The topography of Argentina is very varied6. Some, perhaps, think of it only as a flat and level country. This is true of the pampas, where for hundreds of miles there is scarcely a rise as high as a barn. Argentina probably contains the greatest stretch of level and fertile plains in the world, whose possibilities have hardly been touched upon. But Argentina is not all level. It contains within its borders the very highest mountain peak in the world outside of the Himalayas, mighty7 Aconcagua, which pierces the ether up to a height of twenty-four thousand feet. It also possesses Tupungato,[3] another lofty peak of the Andean range. The pampas are entirely8 treeless except for groves9 which have been planted by man. But Argentina does not lack timber, for there are tracts10 larger than many European kingdoms which are covered with fine forests. The climate is equally diversified11. One may broil12 in the wilderness13 of the Chaco, and shiver with the cold in Southern Patagonia. In fact there is almost as much difference in the climate as you would find between Sicily and Iceland. On the Andes slopes there is very little rain, but up in the territory of Misiones you reach the region of tropical downpours. Thus it is that you can find a representative type of almost any kind of climate and almost every variety of soil.
The Rio de la Plata is the second largest river system in the world. It is one of the three main outlets14 from the interior of South America to the sea, and carries almost twice as much water as the Mississippi. At its mouth the river is one hundred and eighty miles across from Cape15 San Antonio, Uruguay, to Cape Santa Maria, in Argentina. A little further inland, which some consider as the real mouth, the distance is one hundred and forty miles. Opposite Montevideo the width has[4] narrowed down to sixty-five miles, and at Buenos Aires it is about twenty-eight miles from shore to shore. Just above Buenos Aires the river is divided into a number of forks, which form an extensive delta16 through which the great branches run and a number of islands have been created. The principal branches of this river in Argentina are the Paraná, Uruguay and Paraguay. The Uruguay River rises in Brazil, less than one hundred miles from the Atlantic Ocean, and has a length of one thousand miles. The Paraguay and Paraná Rivers also have their sources in Brazil, near the centre of the continent, and the former has a length of seventeen hundred miles before its waters mingle17 with the latter. It has two tributaries18, the Pilcomayo and Bermejo, which are navigable for small craft. Each of these rivers is more than five hundred miles long, but they are exceedingly tortuous19, so that navigation is rather difficult and uncertain. The Paraná River reaches way up into Brazil. It has its source only a few miles from one of the principal tributaries of the Amazon, over a stretch of swampy20 ground of which a part of the water flows into one river and part into the other. All of these rivers carry down immense quantities[5] of mud. In places the deposit on the river bottom is from thirteen to twenty-five feet deep, and it has many banks and shoals. The problem of keeping channels open to Buenos Aires is a big one, and many dredges are kept constantly at work. It is generally believed that the interior of Argentina was at one time a vast inland sea, and that the flat plains have been formed by the soil which has been deposited by these rivers during the prehistoric21 geological ages. The waters of the Atlantic are coloured by this mud long before the mouth of the river is reached. The water in the bath-tub looks almost like thin pea soup.
ON THE UPPER PARANá RIVER
The range of temperature and climatic conditions is very great. In the extreme northern provinces the temperature is similar to that of Mexico and Florida. On the central pampas the summer heat is connatural with that of Southern California and Tennessee, while the winter temperature resembles that of the Ohio Valley. The thermometric range between the extremes of heat and cold, however, is much less than in the corresponding latitudes22 of the northern hemisphere. In general the climate of the central pampas may be said to correspond roughly with that of the great cereal[6] producing sections of North America, although the yearly average is rather higher and the fluctuations23 are somewhat less violent. It is better adapted for the growth of grain and raising of stock then the newly opened provinces of Canada and is more habitable for man. In fact the name of Buenos Aires (good airs), applied25 to a city and province, is not a misnomer26. North of Buenos Aires snow is rare and frost unusual, except in the higher altitudes. South of there it grows progressively colder as one travels towards Cape Horn.
