It is somewhat surprising to find in the middle of half-civilised nations, such as the Burmese, Siamese, Cingalese, and Thibetans, a religious order, with a distinct and well-marked hierarchy, constitutions and regulations, providing for the admission of members, determining their occupations, duties, obligations, and their mode of life, and forming, as it were, a compact, solid, and perfect body, that has subsisted3, almost without change, during several centuries, and survived the destruction of kingdoms, the fall of royal dynasties, and all the confusion and agitation4 produced by political commotions5 and revolutions. It is in Thibet that the order is found existing in the greatest perfection, under the fostering care of the Grand Lama, or High Priest, who combines in his own person the regal as well as the sacerdotal dignity and power. In the city of Lassa, a pontifical6 court, an elective sacerdotal chief, and a college of superior Lamas impart to the order dignity, decency7, respectability, and stability, which insure its continued existence, and more or less extend its influence over its members living in distant countries. The period of the introduction of Buddhism8 from India into Thibet is very uncertain, if not quite unknown. Buddhist9 annals mention that after the holding of the third council, 236 years after Gaudama’s death, some missionaries10 were deputed by the president of that assembly to go and preach religion in some parts of the Himalayan range. We may suppose that this had reference to the southern slopes of the mountains. Be that as it may, it appears certain that the establishment of a pontifical chief or sovereign, with royal prerogatives11, was set up by one of the grandsons of the great Tartar warrior12 Gengis in or about the middle of the thirteenth century. In other countries, where the order[262] has no connection whatever with the civil power, we can scarcely expect to see it surrounded with an equal splendour, or subsisting13 in the same state of splendour and regularity14. Though this is the case in Burmah, it is impossible not to acknowledge the fact that the regulations of the Wini are more carefully attended to in this country than in Thibet. The conduct of the monks17 here is incomparably more regular. The public could not bear an open dereliction of the duties imposed by the vows18 of poverty and chastity. But, if credit be given to the narratives19 of travellers, the Thibetan monks do not scruple20 to forsake21 occasionally those duties, without appearing to fear the rising of a popular cry of indignation, on account of their misbehaviour in points considered of such vast importance. Extraordinary, indeed, would be its vital energies, were the remotest parts of this great and far-spread body to receive the same impulse and exhibit the same symptoms of vitality22 as those nearest to the heart or principle of life. Having never met with any detailed23 particulars regarding the Thibetan monks, we must remain satisfied with laying before the reader an account of all that relates to the constituent24 parts of the order, such as they are found existing in Burmah and developed in the sacred writings.
The whole fraternity is composed, 1st, of young men who have put on the Talapoinic dress without being considered professed25 members of the fraternity, or having hitherto passed through a certain ordeal26 somewhat resembling an ordinary; they are called Shyins; 2d, of those who, having lived for a while in the community in a probationary27 state, are admitted professed members with the ceremonies usually observed on such occasions, whereby the title and character of Phongyie are solemnly conferred; they are denominated Patzins; 3d, of the heads of each house or community, who have the power to control all the inmates28 of the house; 4th, of a provincial29, whose jurisdiction30 extends over all the communities spread in the[263] towns and villages of the province or district; 5th, of a superior general, residing in the capital or its suburbs, called Tsaia-dau, or great master, having the general management and direction of all the affairs of the order throughout the empire. He is emphatically called by the name of Tha-thana-paing, which means that he has the power over religion. Let us say something upon each of these five degrees of the Buddhistic31 hierarchy.
