Succeeding events will supply the answer. From the point of view of his wars, the Emperor has been called a conqueror1; but when we come to consider his peace achievements and his creative ability, it will be shown that he had a still clearer right to that appellation2. It will also clearly reveal his ideals of sovereignty, and we shall recognize the propriety3 of the title history has accorded him.
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First of all, let us consider the place which was the favorite resort of the Emperor during the last twenty years of his life. He lived at Aix-la-Chapelle nearly all the time when he was not in the field. Its gently sloping heights, spurs of the Eifel and Ardennes, at that time densely5 wooded, enclosed a fruitful valley. A royal palace stood there in Pepin’s time; and even if Charlemagne was not born there, as is sometimes asserted, yet it is certain that he spent the most of his boyhood amid these scenes.
Bathing was one of his favorite pleasures, and many a time he breasted the blue waves of the Rhine. The warm mineral baths at Aix-la-Chapelle were his especial delight. There were also thickly wooded spots in the vicinity which attracted him. He was as fond of hunting as of bathing, even in his last years; and his retainers, as well as his beautiful and buxom6 daughters, often joined him in the hunt, and chased the buffaloes7 and wild boars to the clang of horns and the baying of hounds. All great human personages excite the imagination of those who come under their influence; and the popular fancy is fond of weaving stories about them which help to reveal their true character. One of these legends concerns the baths at Aix-la-Chapelle.
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At Charlemagne’s palace in Mainz there was a bell which was said to ring whenever any danger was threatened. Charlemagne heard its clang one day and sent a messenger to ascertain8 the cause. He found that a snake had coiled itself around the rope and was the bell-ringer. The snake led the messenger to its nest, where a noxious9 toad10 was found squatting11 upon the snake’s eggs. He drove the toad away and then informed the Emperor of the curious event. Charlemagne’s astonishment12 was further increased when the snake suddenly appeared in the hall, wriggled13 along to his table, ascended14 it, dropped a sparkling jewel which it carried in its jaws15 into a wine glass, and then quickly disappeared. The magic stone, upon which swan and runic symbols were engraved16, had mysterious properties. Whoever received the gift became the object of the passionate17 adoration18 of the giver. Charlemagne placed the stone in a ring and sent it to his beloved wife Fastrada. Immediately he became more closely attached to her than ever before. He could not be away from her. When her death removed her from his side, he was overcome with grief. Her body was placed in an open coffin19 in the Cathedral, and the Emperor spent his time there and would not suffer it to be buried. The people whispered among themselves, “The Emperor’s mind is affected20 by his love for Fastrada. What will become of his crown and country if this grief continues?” In this emergency the pious21 Turpin had a dream which suggested a method of deliverance. He rose from his bed, donned his clothes, and hastened to the Cathedral. It was apparently22 empty. Before the altar there was a lofty sarcophagus, upon which the Empress rested. Round about it upon the floor lay a band of paladins garbed23 as penitents24. In front of the sarcophagus stood the Emperor weeping, with his head resting upon the coffin. Turpin ascended the steps. He gently raised Fastrada’s ermine covering, seized the hand so long cold, and quietly removed the ring; whereupon the paladins, who had been kneeling in prayer, looked about in astonishment. The Emperor lifted his head and addressed them. “How long have we mourned? Too long, surely! Where is my chancellor25? It seems to me my people are calling. Let the Empress be buried in the earth, never to be forgotten.”
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The magic swan ring now exerted its influence in a new way. The Emperor became devotedly26 attached to the prelate, and the latter was troubled over its demoralizing influence. He went to Aix-la-Chapelle, followed by the Emperor, and threw the ring into a quiet forest lake made by the warm springs. From that time the place became the favorite resort of the Emperor. He erected28 a castle in the midst of the lake, in which he often meditated30 upon the frailty31 of earthly things. He took delight in bathing in the waters in whose depths the swan ring, taken from the hand of his beloved, rested without his knowledge.