In the matter of rainfall, also, there are great variations in different sections. The zonal distribution of rainfall runs in belts from east to west. This is due to the prevailing27 winds. The great agricultural district receives from twenty to forty inches annually28, or about the same as the region around the Great Lakes of the United States. West of this is a narrow strip that receives only about half of this amount of rain, and then along the slopes of the Andes is a belt which does not receive to exceed ten inches. This would favourably29 compare with New Mexico and Arizona. In Patagonia the conditions are reversed and the arid30 belt is along the Atlantic coast, while the districts[7] near the Andes receive a fair amount of rainfall. This distribution of rainfall is of utmost importance in the development of the country. As agriculture extends it occupies the watered area, and the pastoral industry is driven little by little farther into the more arid sections. Sheep and cattle are gradually moving west and southwest into the semi-arid districts. The province of Buenos Aires, which a few years ago was the pastoral centre, is now one of the most important agricultural sections. As the process continues it will become increasingly necessary to open up more southerly ports for the shipment of animal products, while the northerly ports will remain the chief exporters of grain.
There are at least a half billion acres of fertile arable31 land in Argentina, that can be turned to the cultivation32 of products for the sustenance33 of man. All of this land is easily accessible to the Atlantic. There are no natural barriers such as transverse ranges of mountains. The northern provinces can reach Rosario or Buenos Aires by the La Plata system of waterways, while the rest of the country can, by the simplest railway construction, be joined up with one of those ports, or with[8] Bahia Blanca, or one of the new ports in Patagonia. At present these three ports are the only ones needed, or that will be until Patagonia has undergone greater development. Only the upper edge of the country is within the tropics. From there as far south as Buenos Aires the climate is almost that of the Gulf34 States, while that city has a climate very similar to Los Angeles. The heat in summer is sometimes oppressive, but not more so than in New York or Chicago. It is doubtful whether there are so many of those oppressive humid days in the southern as in the northern metropolis35. It is never so cold in winter as to prevent out-of-door life. Even in Tierra del Fuego the winter climate is no more severe than that of Northern Michigan. The pampas of middle Argentina probably have less rain than our own middle west. Water is, however, not far below the surface, and wells are easy to construct for the windmills, which form so prominent a feature of the landscape on the estancias. In Misiones the landscape is Brazilian, and in parts of Patagonia it resembles Arizona, only they do not have such extreme drouths. Anything that can be successfully raised in the United States can be grown in Argentina, and[9] generally much cheaper. The country, however, lacks our great mineral wealth. Iron is scarcer than gold, and coal is imported by the millions of tons each year. Great discoveries may be made in the future, but Argentina will never be a great competitor of the United States in mineral products.
Argentina is a land of big things. Farms are reckoned by the square league, consisting of nearly six thousand acres, instead of by the paltry37 acre. All grains are measured and sold by the metric ton of twenty-two hundred and five pounds, instead of by the diminutive38 bushel. That country is now the greatest flax-producing country in the world, and ranks third in wheat and second in corn. It has more horses than any country except Russia and the United States, more sheep than any country except Australia, and is exceeded in the number of cattle only by the United States. If all the sheep in Argentina were marched across the United States two abreast39 they would form a solid column reaching from Sandy Hook to the Golden Gate. Argentina contains within her borders the largest city in the southern hemisphere, and the second Latin city in the world. She probably exports more foodstuffs[10] than any nation on the globe, if you include both meat and grains. And yet the real resources of the country have only been scratched on the surface. It is predicted by good authority that the United States will have to import meat from foreign markets before a not very distant day. There is no other country that can be looked to except Argentina with her millions of sheep and cattle and thousands of fertile leagues that invite development. A brilliant future certainly awaits this great republic on South American soil, and North Americans may well inform themselves upon the country, its people and resources.
