He who has not seriously studied the religious system of Buddhism1, nor acquired accurate notions of its doctrinal principles, is scarcely capable of forming a correct opinion of the religious order of those austere2 recluses3, whom Europeans, with a mind biassed4 by educational influence, denominate priests of Buddha5. Were we to apply to the members of that order the notions generally entertained of a priesthood, we would form a very erroneous conception of the real character of their institution. For in every religious system admitting of one or several beings superior to man, whose providential action influences his destinies either in this or the next world, persons invested with a sacerdotal character have always been considered as mediators between men and the acknowledged deity6, offering to the supreme7 being on all public occasions the prayers and sacrifices of the people, and soliciting8 in return his gracious protection. When in the early ages of the world the sacerdotal dignity was coupled with the patriarchal or regal ones, when in the succeeding ages there existed a regular and distinct priesthood, such as subsisted9 under the Mosaic10 dispensation, or among the Greeks, Romans, Gauls, &c., the priests were looked upon as delegates of the people in all that related to national worship, carrying on in the name of the Deity the mysterious intercourse11 that links heaven to earth. Priesthood, therefore, necessarily implies the belief in a being superior to man and controlling his destinies. The moment such a belief is disregarded, the very idea of priesthood vanishes. Buddhism, such at least as it is found existing in Ceylon, Burmah, Siam, and other places, is a purely12 atheistical13 religious system, and presents the solitary14 instance, at least as far as my information goes, of a religious creed15,[252] admitted by various nations, the doctrines17 of which are not based upon the notion of a supreme being controlling more or less the affairs of this world. In support of an assertion that may appear to many somewhat hazardous18, we will briefly19 lay down the leading tenets of the Buddhistic20 doctrine16.
According to that system, matter is eternal. The existence of a world, its duration, destruction, and reproduction, all the various combinations and modifications22 matter is liable to, are the immediate23 results of the action of eternal and self-existing laws. Through life man is subjected to the continual but successive influences of his good and bad deeds. This double influence always attends him through his numberless existences, and inevitably24 awards him happiness or misfortune, according as the respective sum of good or evil predominates. There exists an eternal law, which, when obliterated25 from the memory of men, can be known again, and, as it were, recovered only and thoroughly26 understood by the incomparable genius and matchless wisdom of certain extraordinary personages, called Buddhas27, who appear successively and at intervals28 during the various series or successions of worlds. These Buddhas announce that law to all the then existing rational beings. The great object of that doctrine is to point out to those beings the means of freeing themselves from the influence of passions, and becoming abstracted from all that exists. Being thereby29 delivered from the action of good or evil influence, which causes mortals to turn incessantly30 in the whirlpool of never-ending existences, men can obtain the state of Neibban, or rest, that is to say, according to the popular opinion, a situation wherein the soul, disentangled from all that exists, alone with herself, indifferent to pain as well as to pleasure, folded, as it were, upon herself, remains31 for ever in an incomprehensible state of complete abstraction and absolute rest. I say that such is the popular opinion, fortunately unbiassed by scholastic32 theories. But the opinion of the Buddhist21 doctors respecting[253] Neibban is that it means the negation33 of all states of being; that is to say, a desolating34 and horrifying35 annihilation. A Buddha is a being who, during myriads36 of existences, slowly and gradually gravitates towards this centre of an imaginary perfection by the practice of the highest virtues38. Having attained39 thereto, he becomes on a sudden gifted with a boundless40 genius, wherewith he at once discovers the wretched state of beings and the means of delivering them from it. He thoroughly understands the eternal law which alone can lead mortals in the right way, and enable them to come out of the circle of existences, wherein they have been unceasingly turning and moving in a state of perpetual agitation41, opposite to that of fixity or rest. He preaches that law whereby man is taught the practice of those virtues which destroy gradually in him all evil influences, together with every affection for all that exists, and brings him at last to the end of existence, the possession of Neibban. His task fulfilled, Buddha dies, or rather, to use the language of Buddhists42, he enters into the state Neibban. In that situation, which is truly inexplicable43, he knows nothing of and enters no wise into the affairs of this world. He is as if he was not or had never been. He is indeed annihilated44.