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At Aix-la-Chapelle he also built a majestic32 palace, surrounded by a broad columned portico33, which was a marvel34 of architecture at that time. Rome and Ravenna furnished the columns, the marble blocks, and the mosaic35 work, and the best architects were sent there by the Pope. Around it were buildings for the schools, court attendants, and bodyguards36; farther away, a cloister37 and farmhouses38; and still farther off a tall structure built over the warm baths and capable of accommodating hundreds. The most majestic building of all was a minster connected with the palace by a pillared passageway, the dome39 of which, supported by tall columns, was adorned40 with a representation of Christ and the four-and-twenty elders of the Apocalypse in mosaic upon a gold background, the altars glistening41 with gold and silver ornaments42.
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Everything was carried out according to the plans of the Emperor; and even when he was in the field the work went on. He devoted27 himself assiduously to all sacred matters. In the early morning hours he might be seen passing along the portico to the church to meditate29 and strengthen himself for his official duties, and at evening he returned for the same high purpose.
Those who attended this hero of the spiritual when the times were opportune43 for deeds of peace often accompanied the hero of the sword upon his expeditions. During his first Lombard campaign he became acquainted with the pious and learned Anglo-Saxon prelate, Alcuin,[43] and took him with him that he might have the advantage of his counsels and teaching. Charlemagne, like all princes’ sons in those days, had enjoyed but little instruction up to the time he assumed the sovereignty. His native ability helped him over many hard places, but that same ability inspired him with a passionate desire to avail himself of the treasures of knowledge. The great Emperor sat, a willing scholar, at the feet of his teacher Alcuin, whom Guizot thus describes:
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“Alcuin was very well versed44 in Antonius and Hieronymus and was familiar with Pythagoras, Aristotle, Aristippus, Diogenes, Plato, Homer, Virgil, Seneca, and Pliny. His writings were chiefly theological, but he had also done much of importance in mathematics, astronomy, dialectics, and rhetoric45. This man was the light of the Church in his day and was also a classical scholar.”
Other members of the scholarly circle at his court were Angilbert, Eginhard, Theodulph, Peter of Pisa, and the Lombard historian Paulus Warnefried. The last, as already has been stated, had been condemned46 to death for inciting47 revolt in his country, but was pardoned by Charlemagne, who subsequently conferred many honors upon him. How highly Charlemagne esteemed48 art and science is shown by the fact that he attended the sessions of the academy and was recognized as an equal among its members. He would not allow court ceremonials to be conducted in halls devoted to the service of science. In order to preserve and foster the culture of former times, the members at his request took the names of famous ancients. Alcuin was called Horace; Eginhard, Callippus; Angilbert, Homer; Theodulph, Pindar; and Charlemagne—the hero, champion of the Church, and lover of the lyre—was unanimously called David.
