 | |
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blister
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| n.水疱；(油漆等的)气泡；v.(使)起泡 | |
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draught
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| n.拉，牵引，拖；一网（饮，吸，阵)；顿服药量，通风；v.起草，设计 | |
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draughts
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| n. <英>国际跳棋 | |
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sketch
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| n.草图；梗概；素描；v.素描；概述 | |
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pharmacy
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| n.药房，药剂学，制药业，配药业，一批备用药品 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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apothecaries
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| n.药剂师，药店( apothecary的名词复数 ) | |
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deluding
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| v.欺骗，哄骗( delude的现在分词 ) | |
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skilfully
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| adv. (美skillfully)熟练地 | |
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skilful
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| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
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sects
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| n.宗派，教派( sect的名词复数 ) | |
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sect
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| n.派别，宗教，学派，派系 | |
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heresy
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| n.异端邪说；异教 | |
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superseded
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| [医]被代替的，废弃的 | |
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supersede
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| v.替代；充任 | |
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outweigh
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| vt.比...更重，...更重要 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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adherence
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| n.信奉，依附，坚持，固着 | |
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afflict
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| vt.使身体或精神受痛苦，折磨 | |
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revival
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| n.复兴，复苏，（精力、活力等的）重振 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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diagnosis
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| n.诊断，诊断结果，调查分析，判断 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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licensed
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| adj.得到许可的v.许可，颁发执照(license的过去式和过去分词) | |
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Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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irritability
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| n.易怒 | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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irritation
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| n.激怒，恼怒，生气 | |
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upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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downwards
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| adj./adv.向下的（地），下行的（地） | |
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frivolity
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| n.轻松的乐事，兴高采烈；轻浮的举止 | |
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follower
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| n.跟随者；随员；门徒；信徒 | |
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intestinal
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| adj.肠的；肠壁；肠道细菌 | |
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misuse
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| n.误用，滥用；vt.误用，滥用 | |
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physiological
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| adj.生理学的，生理学上的 | |
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morbid
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| adj.病的；致病的；病态的；可怕的 | |
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69
treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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despondent
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| adj.失望的，沮丧的，泄气的 | |
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71
candid
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| adj.公正的，正直的；坦率的 | |
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72
delusive
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| adj.欺骗的，妄想的 | |
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73
relinquish
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| v.放弃，撤回，让与，放手 | |
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74
quack
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| n.庸医；江湖医生；冒充内行的人；骗子 | |
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ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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76
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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77
antipathy
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| n.憎恶；反感，引起反感的人或事物 | |
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78
pal
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|
| n.朋友，伙伴，同志；vi.结为友 | |
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79
superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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80
chronic
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| adj.(疾病)长期未愈的，慢性的；极坏的 | |
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81
itch
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| n.痒，渴望，疥癣；vi.发痒，渴望 | |
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82
parasites
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| 寄生物( parasite的名词复数 )； 靠他人为生的人； 诸虫 | |
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83
tickle
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| v.搔痒，胳肢；使高兴；发痒；n.搔痒，发痒 | |
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84
geographical
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| adj.地理的；地区(性)的 | |
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85
pander
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| v.迎合；n.拉皮条者，勾引者；帮人做坏事的人 | |
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86
embryo
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| n.胚胎，萌芽的事物 | |
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87
respiration
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| n.呼吸作用；一次呼吸；植物光合作用 | |
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88
affinity
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| n.亲和力，密切关系 | |
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89
oxide
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| n.氧化物 | |
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90
distinguished
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|
| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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91
malleability
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| n.可锻性，可塑性，延展性 | |
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92
platinum
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| n.白金 | |
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93
investigation
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|
| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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94
phenomena
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|
| n.现象 | |
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95
extravagant
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|
| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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96
amber
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|
| n.琥珀；琥珀色；adj.琥珀制的 | |
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97
