It yet remains3 to note some of those changes in the public worship of the church, and in the ordinances of the gospel, which contributed to the great apostasy4.
The simplicity5 of the Christian6 religion was made a reproach to the Church of Christ by the pagan priests. "The Christians7 have no temples, therefore they have no gods," was an argument sufficiently8 convincing to the heathens. It was but natural, perhaps, to seek to cast off this reproach; but the effort to do so led to the introduction of many ceremonies quite at variance9 with the gospel. The early Christian Saints were accustomed to meet on the first day of the week for public worship; the meetings, during the first century at least, being held, for the most part, in private houses. The ceremonies were of the simplest character. They consisted of reading the scriptures11, the exhortation13 of the president of the assembly—"neither eloquent14 nor long, but full of warmth and love,"[1]—the testimony15 of such as felt moved upon by the Holy Ghost to bear testimony, exhort12 or prophesy16; the singing of hymns17; the administration of the sacrament and prayers.
But all this was soon changed. The bishops19 and other public teachers in the third century, framed their discourses20 and exhortations21 according to the rules of Grecian eloquence22; "and were better adapted," says a learned writer,[2] "to call forth24 the admiration25 of the rude multitude who love display, than to amend26 the heart. And that no folly27 and no senseless custom might be omitted in their public assemblies, the people were allowed to applaud their orators28, as had been practiced in the forums29 and theatres; nay30, they were instructed both to applaud and to clap the preachers." This was a wide departure from that spirit of meekness31 and humility32 enjoined33 by Messiah upon his ministers. And when to these customs was added the splendid vestments of the clergy34, the magnificence of the temples, with all the pageantry of altars, surrounded with burning tapers35, clouds of incense36, beautiful images, the chanting of choirs37, processions and other mummeries without number—one sees but little left of that simple worship instituted by the Messiah and his apostles.
About the third century incense began to be used. The Christians of the first and second centuries abhorred38 the use of incense in public worship as being a part of the worship of idols39.[3] It first became a custom to use it at funerals against offensive smells; then in public worship to disguise the bad air of crowded assemblies; then at the consecration40 of bishops and magistrates41, and by these steps its use at last degenerated42 into a superstitious43 rite23.
In the fourth century matters became still worse. The public supplications by which the pagans were accustomed to appease44 their gods, were borrowed from them, and were celebrated45 in many places with great pomp. To the temples, to water consecrated46 in due form, and the images of holy men, the same efficacy was ascribed and the same privileges assigned as had been attributed to the pagan temples, statues and lustrations before the advent47 of Christ.[4]
In the third century also arose the worship of martyrs48. It is true that worship or adoration49 was relative, and a distinction was made between the worship of martyrs and the worship paid to God; but by degrees the worship of martyrs was made to conform with that which the pagans had in former times paid to their gods.[5] This was done out of indiscreet eagerness to allure50 the pagans to embrace Christianity.[6] "When Gregory [surnamed Thaumaturgus on account of the numerous miracle she is said to have wrought—born in Pontus, in the second decade of the third century] perceived that the ignorant and simple multitude persisted in their idolatry, on account of the sensuous51 pleasures and delights it afforded—he allowed them in celebrating the memory of the holy martyrs, to indulge themselves and give a loose to pleasure (i. e., as the thing itself, and both what precedes and what follows, place beyond all controversy52, he allowed them at the sepulchres of the martyrs on their feast days, to dance, to use sports, to indulge in conviviality53, and do all things that the worshipers of idols were accustomed to do in their temples, on their festival days), hoping that in process of time they would spontaneously come over to a more becoming and correct manner of life."[7]
While pagan rites54 and ceremonies were increasing in the church, the gifts and graces characteristic of apostolic times, seemed to have gradually departed from it. Protestant writers insist that the age of miracles closed with the fourth or fifth century, and that after that the extra-ordinary gifts of the Holy Ghost must not be expected. Catholic writers, on the other hand, insist that miracles have always continued in the church; yet those spiritual manifestations55 which they describe after the fourth and fifth centuries savor56 of invention on the part of the priests and childish credulity on the part of the people; or else what is claimed to be miraculous57 falls far short of the power and dignity of those spiritual manifestations which the primitive58 church was wont59 to witness. The virtues60 and prodigies61 ascribed to the bones and other relics62 of the martyrs and saints are purile in comparison with the healings, by the anointing with oil and the laying on of hands, speaking in tongues, interpretations63, prophecies, revelations, casting out devils in the name of Jesus Christ; to say nothing of the gifts of faith, wisdom, knowledge, discernment of spirits, etc., common in the church in the days of the apostles.[8] There is nothing in the scriptures or in reason that would lead one to believe that the miraculous gifts were to be discontinued. Still this plea is made by modern Christians—explaining the absence of these spiritual powers among them—that the extraordinary gifts of the Holy Ghost were only intended to accompany the proclamation of the gospel during the first few centuries until the church was able to make its way without them, and then they were to be done away. It is sufficient to remark upon this that it is assumption and stands without warrant either of scripture10 or right reason, and proves that men had so far changed the religion of Jesus Christ that it became a form of godliness without the power thereof.[9]
It appears to have been the custom of the apostles in the case of members of the church grievously transgressing64 the moral law of the gospel, to require repentance65 and confession66 before the church; and in the event of a stubborn adherence67 to sin the offender68 was excommunicated, that is, he was excluded from the communion of the church and the fellowship of the saints. For the crimes of murder, idolatry and adultery some of the churches excommunicated those guilty of them forever; in other churches they were received back, but only after long and painful probation69.