CHARLEMAGNE and Alcuin
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Charlemagne was endowed with extraordinary natural gifts of language; his studies, which he pursued at night, both at home and in the field, enabled him in an exceedingly short time to converse50 as fluently in Latin as in his mother tongue. He studied the works of the great Roman historians, Julius C?sar, Sallust, Livy, Tacitus, and others; and besides this, during his Roman expeditions, he had viewed the scenes of the exploits described by them and the ruins of ancient stateliness. The Grecian world also had revealed to him the brilliant culture of the great men of that country. He was so well acquainted with the Greek language that he could read the literature in the original, which disclosed to him visions of the beauty of that Eden. Rome stood high in his estimation, but Athens higher; and higher than either Rome or Athens, Jerusalem, as the source of those sacred teachings which are to humanity what the sun is to the earth—light-diffuser and inspiration of newly created life. He never wandered from the true path, whose course is so often confused by mistaken teachers even to this day. With unwavering faith he anticipated the complete victory of the light and was ready at all times to serve the sacred cause with all his energy. He often manifested his sincere interest in the Academy. He ardently51 longed to create a new Athens at Aix-la-Chapelle by his own efforts, assisted by his friends, and to make this new Athens the centre of a Christian52 spirit which should be a light to all the nations. He founded training schools and schools for youth. He organized a school at the court for the sons of his generals and officials. He supervised every detail, so that there should be no question of their success, and invited the assistance of others. The great Emperor was not ashamed to avail himself of the critical knowledge acquired by the results of education. The chronicles of Saint Gall53 contain the following interesting instance of this:—
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It happened that the sons of those of the middle and lower classes exhibited results which surpassed all his expectations, and that the sons of people of the higher classes handed in wretched and bungling54 compositions. Imitating the example of the highest Judge, Charlemagne placed the industrious55 ones on his right and said to them: “I praise you, my children, for the zeal56 with which you have carried out my instructions and because you have done your best according to your ability. Continue striving to accomplish still more that you may not fail to meet my expectations and to have my constant care.” Then he turned his reproachful gaze upon those at his left and hurled57 these words at them: “Why is it that you, sons of noblemen, puppets upon whom have been showered all the gifts of birth and wealth, have not respected my orders and recognized my solicitude58 for your reputation? You have slighted me and devoted yourselves to effeminate habits, sports, frivolity59, and disgraceful actions.” Raising his arm, he shouted: “By Heaven, there are other things more worthy60 than these. Your birth and rank count for little with me. Listen! If you do not hasten to atone61 for your neglect by increased industry, you will never again enjoy my favor.”
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He who would achieve greatness in the short span of life must improve every moment of time. Even while dressing62, Charlemagne busied himself with state affairs, heard complaints, held receptions, and made decisions. When he could not sleep at night he spent much time reading and writing. One may ask why a man who understood Greek and Latin and was so well versed in classic literature should have practised writing. The question has given rise to many conjectures63. Very little attention was paid to writing in those days. It was mainly confined to the copying of the letters in the sumptuous65 editions then in use. The books with their costly66 gold and silver covers, set with precious stones, were genuine works of art. Guizot says:
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“With few books and still less paper, writing was a luxury as well as a gift. Nearly all instruction was oral, and writing was not depended upon in study. It is true Charlemagne did not need to economize67 in paper; but his teachers had accustomed themselves to instruct their pupils with extracts and selections, which were committed to memory and not written upon tablets. They did not expect great elaboration of detail from their scholars and brought their studies to a close without practising the art which with us is considered the beginning. The writing and preparation of diplomas was the work of expert secretaries.”
As Charlemagne had acquired the art of writing he thus surpassed the princes and notables of his time in this also.
The Emperor took special pains at meals that while the body was nourished the soul and mind should not be neglected. He was fond of pleasant entertainment, and if conversation was not so interesting as he wished, the chaplain would read from some good book. As gormandizing was distasteful to him, the dinner consisted of only four courses, something unheard-of in court life at that time. He drank but three times at table, and regarded drunkenness as a vice49. He was delighted beyond measure when surrounded by his own family, something he rarely enjoyed because of his many campaigns.
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An extraordinarily68 tender relation existed between Angilbert, who bore the academic name of Homer, and Charlemagne’s beautiful daughter Bertha. Upon one occasion they sat engaged in pleasant conversation without noticing that night was approaching. What might have happened if the Emperor had been aware of this it is difficult to conjecture64. The hours passed swiftly and daybreak drew near. It was not a Romeo and Juliet morning of lark69 and nightingale greetings to the sun, but a cold winter morning with freshly fallen snow on the ground. How was Angilbert to get away without leaving accusing footprints in the snow? At this juncture70, Charlemagne, who had risen early, went to the window and beheld71 his loved daughter Bertha carrying Angilbert on her back through the snow, after which she returned to her chamber72. Charlemagne kept silent about the escapade, and it was not until some time afterwards that he confided73 to his friend what he had seen that night.