repel
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| v.击退，抵制，拒绝，排斥 | |
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98
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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99
extolled
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| v.赞颂，赞扬，赞美( extol的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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100
anthropology
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| n.人类学 | |
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101
skulls
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| 颅骨( skull的名词复数 )； 脑袋； 脑子； 脑瓜 | |
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102
skull
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| n.头骨；颅骨 | |
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103
indifference
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|
| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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104
subjectivity
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| n.主观性（主观主义） | |
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105
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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106
materialism
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| n.［哲］唯物主义，唯物论；物质至上 | |
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107
psychology
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| n.心理，心理学，心理状态 | |
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108
exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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109
deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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110
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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111
descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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112
marine
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| adj.海的；海生的；航海的；海事的；n.水兵 | |
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113
ancestry
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| n.祖先，家世 | |
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114
amphibian
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| n.两栖动物；水陆两用飞机和车辆 | |
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115
marsupial
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| adj.有袋的，袋状的 | |
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116
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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117
proboscis
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| n.（象的）长鼻 | |
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118
celebrated
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|
| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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119
faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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120
continental
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| adj.大陆的，大陆性的，欧洲大陆的 | |
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121
memoir
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| n.[pl.]回忆录，自传；记事录 | |
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122
superintendent
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| n.监督人，主管，总监；(英国)警务长 | |
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123
exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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124
reptiles
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| n.爬行动物，爬虫( reptile的名词复数 ) | |
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125
yeast
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| n.酵母；酵母片；泡沫；v.发酵；起泡沫 | |
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126
zoologist
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| n.动物学家 | |
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127
zoology
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| n.动物学，生态 | |
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128
physiologist
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| n.生理学家 | |
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129
naturalist
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| n.博物学家(尤指直接观察动植物者) | |
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130
synthetic
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| adj.合成的，人工的；综合的；n.人工制品 | |
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131
ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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132
percussion
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| n.打击乐器；冲突，撞击；震动，音响 | |
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133
mediately
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| 在中间，间接 | |
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134
evoked
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| [医]诱发的 | |
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135
ridicule
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|
| v.讥讽，挖苦；n.嘲弄 | |
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136
purely
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|
| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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137
consul
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| n.领事；执政官 | |
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138
recollect
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|
| v.回忆，想起，记起，忆起，记得 | |
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139
acoustics
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|
| n.声学，(复)音响效果，音响装置 | |
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140
allude
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|
| v.提及，暗指 | |
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141
immediate
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|
| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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142
cylinder
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|
| n.圆筒，柱(面)，汽缸 | |
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143
thereby
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|
| adv.因此，从而 | |
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144
statistical
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|
| adj.统计的，统计学的 | |
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145
investigators
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|
| n.调查者，审查者( investigator的名词复数 ) | |
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146
forensic
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|
| adj.法庭的，雄辩的 | |
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147
epidemic
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|
| n.流行病；盛行；adj.流行性的，流传极广的 | |
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148
elegance
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|
| n.优雅；优美，雅致；精致，巧妙 | |
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149
intestines
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| n.肠( intestine的名词复数 ) | |
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150
spinal
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|
| adj.针的，尖刺的，尖刺状突起的；adj.脊骨的，脊髓的 | |
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151
founders
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|
| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
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152
indefatigable
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|
| adj.不知疲倦的，不屈不挠的 | |
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153
cellular
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|
| adj.移动的；细胞的，由细胞组成的 | |
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154
anthropologist
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|
| n.人类学家，人类学者 | |
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155
previously
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|
| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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156
joint
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|
| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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157