Buddhists venerate45 three precious things—Buddha, his law, and the assembly of the just or perfect—in the same sense as we venerate and admire what is morally good and beautiful, such as virtue37 considered abstractedly, and the acts originating from it. The statues of the last Buddha Gaudama are honoured by his followers47, not with the idea that certain powers or virtues are inherent in them, but solely48 because they are the visible representations of Buddha, who, according to Buddhists, desired that the same honours should be paid to them as would be offered to his person, were he yet living among them. This faint outline of the Buddhistic creed is sufficient to bear out the above assertion, that it is in no wise based on the belief in a supreme being, but that it is strictly49 atheistical,[254] and therefore that no real priesthood can ever be found existing under such a system. It may prove, too, of some assistance for better understanding what is to be said regarding the subjects of this notice.
The Talapoins are called by the Burmese Phongyies, which term means great glory: or Rahans, which means perfect. They are known in Ceylon, Siam, Thibet, under different names, conveying nearly the same meaning and expressing either the nature or the object of their profession.
What induces a follower46 of Buddha to embrace the Talapoinic state? What is the object of his pursuit in entering on such a peculiar50 and extraordinary course of life? The answer to these questions will supply us with accurate notions of the real nature of this singular order of devotees. A Buddhist on becoming a member of the holy society proposes to keep the law of Buddha in a more perfect manner than his other co-religionists. He intends to observe not only its general ordinances51 obligatory52 on every individual, but also its prescriptions53 of a higher excellency, leading to an uncommon54 sanctity and perfection, which can be the lot of but a comparatively small number of fervent55 and resolute56 persons. He aims at weakening within himself all the evil propensities57 that give origin and strength to the principle of demerits. By the practice and observance of the highest and sublimest58 precepts60 and counsels of the law, he establishes, confirms, and consolidates61 in his own soul the principle of merits, which is to work upon him during the various existences he has as yet to go through, and gradually lead him to that perfection which will qualify him for and entitle him to the state of Neibban, the object of the ardent62 desires and earnest pursuit of every true and genuine disciple63 of Buddha. The life of the last Buddha Gaudama, his doctrines as well as his examples, he proposes to copy with a scrupulous64 fidelity65 and to follow with unremitting ardour. Such is the great model that he proposes to himself for[255] imitation. Gaudama withdrew from the world, renounced66 its seducing67 pleasures and dazzling vanities, curbed68 his passions under the yoke69 of restraint, and strove to practise the highest virtues, particularly self-denial, in order to arrive at a state of complete indifference70 to all that is within or without self; which is, as it were, the threshold of Neibban.
The Talapoin, fixing his regards on that matchless pattern of perfection, would fain reproduce, as far as it lies in his power, all its features in his own person. Like Buddha himself, he parts with his family, relatives, and friends, and seeks for admission into the society of the perfect; he abandons and leaves his home, to enter into the asylum71 of peace and retirement72; he forsakes73 the riches of this world to practise the strictest poverty; he renounces74 the pleasures of this world, even the lawful75 ones, to live according to the rules of the severest abstinence and purest chastity; he exchanges his secular76 dress for that of the new profession he enters on; he gives up his own will, and fetters77 his own liberty, to attend, through every act and all the particulars of life, to the regulations of the brotherhood78. He is a Talapoin for himself and for his own benefit, to acquire merits which he shares with nobody else. On the occasion of certain offerings or alms being presented to him by some benevolent79 admirers of his holy mode of life, he will repay his benefactors80 by repeating to them certain precepts, commands, and points of the law; but he is not bound by his professional character to expound81 the law to the people. Separated from the world by his dress and his peculiar way of living, he remains a stranger to all that takes place without the walls of his monastery82. He is not charged with the care of souls, and therefore never presumes to rebuke83 any one that trespasses84 the law, or to censure85 the conduct of the profligate86.