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It was devout74 piety75 that induced Charlemagne to build the stately Cathedral. The music of the Italian masters was heard there for the first time, and the art of song was fostered by his chapel4. The German language was employed there for the first time in divine service, much to the surprise of the Franks. The peal76 of the organ which Harun-al-Rashid presented to the Emperor was also first heard there. The chronicles of Saint Gall, to which we are indebted for so much interesting information concerning Charlemagne, relate that “the wonderful instrument, by the aid of its metal action and leathern bellows77, filled the air with resonant78 thunder and anon with the soft tones of the lyre, as if worked by magic.”
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Wood and stone, music, tapers79, and incense80, however, are of little account by themselves. Indeed they sometimes prove detrimental81 to the service, which should be the worship of God in spirit and in truth. There had been much pomp in the service before the time of Charlemagne. Indeed, the churches vied with each other in religious spectacles, and there was very little change in these matters among the clericals or laity82 in his time. When the clericals had finished their churchly duties they sought relief from their exertions83 in worldly pleasures. They were often seen in courtly attire84 engaged in hunting, in military exercises, or riding to banquets. It was irksome to bishops86 and abbés when they had to be satisfied with such a table as Charlemagne set forth87. He was determined88 from the very first that there should be a radical89 change in church observances, and that the first step should be the establishment of higher standards in the behavior of clericals, and the suppression of covetousness90, vanity, and personal show among them. He sternly rebuked91 a bishop85 who had provided himself a golden crozier set with pearls and precious stones. “We expect our pastors92 to bear the cross of Christ,” he told him, “but they abandon their poor sheep and seek to vie with kings and emperors in splendor93 and majesty94.” He also required them to evince a spirit of reverence95 in all their actions.
He assigned a young priest, who came to him highly recommended, to an important position. Thereupon the priest mounted his horse which was standing96 waiting for him and would have hurried away to the hunt. Charlemagne called him back and said: “Forsooth, I observe that you are far too active for a priest. It will be better, therefore, for you to follow me in my campaigns as a soldier, for the Kingdom of Heaven is much disturbed by these storms of war.”
The clericals often accompanied him, not for fighting, but to render spiritual help whenever it was needed. Certain monks97 who had distinguished98 themselves by works of mercy and the transcribing99 of useful books were allowed the privilege of hunting as exceptions, because he thought they might strengthen themselves and at the same time secure skins for book covers, girdles, and gloves.
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Charlemagne labored100 incessantly101 for the highest interests of Church and State. He held two annual assemblies, one military and the other of a deliberative nature, in which these interests were discussed. It is surprising to find that he held forty-two synods for that part of the Empire alone, in which church matters were regulated and educational questions settled. He issued four hundred and seventy-seven edicts appertaining to the subjects contained in the famous “Capitularies,” besides six hundred and seventy-four of a political character. Although many of these are not applicable to modern conditions, it must be remembered that one time is not all time; that the wisdom of the lawgiver must be measured by the conditions of those for whom laws are made; and that results must be decided102 upon their merits or demerits. All his contemporaries are agreed that his laws resulted in great benefit for the Empire.
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It often happened in these assemblies that when the decisions of famous men in the olden times were considered, a feeling of doubt would seize upon Charlemagne. Upon one such occasion he declared: “Oh that I had twelve such learned advisers103 as Hieronymus and Augustine were!” To which Alcuin replied: “The ruler of heaven and earth did not have any, and you are longing104 for twelve of them.”
Charlemagne retired105 to rest burdened with care, but awoke with fresh hope and new desire for action. His predecessors106 had made their first residence in Paris; he, German in body and soul, much as he enjoyed the healthiness of Roman life, left for the banks of the Rhine, and, as has been related, selected Aix-la-Chapelle as his residence in his latter days. There was not a detail of public administration which escaped his attention or upon which he did not expend107 his extraordinary creative ability. When it was necessary he sat in majesty upon his throne. In the academy he devoted himself with no less assiduity to the promotion108 of great truths. Indeed, it is difficult to say in what capacity he most excelled—as a war hero, lawgiver, judge, or teacher. Those who saw him in plain attire upon one or other of the royal estates, directing and disposing, might well imagine that the great Charlemagne perfectly109 filled the role of farmer.