gratitude
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|
| adj.感激，感谢 | |
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158
humane
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|
| adj.人道的，富有同情心的 | |
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159
sensory
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|
| adj.知觉的，感觉的，知觉器官的 | |
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160
filaments
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|
| n.（电灯泡的）灯丝( filament的名词复数 )；丝极；细丝；丝状物 | |
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161
periphery
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|
| n.(圆体的)外面；周围 | |
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162
physiologists
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|
| n.生理学者( physiologist的名词复数 )；生理学( physiology的名词复数 )；生理机能 | |
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163
gall
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| v.使烦恼，使焦躁，难堪；n.磨难 | |
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164
dispositions
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|
| 安排( disposition的名词复数 )； 倾向； （财产、金钱的）处置； 气质 | |
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165
investigations
|
|
| （正式的）调查( investigation的名词复数 )； 侦查； 科学研究； 学术研究 | |
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166
lesser
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|
| adj.次要的，较小的；adv.较小地，较少地 | |
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167
eloquent
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|
| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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168
digestion
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| n.消化，吸收 | |
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169
diabetes
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| n.糖尿病 | |
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170
puncturing
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|
| v.在（某物）上穿孔( puncture的现在分词 )；刺穿（某物）；削弱（某人的傲气、信心等）；泄某人的气 | |
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171
parasitic
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|
| adj.寄生的 | |
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172
fixed
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|
| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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173
asylum
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| n.避难所，庇护所，避难 | |
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174
treatises
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| n.专题著作，专题论文，专著( treatise的名词复数 ) | |
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175
cerebral
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|
| adj.脑的，大脑的；有智力的，理智型的 | |
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176
celebrity
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| n.名人，名流；著名，名声，名望 | |
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177
faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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178
surgical
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| adj.外科的，外科医生的，手术上的 | |
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179
arteries
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| n.动脉( artery的名词复数 )；干线，要道 | |
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180
jersey
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| n.运动衫 | |
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181
aspiration
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|
| n.志向，志趣抱负；渴望；(语)送气音；吸出 | |
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182
tumours
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| 肿瘤( tumour的名词复数 ) | |
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183
joints
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| 接头( joint的名词复数 )； 关节； 公共场所（尤指价格低廉的饮食和娱乐场所） （非正式）； 一块烤肉 （英式英语） | |
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184
squint
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| v. 使变斜视眼, 斜视, 眯眼看, 偏移, 窥视; n. 斜视, 斜孔小窗; adj. 斜视的, 斜的 | |
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185
aural
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|
| adj.听觉的，听力的 | |
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186
blizzard
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| n.暴风雪 | |
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187
artery
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|
| n.干线，要道；动脉 | |
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188
abdominal
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|
| adj.腹（部）的，下腹的；n.腹肌 | |
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189
aorta
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| n.主动脉 | |
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190
radius
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|
| n.半径，半径范围；有效航程，范围，界限 | |
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191
cremation
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|
| n.火葬，火化 | |
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192
munificent
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| adj.慷慨的，大方的 | |
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193
benefactors
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| n.捐助者，施主( benefactor的名词复数 )；恩人 | |
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194
dissection
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|
| n.分析；解剖 | |
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195
reigns
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| n.君主的统治( reign的名词复数 )；君主统治时期；任期；当政期 | |
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196
statute
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| n.成文法，法令，法规；章程，规则，条例 | |
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197
dissecting
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| v.解剖（动物等）( dissect的现在分词 )；仔细分析或研究 | |
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198
inspectors
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|
| n.检查员( inspector的名词复数 )；（英国公共汽车或火车上的）查票员；（警察）巡官；检阅官 | |
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199
reverent
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|
| adj.恭敬的，虔诚的 | |
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200
remains
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|
| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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201
killing
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|
| n.巨额利润；突然赚大钱，发大财 | |
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202
suffocation
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| n.窒息 | |
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203
graveyards
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|
| 墓地( graveyard的名词复数 )； 垃圾场； 废物堆积处； 收容所 | |
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204
extremity
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|
| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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205
dressings
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|
| n.敷料剂；穿衣( dressing的名词复数 )；穿戴；（拌制色拉的）调料；（保护伤口的）敷料 | |
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206
lint
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|
| n.线头；绷带用麻布，皮棉 | |
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207
scrupulously
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|
| adv.一丝不苟地；小心翼翼地，多顾虑地 | |
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208
cataracts
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| n.大瀑布( cataract的名词复数 )；白内障 | |
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209
astigmatism
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| n.散光，乱视眼 | |
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210
anterior
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| adj.较早的；在前的 | |
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211
oculist
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| n.眼科医生 | |
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212
ascertaining
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的现在分词 ) | |
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213
graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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