The ceremonies of the Buddhistic worship are simple and few. The Talapoin is not considered as a minister[256] whose presence is an essential requisite87 when they are to be performed. Pagodas88 are erected89, statues of Buddha are inaugurated, offerings of flowers, tapers90, and small ornaments91 are made, particularly on the days of the new and full moon, but on all those solemn occasions the interference of the Phongyie is in no way considered as necessary, so that the whole worship exists independently of him. He is not to be seen on the particular occasions of births and marriages. He is, it is true, occasionally asked to attend funerals; but he then acts, not as a minister performing a ceremony, but as a private person. He is present for the sake of receiving alms that are profusely92 bestowed93 upon him by the relatives of the defunct94.
The Buddhists have three months of the year, from the full moon of July to the full moon of October, particularly devoted95 to a stricter observance of the practices and ceremonies of the law. Crowds of people of both sexes resort to the pagodas, and often spend whole nights in the buildings erected close to those places. The most fervent among them fast and abstain96 from profane97 amusements during that period; they devote more time to the reading of their sacred books and the repetition of certain formulas calculated to remind them of certain important truths, or intended to praise the last Buddha Gaudama and the law he has published. Alms pour more abundantly into the peaceable dwellings98 of the pious99 recluses. During all the time the Talapoin quietly remains in his place, without altering his mode of life, or deviating100 in the least from his never-changing usages and ordinary habits. By the rules of his profession he is directed to pay, during that time, a particular regard to religious observances, to join his brethren from time to time in the recital101 of certain formulas, and in the reading of the book embodying102 the regulations of the profession. He enjoys, as usual, the good things which his liberal co-religionists take pleasure in proffering103 to him. On two occasions the writer has seen, and on many has heard of Talapoins withdrawing[257] during the three months of Lent to some lonely place, living alone in small huts, shunning104 the company of men, and leading an eremitical life, to remain at liberty to devote all their time to meditations105 on the most excellent points of the law of Buddha, combating their passions, and enjoying in that retired106 situation a foretaste of the never-troubled rest of Neibban.
In many respects the Talapoinic institutions may be likened to those of some religious orders that appeared successively in almost every Christian107 country previous to the era of the Reformation, and that are, up to this day, to be met with amidst the Churches of the Latin and Greek rites108. Like the monk109, the Talapoin bids a farewell to the world, wears a particular dress, leads a life of community, abstracts himself from all that gives strength to his passions, by embracing a state of voluntary poverty and absolute renunciation of all sensual gratifications. He aims at obtaining, by a stricter observance of the law’s most sublime59 precepts, an uncommon degree of sanctity and perfection. All his time is regulated by the rules of his profession, and devoted to repeating certain formulas of prayers, reading the sacred scriptures110, begging alms for his support, &c.
These features of exterior111 resemblance, common to institutions of creeds112 so opposite to each other, have induced several writers, little favourable113 to Christianity, to pronounce without further inquiry114 that Catholicism has borrowed from Buddhism many ceremonies, institutions, and disciplinary regulations. Some of them have gone so far as to pretend to find in it the very origin of Christianity. They have, however, been ably confuted by Abel Remusat, in his Memoir115 entitled “Chronological Researches into the Lamaic Hierarchy116 of Thibet.” Without entertaining in the least the presumptuous117 idea of entering into a controversy118 entirely119 foreign to his purpose, the writer will confine himself to making one or two remarks calculated to show that the first conclusion is, to say the[258] least of it, a premature120 one. When in two religious creeds, entirely opposed to each other in their ultimate object, there are several minor121 objects equally set forth122 by both, it will necessarily happen that, in many instances, means nearly similar will be prescribed on both sides for effectually obtaining them, independent of any previously123 concerted plan or imitation. The Christian system and the Buddhistic one, though differing from each other in their respective objects and ends, as much as truth from error, have, it must be confessed, many striking features of an astonishing resemblance. There are many moral precepts equally commanded and enforced in common by both creeds. It will not be deemed rash to assert that most of the moral truths prescribed by the Gospel are to be met with in the Buddhistic scriptures. The essential, vital, and capital discrepancy124 lies in the difference of the ends to which the two creeds lead, but not in the variance125 of the means they prescribe for the attainment126 of them. The Gospel tends to reunite man to his Maker127, points out to him the way he must follow for arriving at the possession and enjoyment128 of Him who is the great principle and end of all things, and teaches him, as a paramount129 duty, to conform his will and inclinations130 to His commands. Buddhism tends to abstract man from all that is without self, and makes self his own and sole centre. It exhorts131 him to the practice of many eminent132 virtues, which are to help him to rise to an imaginary perfection, the summit of which is the incomprehensible state of Neibban. It is the mildest expression which the writer can command when he has to speak of so sad a subject, the final end of a Buddhist. It would be more correct to say at once that the pretended perfect being is led, by the principles of his creed, into the dark and fathomless133 abyss of annihilation.