Argentina might be divided into two parts, Buenos Aires and the Camp—the name given to the country. Buenos Aires is at once the London, New York and Paris of the republic and dominates the country as no other capital of the world does. It is the largest Spanish-speaking city in the world, being more than twice as large as Madrid. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, was a far more important place. It contains most of the factories of the country, receives the greater part of the foreign trade, does the banking40 of the nation through its[11] great moneyed institutions, and is the social and business centre where the money made by those in the interior of the republic is spent. It is growing at the rate of nearly one hundred thousand persons each year. The large admixture of foreigners coming in keep this city, as well as the nation, up to date. New ideas are thus brought in from everywhere, and the latest inventions and improvements follow. The Spanish type has been considerably41 modified by the foreign commingling42 so that this capital is now as cosmopolitan43 as any in the world.
Most people are accustomed to think of all the South American republics as opera bouffe affairs. Unfortunately there has been too much foundation for that reputation in the past. This has probably been the greatest obstacle to advancement44 hitherto. Paraguay is still in that condition, and Uruguay has its almost annual struggle between the blancos (whites) and colorados (reds). These uprisings are generally trivial affairs and do not deserve the importance given them. There are, as a rule, no great principles involved, and the struggle is primarily for the control of the government between different leaders. They[12] are usually of short duration and attended with little bloodshed. They are due to that medi?val idea so strongly intrenched in the Spanish character that changes can only be brought about by fighting. The idea of settling these questions at the ballot45 box has not been fully36 developed. The writer was in Uruguay during one of these revolutions, and Montevideo was as quiet as one could expect to find a city of that size. A great many young men had fled for fear of conscription in the army. The only way in which he was discommoded was by the necessity of going to the authorities to get a permit to leave the city, as no one could embark46 on a steamer without this government passport. This revolution was the most severe one that they had had for five years. There had been several conflicts in the interior between the blancos and colorados, and some blood shed. Argentina was blamed by the press for the trouble, as it was alleged47 that Argentina wanted to create disorder48 and then seize the country on the plea that only in that way could property interests be protected.
Argentina in times past went through the same performances. Revolution followed revolution and dictator followed dictator; but that[13] time has passed. The principal reminder49 left is the despotic and arbitrary rule of the prevailing party. The “elections” are controlled and manipulated by the party in power. It is always easy to foretell50 who will be the successful candidate by looking at his support. A political campaign was in progress during the writer’s visit, so that he had an opportunity to observe the trend. The billboards51 and fences were covered with proclamations of the candidates and announcements of their policies, mass meetings were held in the Plaza52 de Mayo, and other public places, but the administration had selected its own successor and there never was the slightest doubt as to the result. Although these high-handed methods still prevail, it is daily growing less possible for serious disturbances53 to arise. The building of railroads and telegraphs has brought the different sections into touch with each other. The great investment of foreign capital has had a steadying influence toward more stable conditions, and has compelled the leaders to appreciate the necessity for improved political conditions because of the country’s need for additional foreign gold in developing its natural resources. They realize that such aid can only[14] be secured by carefully safeguarding the financial, commercial and industrial interests, and they have set themselves at work to provide the necessary guarantees of good behaviour.