The manner in which excommunication was performed in apostolic times is not clear, but there is every reason to believe the process was very simple. In the course of time, however, this simple form of excommunication was changed, by being burdened with many rites and ceremonies borrowed from pagan sources.[10] It was not enough that the fellowship of the saints be withdrawn70 from the offender and he left to the mercy of God, or the buffetings of Satan, according as he was worthy71 of the one or the other; but the church must load him down with anathemas72 too terrible to contemplate74. The power of excommunication, too, eventually, passed from the body of the church into the hands of the bishops, and finally into those of the pope. At first excommunication meant the loss of the fellowship of the saints and such other punishment as God Himself might see proper to inflict75; the church leaving the Lord to be the minister of His own vengeance76. But gradually it came to mean in some instances banishment77 from home and country, the confiscation78 of property, the loss not only of church fellowship, but loss of civil rights and the rights of Christian burial. In the case of a monarch79, excommunication absolved80 his subjects from their allegiance; and in the case of a subject, it robbed him of the protection of his sovereign. No anathema73 was so terrible but it was pronounced against the excommunicated, until the sweet mercies of God were overshadowed by the black pall81 of man's inhumanity.
The outward ordinances of the gospel consisted of baptism, the laying on of hands for the imparting of the Holy Ghost, and the Lord's supper. The laying on of hands was also employed in ordaining82 men to the priesthood and in administering to the sick. In the latter case it was accompanied by anointing with oil.
Baptism was administered by immersing the candidate in water. The only pre-requisites were faith in Jesus Christ and repentance.
As soon as the candidate professed83 these he was admitted into the church by baptism.[11] In a short time, however, the simplicity of this ordinance1 was corrupted84 and burdened with useless ceremonies. In the second century the newly baptized converts, since by baptism they had been born again, were taught to exhibit in their conduct the innocence85 of little infants. Milk and honey, the common food of infants, were administered to them, after their baptism, to remind them of their infancy86 in the church. Moreover, since by baptism they were released from being servants of the devil, and became God's free men, certain forms borrowed from the Roman ceremony of manumission of slaves was employed in baptism. As by baptism also they were supposed to be made God's soldiers, like newly enlisted87 soldiers in the Roman army, they were sworn to obey their commander.[12] A century later (the third) further ceremonies were added. It was supposed that some evil spirit was resident in all vicious persons and impelled88 them to sin. Therefore, before entering the sacred fount for baptism, an exorcist by a solemn, menacing formula declared them free from the bondage89 of Satan, and hailed them servants of Christ.[13] After baptism the new converts returned home "decorated with a crown and a white robe; the first being indicative of their victory over the world and their lusts90, the latter of their acquired innocence."[14] We have already noted91 the fact that baptism was administered in the days of the apostles as soon as profession of faith and repentance was made, but in the second and third centuries baptism was only administered twice a year, and then only to such candidates as had gone through a long preparation and trial.[15] The times chosen for the administration of the ordinance were on the vigils of Easter and Whitsuntide,[16] and in the fourth century it had become the custom to accompany the ceremony with lighted wax candles, to put salt—an emblem92 of purity and wisdom—in the mouth of the baptized, and everywhere a double anointing was administered to the candidates, the one before the other after baptism.[17]
It must have been early in the third century that the form of baptism began to be changed. Up to this time it had been performed only by immersion93 of the whole body. But in the first half of the third century, Cyprian, Bishop18 of Carthage, during a controversy respecting the re-baptism of those who in times of persecution94 had denied the faith, decided95 that those whose weak state of health did not permit them to be immersed, were sufficiently baptized by being sprinkled.[18] The first case of this kind of baptism is related by Eusebius. The person to whom it was so administered was Novatus, a desperate heretic, who created a schism96 in the church and became the founder97 of a sect98. He was among the number of so-called Christians who put off baptism as long as he dared; in order to enjoy a life of sin and then through baptism, just before death, obtain forgiveness—a custom very prevalent in those times. Novatus being attacked with an obstinate99 disease, and supposed to be at the point of death, was baptized by having water sprinkled upon him as he lay in bed; "if indeed," says Eusebius, "it be proper to say one like him did receive baptism."[19]
This innovation continued to spread until now the general rule among Christians is to baptize by sprinkling or pouring. For this change there is no warrant of revelation. It destroys the symbol there is in baptism as taught by Messiah and his apostles—that of a burial and resurrection—of a death and birth—a death unto sin, a birth unto righteousness. It is one of those innovations which changed an ordinance of the everlasting100 covenant101.[20]
About the same time that the form of administering baptism was changed it began to be misapplied, that is, it was administered to infants. Just when this custom came into vogue102 may not be determined103, but clearly it has no warrant for its existence either in the doctrine104 or practice of the apostles or any New Testament105 writer. No truth is more plainly taught by the apostles than that baptism is for the remission of sins, and must be preceded by faith and repentance; and as infants are incapable106 of sin, and of exercising faith, or of repenting107, evidently they are not fit subjects for baptism.