If the end aimed at by the followers of Buddha is widely different from that which the disciples134 of Christ strive to obtain, the means prescribed for the attainment[259] of these two ends are, in many respects, very much similar to each other. Both creeds teach man to combat, control, and master the passions of his heart, to make reason predominate over sense, mind over matter, to root up from his heart every affection for the things of this world, and to practise the virtues required for the attainment of these great objects. Is there anything surprising that persons, having, in many respects, views nearly similar, resort to means or expedients135 nearly alike for securing the object of their pursuit, without having ever seen or consulted each other? He who intends to practise absolute poverty must of course abandon all his earthly property. He who proposes renouncing136 the world ought to withdraw from it. He who will lead a contemplative life must look out for a retired place, far from the gaze and agitation of the world. To control passions, and particularly the fiercest of all, the sensual appetite, it is required that one should keep himself separate from all that is calculated to kindle137 its fires and feed its violence. Every profession has its distinctive138 marks and peculiar characteristics. Hence peculiarity139 of dress, manners, and habits in those who have adopted a mode of life differing from that of the rest of the community. He who has bound himself to the daily recitation of certain prayers or devotional formulas a certain number of times will have recourse to some instrument, or devise some means for ascertaining140 the number of times he has complied with his regulation in this respect. He, too, who is eager to acquire self-knowledge and to carry on a successful war with himself will apply to a guide to whom he will lay open his whole soul, and ask spiritual advice that will enable him to overcome the obstacles he meets on his way to perfection.
These and many other points are common to all those that intend to observe not only the precepts but also the mere141 counsels of their respective creeds. Causes being the same, in many instances, in both systems, consequences almost analogous142 must inevitably result therefrom. Religious[260] institutions always bear the stamp of the religious ideas that have given rise to them. They, together with their rules and regulations, are not the principle, but the immediate consequence or offspring of religion, such as it is understood by the people professing143 it. They exemplify and illustrate144 religious notions already entertained, but they never create such as are not yet in existence. When the learned shall have collected sufficient materials for giving an accurate history of the origin, progress, spread, and dogmatical revolutions of Buddhism, it will not be uninteresting to inquire into the causes that have operated in communicating to two religious systems essentially145 differing in their respective tendencies so many points of resemblance. But that study is yet to be made. We know very little on all those points. The best informed are compelled to acknowledge that in the present state of information we are still in the dark, the thickness of which is occasionally relieved by a few transient and uncertain glimpses which are insufficient146 to enlighten the mind, and enable the searcher after truth to guide safely his steps. In reading the particulars of the life of the last Buddha Gaudama, it is impossible not to feel reminded of many circumstances relating to our Saviour’s life, such as it has been sketched147 out by the evangelists. The origin of the close affinity148 between many doctrinal points and maxims149 common both to Christianity and Buddhism having been ascertained150, it will not be difficult to find out and explain how the votaries151 of both have come to adopt so many practices, ceremonies, observances, and institutions nearly similar.
Having endeavoured to explain the nature of the institution of the Talapoins, and the object aimed at by its professed152 members, we will now proceed to examine its systematical organisation153, or sacred hierarchy.