It is an almost universal custom among the Burmese and Siamese to cause boys who have attained32 the age of puberty, or even before that time, to enter for a year or two one of the many Talapoinic houses, to put on the yellow dress, for the double purpose of learning to read and write, and of acquiring merits for future existences. On the occasion of the death of certain persons, it happens sometimes that a member of the family will enter the community for six months or a year. When a young lad is to make his first entrance into a house of the order, he is led thereto, riding on a richly caparisoned pony33, or sitting in a fine palanquin carried on the shoulders of four or more men. He is allowed to use one or several gold umbrellas, which are held opened over his head. During the triumphal march he is preceded by a long line of men and women, attired34 in their richest dresses, carrying a large quantity of presents destined35 for the use of the inmates of the Kiaong (such is the general name given to all the houses of the brotherhood36 in Burmah) which the young postulant is to reside in. In this stately order the procession, attended with a band playing on various musical instruments, moves on slowly and circuitously37 through the principal streets of the town towards the monastery38 that has been fixed39 upon. This display of an ostentatious pomp is, on the part of the parents and relatives, an honour paid to the postulant who generously consecrates40 himself to so exalted41 a calling, and on the part of the youth a last farewell to worldly vanities. He has no sooner descended42 from his splendid conveyance43 and crossed[264] the threshold of the kiaong than he is delivered by his parents into the hands of the superior, and placed under his care. His head is instantly shaved; he is stripped of his fine secular44 dress, and habited in the plain and humble45 yellow garb46; he must lay aside every sort of ornament47, and remain contented48 with the unassuming simplicity49 becoming his new position. The kiaong is to become his home, and its inmates are substituted in the room of his father and mother, brothers and sisters.
The duty of the young shyin is to minister to the wants of the elders of the house, to bring and place before them at fixed times the usual supply of water, the betel-box, and the daily food; to attend them on some pious50 errand through the town or the country. A portion of his time is devoted51 to acquiring the art of reading and writing, and occasionally the elements of arithmetic. There are five general precepts52 obligatory53 on all men; but the shyin is bound to the observance of five additional ones, making ten altogether, by which he is forbidden—1st, to kill animals; 2d, to steal; 3d, to give himself up to carnal pleasures; 4th, to tell lies; 5th, to drink wine or other intoxicating54 liquors; 6th, to eat after mid-day; 7th, to dance, sing, or play on any musical instrument; 8th, to colour his face; 9th, to stand on elevated places, not proper for him; 10th, to touch or handle gold or silver.[54][265] The trespassing55 of the five first precepts is visited with expulsion from the kiaong; but that of the five last may be expiated56 by a proper penance57.
The young shyins, as before observed, do not remain in the kiaong beyond the period of one or two years; they generally leave it and return to a secular life. There are, however, some of them, who, fond of the easy and quiet life of Talapoins, or actuated by other motives58, prefer remaining longer in those places of retirement59. They betake themselves to the study of the duties, rules, and obligations of the professed members of the society; they pay more attention to the reading of religious books, and endeavour to obtain the required qualifications. Being sufficiently60 instructed on all these points, and having attained the age of twenty years, they are solemnly admitted among the professed members of the brotherhood under the name of Patzin. The interesting ceremonies observed on the occasion will hereafter be fully15 described. The state of Patzin is, therefore, properly speaking, that of Phongyie, though that name is sometimes reserved for him who is the head of a monastery. Every other step or promotion61 in the hierarchy is purely62 honorary, in so far that it does not impose upon him who[266] is so promoted any new duty or obligation different from what is obligatory on every professed member; but it confers a power or jurisdiction for commanding, controlling, and governing all the brethren under his care. In virtue63 of such distinctions, a superior, how high soever his rank may be, is bound to the observance of the same rules, duties, and obligations as the last Patzin; his sacred character is not enlarged or altered; he is only entrusted64 with a certain amount of jurisdiction over some of his brethren.
The Talapoin is bound to his community, so that in every kiaong or house of the order there are ordinarily to be met several Patzins and a good number of shyins. Each kiaong has a chief who presides over the community, under the appellation65 of Tsaya, or, as is more often the case, under that of Phongyie. He is, in most instances, the nominee66 of the individual who has built the monastery, and who is vested with a kind of right of patronage67 to appoint whom he likes to be the head of the house he has erected68. He who is the head of the house has power over all the inmates, and every one acknowledges him as his immediate69 superior. He has the management of all the little affairs of the community, enforces the regular observance of the rules and duties of the profession, corrects abuses, rebukes70 the trespassers, spurs the lazy, excites the lukewarm, keeps peace and maintains good understanding amongst his subordinates. He receives, in his official character, the pious visitors who resort to his monastery, either for the sake of making voluntary offerings in token of their respect for and admiration71 of his eminent72 sanctity, or for conversing73 with him on some religious subjects, which, let it be said quietly, out of deference74 to human frailty75, sometimes make room for those of a worldly character. If the alms-givers or advice-seekers belong, as often happens, to the fair and devout76 sex, they must remain at a distance of six or twelve cubits, as the place may allow, from their pious adviser77.[267] It is supposed that a nearer proximity78 might endanger the virtue of the holy recluse79.