Still it became the custom in the latter part of the second century or early in the third to baptize infants. In the year 253 A. D., a council of sixty bishops, in Africa—at which Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, presided—considered the question whether infants should be baptized within two or three days after birth, or whether baptism should be deferred108 until the eighth day, as was the custom of the Jews in respect to circumcision. The council decided that they should be baptized at once, within a day or two after birth.[21] It will be observed that the question was not as to whether infants should be baptized or not, but when they should be baptized, within a day or two after birth or not until they were eight days old.
The matter was treated in the council as if infant baptism was a custom of long standing109. This proves, not that infant baptism is a correct doctrine, or that it was derived110 from the teachings of the apostles—as some aver[22]—but that in a century or so after the introduction of the gospel, men began to pervert111 it by changing and misapplying its ordinances. The false doctrine of infant baptism is now practiced by nearly all so-called Christian churches, Catholic and Protestant.
Much as the simple rite of baptism was burdened with useless ceremonies, changed in its form and misapplied, it was not more distorted than was the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. The nature of the sacrament—usually called Eucharist—and the purposes for which it was instituted are so plain that he who runs may read. From Paul's description of the ordinance, it is clear' that the broken bread was intended to be an emblem of the Messiah's broken body; the wine an emblem of his blood, shed for sinful man; and his disciples112 were to eat the one and drink the other in remembrance of him until he should return; and by this ceremony show forth the Lord's death.[23] It was designed as a memorial of Messiah's great atonement for mankind, a token and witness unto the Father that the Son was always remembered. It was to be a sign that those partaking of it were willing to take upon them the name of Christ, to remember him always and keep his commandments. In consideration of these things being observed, the saints were always to have the Spirit of the Lord to be with them.
In this spirit and without great ceremony the sacrament was administered for some time. But in the third century there were longer prayers and more ceremony connected with the administration of the sacrament than in the century preceding. Disputations arose as to the proper time of administering it. Some considered the morning, others the afternoon, and some the evening the most suitable time. All were not agreed either as to how often the ordinance should be celebrated. Gold and silver vessels113 were used, and neither those doing penance114, nor those unbaptized, though believers, were permitted to be present at the celebration of the ordinance; "which practice, it is well known, was derived from the pagan mysteries."[24] Very much of mystery began to be associated with it even at an early date. The bread and the wine through the prayer of consecration were considered to undergo a mystic change, by which they were converted into and became the very body and the very blood of Jesus Christ; so that they were no longer regarded as emblems115 of Messiah's body and blood, but the body and blood itself.[25] This is the doctrine of transubstantiation. This dogma established, it was but a short step to the "elevation116 of the host;" that is, the elevation of the bread and wine before it was distributed, so that it might be viewed and worshiped by the people. This was called the adoration of the symbols. It was idolatry—the worship of the bread and wine falsely taught to be the Lord Jesus.[26]
Hence came the Mass, or the idea of a sacrifice being connected with the celebration of the Eucharist. It was held that as Jesus was truly present in the bread and wine he could be offered up as an oblation117 to his Eternal Father. The death of the victim was not supposed to occur in reality, but mystically, in such a way, however, as to constitute a true sacrifice, commemorative of that of the cross and not different from it in essence. The same Victim was present, and offered up by Christ through his minister the priest. The sacrifice at the cross was offered with real suffering, true shedding of blood, and real death of the Victim; in the mass it was taught there was a mystical suffering, a mystical shedding of blood and a mystical death of the same Victim.