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Buddhism
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| n.佛教（教义） | |
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austere
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| adj.艰苦的；朴素的，朴实无华的；严峻的 | |
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recluses
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| n.隐居者，遁世者，隐士( recluse的名词复数 ) | |
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biassed
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| （统计试验中）结果偏倚的，有偏的 | |
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Buddha
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| n.佛；佛像；佛陀 | |
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deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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soliciting
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| v.恳求( solicit的现在分词 )；（指娼妇）拉客；索求；征求 | |
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subsisted
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| v.（靠很少的钱或食物）维持生活，生存下去( subsist的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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mosaic
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| n./adj.镶嵌细工的，镶嵌工艺品的，嵌花式的 | |
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intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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atheistical
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| adj.无神论（者）的 | |
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solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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creed
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| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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hazardous
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| adj.(有)危险的，冒险的；碰运气的 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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Buddhistic
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| adj.佛陀的，佛教的 | |
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Buddhist
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| adj./n.佛教的，佛教徒 | |
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modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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obliterated
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| v.除去( obliterate的过去式和过去分词 )；涂去；擦掉；彻底破坏或毁灭 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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Buddhas
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| n.佛，佛陀，佛像( Buddha的名词复数 ) | |
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intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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incessantly
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| ad.不停地 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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scholastic
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| adj.学校的，学院的，学术上的 | |
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negation
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| n.否定；否认 | |
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desolating
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| 毁坏( desolate的现在分词 )； 极大地破坏； 使沮丧； 使痛苦 | |
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horrifying
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| a.令人震惊的，使人毛骨悚然的 | |
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myriads
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| n.无数，极大数量( myriad的名词复数 ) | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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boundless
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| adj.无限的；无边无际的；巨大的 | |
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agitation
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| n.搅动；搅拌；鼓动，煽动 | |
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Buddhists
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| n.佛教徒( Buddhist的名词复数 ) | |
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inexplicable
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| adj.无法解释的，难理解的 | |
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annihilated
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| v.（彻底）消灭( annihilate的过去式和过去分词 )；使无效；废止；彻底击溃 | |
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venerate
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| v.尊敬，崇敬，崇拜 | |
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follower
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| n.跟随者；随员；门徒；信徒 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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ordinances
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| n.条例，法令( ordinance的名词复数 ) | |
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obligatory
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| adj.强制性的，义务的，必须的 | |
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prescriptions
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| 药( prescription的名词复数 )； 处方； 开处方； 计划 | |
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uncommon
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| adj.罕见的，非凡的，不平常的 | |
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fervent
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| adj.热的，热烈的，热情的 | |
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resolute
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| adj.坚决的，果敢的 | |
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propensities
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| n.倾向，习性( propensity的名词复数 ) | |
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sublimest
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| 伟大的( sublime的最高级 )； 令人赞叹的； 极端的； 不顾后果的 | |
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sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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precepts
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| n.规诫，戒律，箴言( precept的名词复数 ) | |
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61
consolidates
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| 巩固 | |
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62
ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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63
disciple
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| n.信徒，门徒，追随者 | |
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64
scrupulous
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| adj.审慎的，小心翼翼的，完全的，纯粹的 | |
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65
fidelity
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| n.忠诚，忠实；精确 | |
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66
renounced
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| v.声明放弃( renounce的过去式和过去分词 )；宣布放弃；宣布与…决裂；宣布摒弃 | |
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67
seducing
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| 诱奸( seduce的现在分词 )； 勾引； 诱使堕落； 使入迷 | |
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68
curbed
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| v.限制，克制，抑制( curb的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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69
yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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70
indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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71
asylum
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| n.避难所，庇护所，避难 | |
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72
retirement
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| n.退休，退职 | |
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73
forsakes
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| 放弃( forsake的第三人称单数 )； 弃绝； 抛弃； 摒弃 | |
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74
renounces
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| v.声明放弃( renounce的第三人称单数 )；宣布放弃；宣布与…决裂；宣布摒弃 | |
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75
lawful
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| adj.法律许可的，守法的，合法的 | |
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76
secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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77
fetters
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| n.脚镣( fetter的名词复数 )；束缚v.给…上脚镣，束缚( fetter的第三人称单数 ) | |
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78
brotherhood
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| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
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79
benevolent
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| adj.仁慈的，乐善好施的 | |
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80
benefactors
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| n.捐助者，施主( benefactor的名词复数 )；恩人 | |
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81
expound
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| v.详述；解释；阐述 | |
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82
monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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83
rebuke
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| v.指责，非难，斥责 [反]praise | |