In every town a considerable number of kiaongs are found, either in the suburbs or within the walls, in a quarter reserved for the purpose. In every village the kiaong is to be met with, as the parson’s house in our villages of Europe. The poorest place is not without a small and often very humble house for the Phongyie who resides there, if not during the whole year, at least during the rainy season. One or several dzedis, a sort of flagstaff painted, and with some of its parts gilt80, bearing the emblem81 of the sacred bird henza, or Brahminical duck, at three-fourths of its height, from which hang down gracefully82 several streamers, amid a grove83 of fruit trees, indicate to the traveller the habitation—sometimes humble, sometimes stately—with its superposed three roofs, where the Rahans dwell. The kiaong is also a place where the traveller is well received, and can stay for a day or two. During the dry season, when there are few boys remaining with the Phongyies, it is a place much safer than the dzeats. The inmates are generally very glad to receive strangers, who by their conversation afford them some moments of pleasant diversion which relieve the habitual84 monotony of their life. These various communities are placed under the jurisdiction of a general superior, or a provincial named Tsaia-dau, or great master; they form, under his authority, a province of the order; a division much similar to that of several religious orders in Europe. He enjoys a large share of public respect and veneration85. His kiaong outshines the others in splendour and decorations. The first and wealthiest inhabitants of the place are proud to call themselves his disciples86 and supporters, and to supply him liberally with all that he may require. His chief duty is to settle disputes that not unfrequently arise between rival communities. The demon87 of discord88 often haunts these abodes89 of peace and retirement. The authority of the provincial interferes90 to put down feuds[268] and contentions91, which envy and jealousy92, the two great enemies of devotees, not unfrequently excite. When a Talapoin is accused of incontinence or other serious infringement93 of the vital rules of the profession, he is summoned to the tribunal of the Tsaya-dau, who, assisted and advised by some elders, examines the case and pronounces the sentence. Superior intellectual attainments94 do not appear to be the essential qualifications for obtaining this high dignity. The writer has met with two or three of these dignitaries who, in his opinion, were vastly inferior to many of their subordinates in talents and capacity. They were old and good-natured men, who had spent almost all their lives within the precincts of the monastery. Their dress, manners, and habits were entirely95 similar to those of their brethren of inferior grade.
In the capital, or its suburbs, of the kingdom of Ava, where is the key-stone of the Talapoinic fabric96, the superlatively great master resides. His jurisdiction extends over all the fraternity within the realm of his Burmese majesty97. His position near the seat of government, and his capacity of king’s master or teacher, must have at all times conferred upon him a very great degree of influence over all his subordinates. He is honoured with the eminent title of Tha-thana-paing, meaning that he has power and control over all that appertains to religion. It does not appear that peculiarly shining qualifications or high attainments are required in him who is honoured with such a dignity. The mere98 accidental circumstance of having been the king’s instructor99 when he was as yet a youth is a sufficient, nay100, the only necessary recommendation for the promotion to such a high position. Hence it generally happens that each king, at his accession to the throne, confers the highest dignity of the order on his favourite Phongyie. In that case the actual incumbent101 has to resign the place to his more influential102 brother, and becomes an ordinary member of the fraternity, unless he prefers leaving the society altogether, and re-entering the[269] lay condition. Great indeed is the respect paid by the king to the head Phongyie. When on certain days of worship he is invited to go to the palace and deliver some instructions to his majesty, the proud monarch103 quits the somewhat elevated place he occupies, and takes one almost on a level with that of the courtiers, whilst the venerable personage goes to sit on the very same carpet just vacated by the king. When he happens to go out and visit some monasteries104 or places of worship, he is generally carried on a gilt litter, in great state, attended by a large number of his brethren and a considerable retinue105 of laymen106. During the passage, marks of the greatest respect are given by the people. The monastery he lives in is on a scale of splendor107 truly surprising. Its form and appearance are similar to that of other religious houses, but in variety and richness of decorations it surpasses them all. It is entirely gilt both inside and out; not only are the posts covered with gold leaves, but often they are inlaid with rubies108, which I suppose are of the commonest description and of little value.