Into such absurdities118 was the simple sacrament of the Lord's Supper distorted! When attended with all the pomp and ceremony of splendid altars, lighted tapers, processions, elevations119 and chantings; offered up by the priests and bishops clad in splendid vestments and in the midst of clouds of incense, accompanied by mystic movements and genuflections of bishops and priests, the church could congratulate itself on having removed the reproach at the first fastened upon the Christians for not having altars and a sacrifice. The mass took away the reproach; and the new converts to Christianity were accustomed to see the same rites and ceremonies employed in this mystical sacrifice of the Son of God as they had seen employed in offering up sacrifices to the pagan deities120.
In time the idea became prevalent that the body and blood of Messiah were equally and entirely121 present under each "species"—that is, equally and entirely present in the bread and in the wine; and was equally and entirely given to the faithful which ever they received. This idea, of course, rendered it unnecessary to partake of both bread and wine—hence the practice of communion in one kind. That is, the sacrament was administered by giving bread alone to the communicant. To remark that this was changing the ordinance of the sacrament as instituted by Messiah—suppressing half of it in fact—can scarcely be necessary, since it is so well known that he administered both bread and wine when instituting the sacred ordinance.[27]
Thus, through changing the ordinances of the gospel; by misapplying them in some cases, and adding pagan rites to them in others; by dragging into the service of the church the ceremonies employed in heathen temples in the worship of pagan gods; by departing from the moral law of the gospel, until the pages of Christian church history are well nigh as dark in immorality122, as cruel and bloody123 as those that recount the wickedness of pagan Rome;[28] by changing the form and departing from the spirit of government in the church as fixed124 by Jesus, coupled with the corrupting125 influence of luxury which came with repose126 and wealth, together with the destruction visited upon the noblest and best of the servants and saints of God by the pagan persecutions which continued through three centuries—all this, I say, brought to pass the apostasy for which I am contending in these pages—the destruction of the Church of Christ on earth.
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1
ordinance
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| n.法令；条令；条例 | |
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ordinances
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| n.条例，法令( ordinance的名词复数 ) | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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apostasy
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| n.背教，脱党 | |
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simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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8
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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variance
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| n.矛盾，不同 | |
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scripture
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| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
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scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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exhort
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| v.规劝，告诫 | |
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exhortation
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| n.劝告，规劝 | |
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eloquent
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| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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prophesy
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| v.预言；预示 | |
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hymns
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| n.赞美诗，圣歌，颂歌( hymn的名词复数 ) | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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discourses
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| 论文( discourse的名词复数 )； 演说； 讲道； 话语 | |
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exhortations
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| n.敦促( exhortation的名词复数 )；极力推荐；（正式的）演讲；（宗教仪式中的）劝诫 | |
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eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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rite
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| n.典礼，惯例，习俗 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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amend
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| vt.修改，修订，改进；n.[pl.]赔罪，赔偿 | |
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folly
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| n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话 | |
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orators
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| n.演说者，演讲家( orator的名词复数 ) | |
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forums
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| 讨论会； 座谈会； 广播专题讲话节目； 集会的公共场所( forum的名词复数 )； 论坛，讨论会，专题讨论节目； 法庭 | |
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nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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meekness
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| n.温顺，柔和 | |
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humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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enjoined
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| v.命令( enjoin的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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tapers
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| （长形物体的）逐渐变窄( taper的名词复数 )； 微弱的光； 极细的蜡烛 | |
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incense
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| v.激怒；n.香，焚香时的烟，香气 | |
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choirs
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| n.教堂的唱诗班( choir的名词复数 )；唱诗队；公开表演的合唱团；（教堂）唱经楼 | |
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abhorred
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| v.憎恶( abhor的过去式和过去分词 )；（厌恶地）回避；拒绝；淘汰 | |
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idols
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| 偶像( idol的名词复数 )； 受崇拜的人或物； 受到热爱和崇拜的人或物； 神像 | |
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consecration
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| n.供献，奉献，献祭仪式 | |
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magistrates
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| 地方法官，治安官( magistrate的名词复数 ) | |
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degenerated
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| 衰退，堕落，退化( degenerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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appease
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| v.安抚，缓和，平息，满足 | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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advent
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| n.(重要事件等的)到来，来临 | |
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martyrs
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| n.martyr的复数形式；烈士( martyr的名词复数 )；殉道者；殉教者；乞怜者（向人诉苦以博取同情） | |
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adoration
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| n.爱慕，崇拜 | |
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allure
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| n.诱惑力，魅力；vt.诱惑，引诱，吸引 | |
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sensuous
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| adj.激发美感的；感官的，感觉上的 | |
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controversy
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| n.争论，辩论，争吵 | |
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conviviality
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| n.欢宴，高兴，欢乐 | |
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rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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manifestations
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| n.表示，显示（manifestation的复数形式） | |
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savor
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| vt.品尝，欣赏；n.味道，风味；情趣，趣味 | |
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miraculous
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| adj.像奇迹一样的，不可思议的 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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wont
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| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