The Argentine Republic consists of fourteen provinces, ten territories and the Federal District. The provinces are autonomous54 in their interior government, while the territories are ruled by a governor who is appointed by the President. The Federal District, which includes Buenos Aires, is administered by an intendente, or mayor, appointed by the President, and assisted by a municipal council elected by the people. The Argentine Republic has established the federal idea of a union of states as its form of government. The constitution, which was adopted in 1860, is modelled closely after that of the United States. The only changes since that time have been some amplifications of the original articles. The legislative55 power is invested in a National Congress which consists of the Senate and Chamber56 of Deputies. There are thirty senators and one hundred and twenty deputies. They receive a salary of eighteen thousand dollars per year in paper money. Senators are elected by the legislatures of the provinces, which are really[15] states, for a term of nine years, and to be eligible57 for election the candidate must be thirty years of age and have an annual income of two thousand dollars. Each state and the Federal District is entitled to two senators. One-third of the Senate is elected every three years. Deputies are elected for a term of four years by direct popular vote in the proportion of one to every thirty-three thousand inhabitants, and one-half are elected every two years. They must be twenty-five years of age and have been citizens of the republic for four years. The President is elected by electors who are chosen by the people for a term of six years. Neither the President, nor Vice-President are eligible to succeed themselves without one term intervening. The President is assisted by a cabinet of eight members, who are designated as follows: Interior, Foreign Affairs and Worship, Finance, Justice and Public Instruction, War, Marine58, Public Works, and Agriculture. The Vice-President is also president of the Senate. Each province has its own courts, but there are national courts of appeal and first instance as well. The Supreme59 Court consists of five judges, who are appointed for life by the President.
[16]
The centralization, or nationalization, of the nation has gone ahead rapidly in recent years. The forcible separation of the city of Buenos Aires from the province of the same name was one of the best things ever done by the government. In removing the preponderance of Buenos Aires the constant friction60 between that province, on the one hand, and all the other provinces, on the other, was removed. Railroads have been subsidized and immigration encouraged by the national government, in the effort to develop the country. The post-office has been brought to great efficiency, and its service is rapid and trustworthy. The telegraph lines are nearly all controlled by the government, although private ownership is not prohibited. Of the thirty-five thousand miles of telegraph wires, enough to go around the globe once and a quarter times, perhaps one-half are owned by the national government and one-fourth by the provinces. The greater part of the income is from customs receipts, and the national government also contributes toward the support of the provinces and territories in order to equalize taxation61. The government has learned lessons from former experiences in the fluctuation24 of money values,[17] so that the paper dollar, or peso, has been officially fixed62 at forty-four cents gold. Exchange does not vary more than a fraction of a cent from that rate at the present time.
The first European navigator to discover the Rio de la Plata was Juan de Solis, a Spanish captain, in the year 1508, while in search of a passage to the Pacific Ocean. Magellan did not visit these shores until 1520. A chronicler who was with Magellan says that the “gigantic natives called canibali ate de Solis and sixty men who had gone to discover land, and trusted too much to them.” The first settlement was established at Buenos Aires in 1536 by Pedro de Mendoza, who has been termed a freebooter, and who was made governor by the Spanish Crown. This settlement was destroyed shortly afterward63 by the hostile Indians, and no permanent settlement was established on the mud flats of the “river of silver” until nearly forty years later.
During the succeeding centuries the Spaniards did all that they could to exploit this country and check all advancement. The only aborigines were wild and nomadic64 Indians. Argentina was for a long time subject to the vice-regency of Peru, and many of the settlements[18] were made by explorers who came across the Andes. In this way Tucuman was founded in 1565, Cordoba in 1573 and Santa Fé in the same year. The Jesuits spread their settlements along the rivers far up into Paraguay and Brazil, and laid the foundation of that mighty power which lasted for two centuries. They subdued65 the Indians and turned them into peons or labourers, but otherwise treated them kindly66. For a long while the history of Argentina is merely a record of the internecine67 struggles of a loosely connected province. The settlements were wide apart and there was no homogeneity. Portugal and Spain fought with each other for supremacy68 and the settlement of the lines of demarkation. It was not until the time of our own declaration of independence that Spain finally realized the importance of this colony and made it a vice-regency, Dom Pedro de Cevallos being named as the first viceroy. The Jesuits were expelled and much of their property confiscated70. Some good grew out of this change, as a number of the viceroys were men of ability and integrity. The spirit of independence, however, grew and the feeling of revolt steadily71 increased.