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84
trespasses
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| 罪过( trespass的名词复数 )； 非法进入 | |
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85
censure
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| v./n.责备；非难；责难 | |
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86
profligate
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| adj.行为不检的；n.放荡的人，浪子，肆意挥霍者 | |
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87
requisite
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| adj.需要的，必不可少的；n.必需品 | |
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88
pagodas
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| 塔，宝塔( pagoda的名词复数 ) | |
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89
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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90
tapers
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| （长形物体的）逐渐变窄( taper的名词复数 )； 微弱的光； 极细的蜡烛 | |
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91
ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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92
profusely
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| ad.abundantly | |
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93
bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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94
defunct
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| adj.死亡的；已倒闭的 | |
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95
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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96
abstain
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| v.自制，戒绝，弃权，避免 | |
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97
profane
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| adj.亵神的，亵渎的；vt.亵渎，玷污 | |
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98
dwellings
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| n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 ) | |
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99
pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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100
deviating
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| v.偏离，越轨( deviate的现在分词 ) | |
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101
recital
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| n.朗诵，独奏会，独唱会 | |
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102
embodying
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| v.表现( embody的现在分词 )；象征；包括；包含 | |
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103
proffering
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| v.提供，贡献，提出( proffer的现在分词 ) | |
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104
shunning
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| v.避开，回避，避免( shun的现在分词 ) | |
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105
meditations
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| 默想( meditation的名词复数 )； 默念； 沉思； 冥想 | |
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106
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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107
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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108
rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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109
monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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110
scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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111
exterior
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| adj.外部的，外在的；表面的 | |
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112
creeds
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| （尤指宗教）信条，教条( creed的名词复数 ) | |
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113
favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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114
inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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115
memoir
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| n.[pl.]回忆录，自传；记事录 | |
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116
hierarchy
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| n.等级制度；统治集团，领导层 | |
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117
presumptuous
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| adj.胆大妄为的，放肆的，冒昧的，冒失的 | |
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118
controversy
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| n.争论，辩论，争吵 | |
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119
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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120
premature
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| adj.比预期时间早的；不成熟的，仓促的 | |
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121
minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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122
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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123
previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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124
discrepancy
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| n.不同；不符；差异；矛盾 | |
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125
variance
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| n.矛盾，不同 | |
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126
attainment
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| n.达到，到达；［常pl.］成就，造诣 | |
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127
maker
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| n.制造者，制造商 | |
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128
enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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129
paramount
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| a.最重要的，最高权力的 | |
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130
inclinations
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| 倾向( inclination的名词复数 )； 倾斜； 爱好； 斜坡 | |
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131
exhorts
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| n.劝勉者，告诫者，提倡者( exhort的名词复数 )v.劝告，劝说( exhort的第三人称单数 ) | |
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132
eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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133
fathomless
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| a.深不可测的 | |
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134
disciples
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| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
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135
expedients
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| n.应急有效的，权宜之计的( expedient的名词复数 ) | |
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136
renouncing
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| v.声明放弃( renounce的现在分词 )；宣布放弃；宣布与…决裂；宣布摒弃 | |
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137
kindle
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| v.点燃，着火 | |
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138
distinctive
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| adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的 | |
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139
peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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140
ascertaining
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的现在分词 ) | |
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141
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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142
analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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143
professing
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| 声称( profess的现在分词 )； 宣称； 公开表明； 信奉 | |
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144
illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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145
essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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146
insufficient
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| adj.(for，of)不足的，不够的 | |
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147
sketched
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| v.草拟（sketch的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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148
affinity
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| n.亲和力，密切关系 | |
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149
maxims
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| n.格言，座右铭( maxim的名词复数 ) | |
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150
ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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151
votaries
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| n.信徒( votary的名词复数 )；追随者；（天主教）修士；修女 | |
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152
professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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153
organisation
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| n.组织，安排，团体，有机休 | |
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