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60
virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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61
prodigies
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| n.奇才，天才（尤指神童）( prodigy的名词复数 ) | |
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62
relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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interpretations
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| n.解释( interpretation的名词复数 )；表演；演绎；理解 | |
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transgressing
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| v.超越( transgress的现在分词 )；越过；违反；违背 | |
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repentance
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| n.懊悔 | |
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66
confession
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| n.自白，供认，承认 | |
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67
adherence
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| n.信奉，依附，坚持，固着 | |
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offender
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| n.冒犯者，违反者，犯罪者 | |
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probation
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| n.缓刑(期)，(以观后效的)察看；试用(期) | |
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withdrawn
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| vt.收回；使退出；vi.撤退，退出 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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72
anathemas
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| n.（天主教的）革出教门( anathema的名词复数 )；诅咒；令人极其讨厌的事；被基督教诅咒的人或事 | |
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anathema
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| n.诅咒；被诅咒的人(物)，十分讨厌的人(物) | |
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contemplate
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| vt.盘算，计议；周密考虑；注视，凝视 | |
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inflict
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| vt.(on)把…强加给，使遭受，使承担 | |
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76
vengeance
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| n.报复，报仇，复仇 | |
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77
banishment
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| n.放逐，驱逐 | |
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78
confiscation
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| n. 没收, 充公, 征收 | |
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monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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absolved
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| 宣告…无罪，赦免…的罪行，宽恕…的罪行( absolve的过去式和过去分词 )； 不受责难，免除责任 [义务] ,开脱（罪责） | |
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pall
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| v.覆盖，使平淡无味；n.柩衣，棺罩；棺材；帷幕 | |
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82
ordaining
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| v.任命（某人）为牧师( ordain的现在分词 )；授予（某人）圣职；（上帝、法律等）命令；判定 | |
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83
professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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corrupted
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| （使）败坏( corrupt的过去式和过去分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
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85
innocence
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| n.无罪；天真；无害 | |
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infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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enlisted
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| adj.应募入伍的v.（使）入伍， （使）参军( enlist的过去式和过去分词 )；获得（帮助或支持） | |
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impelled
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| v.推动、推进或敦促某人做某事( impel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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bondage
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| n.奴役，束缚 | |
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lusts
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| 贪求（lust的第三人称单数形式） | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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emblem
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| n.象征，标志；徽章 | |
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immersion
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| n.沉浸；专心 | |
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persecution
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| n. 迫害,烦扰 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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schism
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| n.分派，派系，分裂 | |
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Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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sect
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| n.派别，宗教，学派，派系 | |
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obstinate
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| adj.顽固的，倔强的，不易屈服的，较难治愈的 | |
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everlasting
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| adj.永恒的，持久的，无止境的 | |
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101
covenant
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| n.盟约，契约；v.订盟约 | |
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102
Vogue
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| n.时髦，时尚；adj.流行的 | |
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103
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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104
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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105
testament
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| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
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106
incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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107
repenting
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| 对（自己的所为）感到懊悔或忏悔( repent的现在分词 ) | |
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deferred
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| adj.延期的，缓召的v.拖延，延缓，推迟( defer的过去式和过去分词 )；服从某人的意愿，遵从 | |
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109
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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110
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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111
pervert
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| n.堕落者，反常者；vt.误用，滥用；使人堕落，使入邪路 | |
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112
disciples
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| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
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113
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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114
penance
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| n.（赎罪的）惩罪 | |
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115
emblems
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| n.象征，标记( emblem的名词复数 ) | |
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116
elevation
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| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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117
oblation
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| n.圣餐式；祭品 | |
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118
absurdities
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| n.极端无理性( absurdity的名词复数 )；荒谬；谬论；荒谬的行为 | |
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119
elevations
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| （水平或数量）提高( elevation的名词复数 )； 高地； 海拔； 提升 | |
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120
deities
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| n.神，女神( deity的名词复数 )；神祗；神灵；神明 | |
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121
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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122
immorality
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| n. 不道德, 无道义 | |
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123
bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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124
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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125
corrupting
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| （使）败坏( corrupt的现在分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
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126
repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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