To confer an additional sacredness to his person and position, the Tha-thana-paing lives by himself, with but one or two Phongyies, whom we may consider as his secretaries or major-domos, who remain in an apartment near to the entrance, to receive visitors and usher109 them into the presence of the great personage. Besides, there are lay guardians110 who take good care that not the least noise should ever disturb the silence of the place.
When the writer first visited that dignitary, he was much amused, on his approach to the place, to meet with those mute guardians, who by all sorts of signs and gestures were endeavouring to make him understand that he must walk slowly and noiselessly, and beware to speak aloud. When admitted to the presence of the Tsaya-dau, he was not a little surprised to find a man exceedingly self-conceited, who thought that to him alone belonged the right of speaking. His language was that of a master[270] to whom no one was expected to presume to offer the least contradiction. He appeared quite offended when his visitor was compelled to dissent111 from him on certain points brought forward during the conversation. He was then about fifty years old. He was, for a Burman, of a tall stature112, with regular and handsome features. The face was a little emaciated113, as becomes a monk16. His spiritual pride cast a darkish and unpleasant appearance on his person. He spoke114 quickly and sententiously; appearing all the while scarcely to notice his interlocutor. Admiration of self and vanity pierced through the thin veil which his affected115 humility116 spread over his countenance117. The writer left him with an impression very different from that which a worthy118 English envoy119, in the end of the last century, entertained of a similar personage, whose mild, benign120, and pious exterior121 captivated him to such an extent as to elicit122 from him a request to be remembered in his prayers.
In our days, the power of the Tha-thana-paing is merely nominal123; the effects of his jurisdiction are scarcely felt beyond his own neighbourhood. Such, however, was not the case in former times. Spiritual commissioners124 were sent yearly by him, to examine into and report on the state of the communities throughout the provinces. They had to inquire particularly whether the rules were regularly observed or not, whether the professed members were really well qualified125 for their holy calling or not. They were empowered to repress abuses, and whenever some unworthy brother, or black sheep, was found within the enclosure of a monastery, he was forthwith degraded, stripped of the yellow garb, and compelled to resume a secular course of life. Unfortunately for the welfare of the order, those salutary visits no more take place; the wholesome126 check is done away with. Left without a superior control, the order has fallen into a low degree of abjectness127 and degradation128. The situation of Talapoins is often looked upon now as one fit for lazy, ignorant, and[271] idle people, who, being anxious to live well and do nothing, put on the sacred dress for a certain time, until, tired of the duties and obligations of their new profession, they retire and betake themselves anew to a secular life. This practice, as far as my observation goes, is pretty general, if not almost universal. There are, however, a few exceptions. Though labouring under many serious disadvantages, the society continues to subsist2 with all its exterior characteristics; the various steps of its hierarchy are as well marked and defined now as they were before under more favourable129 circumstances. Its framework remains130 entire, but the materials composing it are somewhat imperfect and unsound.
There is in that religious body a latent principle of vitality, that keeps it up and communicates to it an amount of strength and energy that have hitherto maintained it in the midst of wars, revolutions, and political convulsions of all descriptions. Whether supported or not by the ruling power, it has remained always firm and unchanged. It is impossible to account satisfactorily for such a phenomenon, unless we find a clear and evident cause of such an extraordinary vitality; a cause independent of ordinary occurrences, time, and circumstances; a cause deeply rooted in the very soul of the populations, that exhibit before the observer this great and striking religious feature. That cause appears to be the strong religious sentiment, the firm faith that pervades131 the masses of Buddhists132. The laity133 admire and venerate134 the religious, and voluntarily and cheerfully contribute to their maintenance and welfare. From its ranks the religious body is constantly recruited. There is scarcely a man that has not been a member of the fraternity for a certain period of time.