In 1805 Great Britain, then at war with[19] Spain, attempted to capture the city of Buenos Aires, which had already become an important trade centre, but was repulsed72 on several occasions. This was done by the provincials73 with scarcely any help from Spain, and success gave them confidence in themselves. On the 25th of May, 1810, independence from Spain was formally declared, and this patriotic74 movement did not cease until actual independence was achieved several years later. The first Congress was summoned in 1816, and the United Provinces of the La Plata River were formally organized. The first president was elected in 1825, and Don Bernardo Rivadavia was chosen to that position. Uruguay was at one time forcibly annexed75 by Brazil, and this action precipitated76 a war with Brazil. Argentina championed the smaller state, as a result of which the independence of Uruguay was guaranteed. Internal wars and revolutions were numerous in the early days of the republic, for ambitious leaders were everywhere fighting each other. In 1820 there were a dozen changes of government. The services of several progressive and able presidents brought order out of chaos77, established the country’s credit and set the country onward[20] toward the era of progress and prosperity which she has now enjoyed for a number of years.
From this it will be seen that the early history of the Argentine Republic is permeated78 with the smell of blood, and that there has been much human sacrifice. After studying the history of the many wars and conditions one can readily read the disappointment and sadness of heart contained in the political document left by General Bolivar, which concludes with the words, “I have ploughed in the sea.” Europe at one time went through similar conditions, but it is doubtful whether in their worst stage the middle ages equalled the first half-century of the history of the Latin-American republics. Out of the troublous times of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Europe emerged nations which had been strengthened by the lessons of adversity learned in the internecine struggles of that period, in which principle was opposed to oppression in every form. The iniquitous79 policy of the Inquisition superimposed upon excessive taxation brought about revolt among the Spanish colonies. In their struggles the colonists80 have our deepest sympathies, for it was a revolt against tyranny in[21] its worst form. After freedom, however, the colonists were still Spaniards, and a turbulent nature had been inherited.
To this inherited trait can be traced the revolutions, civil wars and political turmoils81 that have followed. To this fact can be attributed the tardy82 economic development of many of the South American republics, and even of Argentina until the last quarter of a century. This spirit has now been almost eliminated in Argentina, which has probably progressed farther in this respect than any of her sister republics. The signs that the old Spanish character is losing its baneful83 grip on this country are multiplying each day. It has been a long and hard lesson for the Argentinians to learn that political freedom does not mean unrestrained license84, but it is being more clearly interpreted each year. The conditions are better understood when compared with Uruguay, Paraguay or Venezuela, where political conditions are still as they were in Argentina a half-century ago. Travel is safe, investments are secure, and perhaps the most severe criticism that one can make is that so great a dependence69 is placed upon a material prosperity.
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1
isles
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| 岛( isle的名词复数 ) | |
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latitude
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| n.纬度，行动或言论的自由(范围)，(pl.)地区 | |
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contention
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| n.争论，争辩，论战；论点，主张 | |
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backbone
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| n.脊骨，脊柱，骨干；刚毅，骨气 | |
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longitude
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| n.经线，经度 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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groves
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| 树丛，小树林( grove的名词复数 ) | |
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tracts
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| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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diversified
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| adj.多样化的，多种经营的v.使多样化，多样化( diversify的过去式和过去分词 )；进入新的商业领域 | |
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broil
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| v.烤，烧，争吵，怒骂；n.烤，烧，争吵，怒骂 | |
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wilderness
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| n.杳无人烟的一片陆地、水等，荒漠 | |
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outlets
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| n.出口( outlet的名词复数 )；经销店；插座；廉价经销店 | |
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cape
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| n.海角，岬；披肩，短披风 | |
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delta
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| n.（流的）角洲 | |
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mingle
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| vt.使混合，使相混；vi.混合起来；相交往 | |
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tributaries
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| n. 支流 | |
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tortuous
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| adj.弯弯曲曲的，蜿蜒的 | |
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swampy
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| adj.沼泽的，湿地的 | |
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prehistoric
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| adj.（有记载的）历史以前的，史前的，古老的 | |
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latitudes
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| 纬度 | |
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fluctuations
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| 波动，涨落，起伏( fluctuation的名词复数 ) | |
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fluctuation
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| n.(物价的)波动，涨落；周期性变动；脉动 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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misnomer
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| n.误称 | |
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prevailing
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| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
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annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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favourably
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| adv. 善意地，赞成地 =favorably | |
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arid
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| adj.干旱的；(土地)贫瘠的 | |