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Under Charlemagne’s management the crown possessions became models of husbandry. Nothing escaped his attention, and whatever he planned was successful. The stewards110 received lists containing the names of species of corn, kitchen herbs, fruit trees, medical simples, which were to be planted, cultivated, and looked after in field and garden. He ordered poultry111, geese, and doves to be kept at the mills so that the superfluous112 grain should not be wasted. He laid out fish-ponds, constructed apiaries113, planted noble vineyards, and introduced improved methods of wine-making. Nor did he confine himself to the strictly114 useful. He arranged for the keeping of pheasants and peacocks. He cultivated great quantities of flowers in the beautiful pleasure gardens. He employed gardeners, fish-masters, and bee-keepers. He arranged to have experts in the making of butter and cheese teach the people. Upon the crown estates as well as upon others, wolf-hunters were posted, who had to deliver annually115 a certain number of skins or suffer a penalty. Whatever produce from the crown property was unnecessary for use at the court was sold, and a yearly account of it was kept. The supervision116 of the house stewards extended to the slightest detail. Charlemagne was far from avaricious117. His household never suffered for lack of anything. Whenever corn was disposed of he arranged to sell the measure about a denier below the ordinary price. He had the highest sense of order in the management of affairs, and looked upon disorder118, whether in the State, the family, or intellectual matters, as conducive119 to disastrous120 results. He did not live upon the fat of the land, but upon the abundance from his own estates.
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Let us consider the conditions of industry and business in Charlemagne’s Empire. His wars were in no wise detrimental to material prosperity. Arrow, missile, and helmet makers121, as well as sword and bow and bullet makers, were in demand. At the royal palaces there were blacksmiths, armorers, gold and silver smiths, shoemakers, tailors, millers122, turners, masons, wheelwrights, builders, brass-workers, tanners, soap-boilers, fowlers, potters, bakers123, joiners, saddlers, net-weavers, coopers, architects, glass-blowers, parchment makers, painters, and dyers. After Charlemagne’s order that monks who failed in studies should make themselves useful as handworkers, there was an active emulation124 among all the artisans employed at the palaces, the monasteries125, and in the cities. Ferdinand Pfalz states in his “Scenes in City Life” that under Charlemagne, notwithstanding his frequent wars, the cities enjoyed material prosperity:
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“The Rhine, Meuse, and Scheld were crowded with freight vessels126; and at the landing-places, as at Worms, Mainz, Cologne, Dorstadt, Maestricht, Ghent, and Bruges, or in the harbors at the mouth of the Scheld there were busy scenes. The Strasburg merchants shipped down the Rhine to the sea and the Frisians to Worms. The great Emperor regarded this expansion of commerce with delight. The old and patched Roman walls were soon too restricted for the increasing urban populations. Churches and seats of the nobility spread out into the suburbs, which eventually had to be enclosed in a ring of walls.”
Order in housekeeping both in court and state affairs Charlemagne regarded as vitally necessary to sovereignty. The whole Empire was divided into districts and to each district a competent official was assigned, whose duty it was to see that the Capitularies were respected. Special judges appeared from time to time, made examinations, and reported to the Emperor. In deliberations on the affairs of the Empire, Charlemagne summoned the leading feudal127 owners and the high churchmen in May, which is the origin of the name “Mayfield” given to these meetings.