Surely such a general and continued impulse could not last long, unless it were maintained by a powerful religious conviction. The members of the order preserve, at least exteriorly135, the decorum of their profession. The[272] rules and regulations are tolerably well observed; the grades of hierarchy are maintained with a scrupulous136 exactitude. The life of the religious is one of restraint and perpetual control. He is denied all sorts of pleasures and diversions. How could such system of self-denial be ever maintained, were it not for the belief which the Rahans have in the merits that they amass137, by following a course of life which, after all, is repugnant to nature? It cannot be denied that human motives often influence both the laity and the religious, but divested138 of faith and of the sentiments inspired by even a false belief, their action could not produce, in a lasting139 and persevering140 manner, the extraordinary and striking fact we witness in Buddhistic countries.
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1
hierarchy
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| n.等级制度；统治集团，领导层 | |
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subsist
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| vi.生存，存在，供养 | |
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subsisted
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| v.（靠很少的钱或食物）维持生活，生存下去( subsist的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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agitation
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| n.搅动；搅拌；鼓动，煽动 | |
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commotions
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| n.混乱，喧闹，骚动( commotion的名词复数 ) | |
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pontifical
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| adj.自以为是的，武断的 | |
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decency
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| n.体面，得体，合宜，正派，庄重 | |
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Buddhism
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| n.佛教（教义） | |
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Buddhist
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| adj./n.佛教的，佛教徒 | |
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missionaries
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| n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 ) | |
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prerogatives
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| n.权利( prerogative的名词复数 )；特权；大主教法庭；总督委任组成的法庭 | |
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warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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subsisting
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| v.（靠很少的钱或食物）维持生活，生存下去( subsist的现在分词 ) | |
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regularity
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| n.规律性，规则性；匀称，整齐 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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vows
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| 誓言( vow的名词复数 )； 郑重宣布，许愿 | |
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narratives
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| 记叙文( narrative的名词复数 )； 故事； 叙述； 叙述部分 | |
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scruple
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| n./v.顾忌，迟疑 | |
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forsake
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| vt.遗弃，抛弃；舍弃，放弃 | |
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vitality
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| n.活力，生命力，效力 | |
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detailed
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| adj.详细的，详尽的，极注意细节的，完全的 | |
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constituent
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| n.选民；成分，组分；adj.组成的，构成的 | |
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professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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ordeal
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| n.苦难经历，（尤指对品格、耐力的）严峻考验 | |
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probationary
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| 试用的，缓刑的 | |
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inmates
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| n.囚犯( inmate的名词复数 ) | |
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provincial
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| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
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jurisdiction
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| n.司法权，审判权，管辖权，控制权 | |
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Buddhistic
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| adj.佛陀的，佛教的 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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pony
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| adj.小型的；n.小马 | |
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attired
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| adj.穿着整齐的v.使穿上衣服，使穿上盛装( attire的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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brotherhood
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| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
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circuitously
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| 曲折地 | |
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monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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consecrates
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| n.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的名词复数 )；奉献v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的第三人称单数 )；奉献 | |
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exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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conveyance
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| n.(不动产等的)转让，让与；转让证书；传送；运送；表达；（正）运输工具 | |
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secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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garb
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| n.服装，装束 | |
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ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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contented
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| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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precepts
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| n.规诫，戒律，箴言( precept的名词复数 ) | |
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obligatory
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| adj.强制性的，义务的，必须的 | |
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54
intoxicating
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| a. 醉人的,使人兴奋的 | |
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55
trespassing
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| [法]非法入侵 | |
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56
expiated
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| v.为（所犯罪过）接受惩罚，赎（罪）( expiate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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57
penance
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| n.（赎罪的）惩罪 | |
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58
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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59
retirement
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| n.退休，退职 | |
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60
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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61
promotion
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| n.提升，晋级；促销，宣传 | |
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62
purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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63
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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64
entrusted
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| v.委托，托付( entrust的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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65
appellation
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| n.名称，称呼 | |
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66
nominee
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| n.被提名者；被任命者；被推荐者 | |
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67
patronage
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| n.赞助，支援，援助；光顾，捧场 | |
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ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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70
rebukes
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| 责难或指责( rebuke的第三人称单数 ) | |