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arable
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| adj.可耕的，适合种植的 | |
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cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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sustenance
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| n.食物，粮食；生活资料；生计 | |
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gulf
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| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
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metropolis
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| n.首府；大城市 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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paltry
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| adj.无价值的，微不足道的 | |
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diminutive
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| adj.小巧可爱的，小的 | |
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abreast
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| adv.并排地；跟上(时代)的步伐，与…并进地 | |
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banking
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| n.银行业，银行学，金融业 | |
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considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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commingling
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| v.混合，掺和，合并( commingle的现在分词 ) | |
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cosmopolitan
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| adj.世界性的，全世界的，四海为家的，全球的 | |
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advancement
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| n.前进，促进，提升 | |
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ballot
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| n.（不记名）投票，投票总数，投票权；vi.投票 | |
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embark
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| vi.乘船，着手，从事，上飞机 | |
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alleged
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| a.被指控的，嫌疑的 | |
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disorder
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| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
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reminder
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| n.提醒物，纪念品；暗示，提示 | |
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foretell
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| v.预言，预告，预示 | |
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51
billboards
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| n.广告牌( billboard的名词复数 ) | |
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plaza
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| n.广场，市场 | |
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disturbances
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| n.骚乱( disturbance的名词复数 )；打扰；困扰；障碍 | |
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autonomous
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| adj.自治的；独立的 | |
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legislative
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| n.立法机构，立法权；adj.立法的，有立法权的 | |
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chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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eligible
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| adj.有条件被选中的；(尤指婚姻等)合适(意)的 | |
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marine
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| adj.海的；海生的；航海的；海事的；n.水兵 | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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friction
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| n.摩擦，摩擦力 | |
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taxation
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| n.征税，税收，税金 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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afterward
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| adv.后来；以后 | |
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nomadic
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| adj.流浪的；游牧的 | |
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subdued
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| adj. 屈服的，柔和的，减弱的 动词subdue的过去式和过去分词 | |
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kindly
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| adj.和蔼的，温和的，爽快的；adv.温和地，亲切地 | |
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internecine
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| adj.两败俱伤的 | |
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supremacy
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| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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dependence
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| n.依靠，依赖；信任，信赖；隶属 | |
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confiscated
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| 没收，充公( confiscate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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steadily
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| adv.稳定地；不变地；持续地 | |
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repulsed
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| v.击退( repulse的过去式和过去分词 )；驳斥；拒绝 | |
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provincials
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| n.首都以外的人，地区居民( provincial的名词复数 ) | |
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patriotic
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| adj.爱国的，有爱国心的 | |
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annexed
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| [法] 附加的，附属的 | |
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precipitated
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| v.（突如其来地）使发生( precipitate的过去式和过去分词 )；促成；猛然摔下；使沉淀 | |
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chaos
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| n.混乱，无秩序 | |
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permeated
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| 弥漫( permeate的过去式和过去分词 )； 遍布； 渗入； 渗透 | |
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iniquitous
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| adj.不公正的；邪恶的；高得出奇的 | |
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colonists
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| n.殖民地开拓者，移民，殖民地居民( colonist的名词复数 ) | |
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turmoils
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| n.混乱( turmoil的名词复数 )；焦虑 | |
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tardy
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| adj.缓慢的，迟缓的 | |
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baneful
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| adj.有害的 | |
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license
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| n.执照，许可证，特许；v.许可，特许 | |
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