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1
conqueror
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| n.征服者，胜利者 | |
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appellation
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| n.名称，称呼 | |
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propriety
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| n.正当行为；正当；适当 | |
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chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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densely
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| ad.密集地；浓厚地 | |
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buxom
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| adj.（妇女）丰满的，有健康美的 | |
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buffaloes
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| n.水牛（分非洲水牛和亚洲水牛两种）( buffalo的名词复数 )；（南非或北美的）野牛；威胁；恐吓 | |
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ascertain
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| vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清 | |
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noxious
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| adj.有害的，有毒的；使道德败坏的，讨厌的 | |
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toad
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| n.蟾蜍，癞蛤蟆 | |
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squatting
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| v.像动物一样蹲下( squat的现在分词 )；非法擅自占用（土地或房屋）；为获得其所有权；而占用某片公共用地。 | |
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astonishment
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| n.惊奇，惊异 | |
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wriggled
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| v.扭动，蠕动，蜿蜒行进( wriggle的过去式和过去分词 )；（使身体某一部位）扭动；耍滑不做，逃避（应做的事等） | |
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ascended
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| v.上升，攀登( ascend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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jaws
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| n.口部；嘴 | |
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engraved
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| v.在（硬物）上雕刻（字，画等）( engrave的过去式和过去分词 )；将某事物深深印在（记忆或头脑中） | |
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passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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adoration
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| n.爱慕，崇拜 | |
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coffin
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| n.棺材，灵柩 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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garbed
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penitents
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chancellor
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| n.(英)大臣；法官；(德、奥)总理；大学校长 | |
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devotedly
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| 专心地； 恩爱地； 忠实地； 一心一意地 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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ERECTED
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meditate
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| v.想，考虑，（尤指宗教上的）沉思，冥想 | |
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meditated
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| 深思，沉思，冥想( meditate的过去式和过去分词 )； 内心策划，考虑 | |
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frailty
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| n.脆弱；意志薄弱 | |
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majestic
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| adj.雄伟的，壮丽的，庄严的，威严的，崇高的 | |
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portico
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| n.柱廊，门廊 | |
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marvel
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| vi.(at)惊叹vt.感到惊异；n.令人惊异的事 | |
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mosaic
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| n./adj.镶嵌细工的，镶嵌工艺品的，嵌花式的 | |
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bodyguards
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| n.保镖，卫士，警卫员( bodyguard的名词复数 ) | |
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cloister
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| n.修道院；v.隐退，使与世隔绝 | |
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farmhouses
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| n.农舍，农场的主要住房( farmhouse的名词复数 ) | |
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dome
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| n.圆屋顶，拱顶 | |
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adorned
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| [计]被修饰的 | |
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glistening
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| adj.闪耀的，反光的v.湿物闪耀，闪亮( glisten的现在分词 ) | |
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ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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opportune
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| adj.合适的，适当的 | |
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versed
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| adj. 精通，熟练 | |
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rhetoric
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| n.修辞学，浮夸之言语 | |
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46
condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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47
inciting
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| 刺激的，煽动的 | |
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48
esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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49
vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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50
converse
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| vi.谈话，谈天，闲聊；adv.相反的，相反 | |
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51
ardently
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| adv.热心地，热烈地 | |
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52
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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53
gall
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| v.使烦恼，使焦躁，难堪；n.磨难 | |
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54
bungling
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| adj.笨拙的，粗劣的v.搞糟，完不成( bungle的现在分词 )；笨手笨脚地做；失败；完不成 | |
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55
industrious
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| adj.勤劳的，刻苦的，奋发的 | |
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56
zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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57
hurled
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| v.猛投，用力掷( hurl的过去式和过去分词 )；大声叫骂 | |
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58
solicitude
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| n.焦虑 | |
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59
frivolity
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| n.轻松的乐事，兴高采烈；轻浮的举止 | |
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60
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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61
atone
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| v.赎罪，补偿 | |
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62
dressing
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| n.(食物)调料；包扎伤口的用品，敷料 | |
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63
conjectures
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| 推测，猜想( conjecture的名词复数 ) | |
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64
conjecture
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| n./v.推测，猜测 | |
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65
sumptuous
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| adj.豪华的，奢侈的，华丽的 | |
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66
costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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67
economize
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| v.节约，节省 | |
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68
extraordinarily
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| adv.格外地；极端地 | |
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69
lark
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| n.云雀，百灵鸟；n.嬉戏，玩笑；vi.嬉戏 | |
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70
juncture
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| n.时刻，关键时刻，紧要关头 | |
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71
beheld
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| v.看，注视( behold的过去式和过去分词 )；瞧；看呀；（叙述中用于引出某人意外的出现）哎哟 | |
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72
chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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73
confided
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| v.吐露（秘密，心事等）( confide的过去式和过去分词 )；（向某人）吐露（隐私、秘密等） | |
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74
devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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75
piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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76
peal
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| n.钟声；v.鸣响 | |
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77
bellows
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| n.风箱；发出吼叫声，咆哮（尤指因痛苦）( bellow的名词复数 )；（愤怒地）说出（某事），大叫v.发出吼叫声，咆哮（尤指因痛苦）( bellow的第三人称单数 )；（愤怒地）说出（某事），大叫 | |
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78
resonant
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| adj.(声音)洪亮的，共鸣的 | |
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79
tapers
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| （长形物体的）逐渐变窄( taper的名词复数 )； 微弱的光； 极细的蜡烛 | |
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80
incense
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| v.激怒；n.香，焚香时的烟，香气 | |
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81
detrimental
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| adj.损害的，造成伤害的 | |
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82
laity
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| n.俗人；门外汉 | |
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83
exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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84
attire
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| v.穿衣，装扮[同]array；n.衣着；盛装 | |
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85
bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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86
bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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87
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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88
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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89
radical
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| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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90
covetousness
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91
rebuked
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| 责难或指责( rebuke的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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92
pastors
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| n.（基督教的）牧师( pastor的名词复数 ) | |
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93
splendor
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| n.光彩；壮丽，华丽；显赫，辉煌 | |
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94
majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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95
reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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96
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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97
monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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98
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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99
transcribing
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| （用不同的录音手段）转录( transcribe的现在分词 )； 改编（乐曲）（以适应他种乐器或声部）； 抄写； 用音标标出（声音） | |
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100
labored
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| adj.吃力的，谨慎的v.努力争取(for)( labor的过去式和过去分词 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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101
incessantly
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| ad.不停地 | |
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102
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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103
advisers
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| 顾问，劝告者( adviser的名词复数 )； （指导大学新生学科问题等的）指导教授 | |
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104
longing
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| n.（for）渴望 | |
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105
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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106
predecessors
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| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
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107
expend
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| vt.花费，消费，消耗 | |
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108
promotion
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| n.提升，晋级；促销，宣传 | |
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109
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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110
stewards
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| （轮船、飞机等的）乘务员( steward的名词复数 )； （俱乐部、旅馆、工会等的）管理员； （大型活动的）组织者； （私人家中的）管家 | |
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111
poultry
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| n.家禽，禽肉 | |
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112
superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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113
apiaries
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| n.养蜂场，蜂房( apiary的名词复数 ) | |
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114
strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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115
annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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116
supervision
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| n.监督，管理 | |
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117
avaricious
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| adj.贪婪的，贪心的 | |
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118
disorder
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| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
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119
conducive
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| adj.有益的，有助的 | |
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120
disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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121
makers
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| n.制造者，制造商（maker的复数形式） | |
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122
millers
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| n.（尤指面粉厂的）厂主( miller的名词复数 )；磨房主；碾磨工；铣工 | |
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123
bakers
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| n.面包师( baker的名词复数 )；面包店；面包店店主；十三 | |
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124
emulation
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| n.竞争；仿效 | |
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125
monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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126
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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127
feudal
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| adj.封建的，封地的，领地的 | |
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