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71
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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72
eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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73
conversing
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| v.交谈，谈话( converse的现在分词 ) | |
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74
deference
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| n.尊重，顺从；敬意 | |
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75
frailty
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| n.脆弱；意志薄弱 | |
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76
devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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77
adviser
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| n.劝告者，顾问 | |
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78
proximity
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| n.接近，邻近 | |
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79
recluse
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| n.隐居者 | |
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80
gilt
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| adj.镀金的；n.金边证券 | |
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81
emblem
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| n.象征，标志；徽章 | |
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82
gracefully
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| ad.大大方方地；优美地 | |
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83
grove
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| n.林子，小树林，园林 | |
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84
habitual
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| adj.习惯性的；通常的，惯常的 | |
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85
veneration
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| n.尊敬，崇拜 | |
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86
disciples
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| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
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demon
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| n.魔鬼，恶魔 | |
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88
discord
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| n.不和，意见不合，争论，（音乐）不和谐 | |
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89
abodes
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| 住所( abode的名词复数 )； 公寓； （在某地的）暂住； 逗留 | |
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90
interferes
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| vi. 妨碍，冲突，干涉 | |
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contentions
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| n.竞争( contention的名词复数 )；争夺；争论；论点 | |
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jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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infringement
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| n.违反；侵权 | |
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attainments
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| 成就，造诣； 获得( attainment的名词复数 )； 达到； 造诣； 成就 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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fabric
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| n.织物，织品，布；构造，结构，组织 | |
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majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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99
instructor
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| n.指导者，教员，教练 | |
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100
nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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101
incumbent
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| adj.成为责任的，有义务的；现任的，在职的 | |
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102
influential
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| adj.有影响的，有权势的 | |
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103
monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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104
monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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105
retinue
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| n.侍从；随员 | |
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106
laymen
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| 门外汉，外行人( layman的名词复数 )； 普通教徒（有别于神职人员） | |
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107
splendor
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| n.光彩；壮丽，华丽；显赫，辉煌 | |
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108
rubies
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| 红宝石( ruby的名词复数 )； 红宝石色，深红色 | |
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109
usher
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| n.带位员，招待员；vt.引导，护送；vi.做招待，担任引座员 | |
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110
guardians
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| 监护人( guardian的名词复数 )； 保护者，维护者 | |
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111
dissent
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| n./v.不同意，持异议 | |
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112
stature
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| n.（高度）水平，（高度）境界，身高，身材 | |
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113
emaciated
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| adj.衰弱的，消瘦的 | |
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114
spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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115
affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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116
humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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117
countenance
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| n.脸色，面容；面部表情；vt.支持，赞同 | |
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118
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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119
envoy
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| n.使节，使者，代表，公使 | |
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120
benign
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| adj.善良的，慈祥的；良性的，无危险的 | |
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121
exterior
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| adj.外部的，外在的；表面的 | |
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122
elicit
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| v.引出,抽出,引起 | |
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123
nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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124
commissioners
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| n.专员( commissioner的名词复数 )；长官；委员；政府部门的长官 | |
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125
qualified
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| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
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126
wholesome
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| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
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127
abjectness
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| 凄惨； 绝望； 卑鄙； 卑劣 | |
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128
degradation
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| n.降级；低落；退化；陵削；降解；衰变 | |
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129
favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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130
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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131
pervades
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的第三人称单数 ) | |
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132
Buddhists
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| n.佛教徒( Buddhist的名词复数 ) | |
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133
laity
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| n.俗人；门外汉 | |
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134
venerate
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| v.尊敬，崇敬，崇拜 | |
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135
exteriorly
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| adv.从外部，表面上 | |
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136
scrupulous
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| adj.审慎的，小心翼翼的，完全的，纯粹的 | |
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137
amass
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| vt.积累，积聚 | |
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138
divested
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| v.剥夺( divest的过去式和过去分词 )；脱去（衣服）；2。从…取去…；1。（给某人）脱衣服 | |
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139
lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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140
persevering
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| a.坚忍不拔的 | |
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