In South America there were two great racial divisions, besides the tribes dwelling13 in Patagonia, who were quite different to either of the others. On the Pacific slope the Incas had joined together the various tribes from north of Quito to Chile into a great community over which they exercised supreme14 power. The people lived under established conditions; they built towns and public works and were proficient15 in agriculture. On the Atlantic side of the Andes, from Venezuela to the La Plata, the Indians belonged to Tupi-Guarani stock. The features and habits of some of the tribes had become slightly modified, but they show enough similarities to leave small doubt as to their common origin. These tribes were all nomadic16,[300] and existed principally on the products of the chase or wild fruits which they gathered. The Araucanian and Tehuelche Indians of Patagonia were also nomadic, but they are of a different temperament17.
For three centuries after its discovery no immigration was permitted to the South American colonies except of Spaniards. These Spaniards intermarried freely with native women. From this mixture grew up the greater part of the original population of Argentina, as well as the other colonies. The gradual development of population and wealth was little understood in the mother country. Trade with foreign countries was prohibited, all mineral wealth was heavily taxed and the Crown “milked” the colonies in every way. All of the officials were native Spaniards. A feeling of animosity gradually grew up among the colonists toward the Spaniards which finally led to the outbreak of hostilities18 at the commencement of the nineteenth century. South Americans perhaps give too little importance to the influence of the United States in the outcome of their struggles for liberty. The idea of America for the Americans existed long before the enunciation19 of the Monroe Doctrine20 in 1823. That idea was in the[301] minds of Washington and his co-workers. Their success also fired the patriotism22 of Bolivar, San Martin and other South American liberators.
The story of Argentina is but another chapter in the history of the short-sighted attitude of Spain toward her colonies in the New World. The sole purpose of the colonial policy of Spain seemed to be to protect the trading monopoly which had been farmed out to the merchants of Cadiz, and to keep a record of the production of silver and gold, in order to insure the collection of the royal one-fifth. Every Atlantic port of South America was closed to traffic except Nombre de Dios, on the coast of Panama. Everything destined23 for that continent had to be taken there, transported across the isthmus24 and reloaded to vessels25 on the Pacific. Goods destined for Argentina also had to follow this route. They were carried by vessels to Callao, Peru, and from there were taken overland even as far as Buenos Aires. It was for this reason that the early settlers of Argentina mostly came in from the Andes side. To further enforce this monopoly of trade the governors of Buenos Aires were instructed to forbid all importation and exportation[302] from that port under penalty of death and forfeiture26 of property to those engaged in it.
It is little wonder that a system of corruption27 and an evasion28 of such iniquitous29 laws was developed. The several governors recommended modifications30, but the Cadiz merchants were obdurate31. Smuggling32 and surreptitious trading grew popular, and the officials soon became silent partners in the traffic. Although the laws remained upon the statute33 books nothing could keep the people from trafficking with their own products. Buenos Aires became a community of smugglers. English and Dutch ships landed their goods under the very noses of officials, took their pay in hides or money and then continued their way around Cape34 Horn to the west coast, where the same process was repeated. Mule35 trains carried these goods thus illegally entered across the plains to Cordoba and Tucuman; the officials along the way winking36 at this evasion of unpopular laws. The profits were distributed among officials and the soldiers were hired to shut their eyes. The abstract right of the government to enact37 such restrictive regulations was never questioned. They broke the laws without any qualms38 of conscience,[303] but contesting them was not even dreamed of. The idea that the right to trade or to practise a profession existed only by sufferance of the government has not been eradicated39 even to this day. It is a relic40 of this age. It is not surprising that office holding became the popular vocation41 and has remained so even to the twentieth century.
For a long period the whole of South America was under the viceroyalty of Peru. Some of the larger capitals had bodies of officials known as Audiencias. The viceroyalty was divided into provinces, each of which had a governor. Each new region occupied was organized into a municipality, which was the real unit of their political structure. The governing body of this municipality was termed the Cabildo, and was composed of from six to twelve members who were appointed and held office for life. This body exercised the civil and judicial42 administration. Most of these men secured their appointment through actual purchase. The territorial43 jurisdiction44 of these municipalities was generally poorly defined, and it was sometimes almost coextensive with the province. Although the colonial governor was supposed to give a full account of his administration,[304] he often failed to do so and conducted his office as a despotic and irresponsible ruler.
The governors were always Spaniards, and only one exception appears in Argentina, Hernandarios Saavedra. This man appears as one of the brightest names during the seventeenth century. For several years he acted as governor of Buenos Aires, and he did a great deal of good in securing justice to the Indians and curbing45 the military power. He retained the confidence of both natives and Spaniards by his reputation for giving a square deal to all sides. Under his policy the colonies prospered46 and the pastoral pursuits were greatly extended. The sixteenth century contained very little of interest to the general reader. The inhabited portions were extended but little, and there were one or two uprisings of Indians against the white man’s rule. Only one was serious and that was of the tribes on the Andean slopes, who were stirred up by a leader who claimed to be the direct descendant of the old Inca princes. This disturbance47 lasted for fifty years, but it ended with the capture and execution of the leader, who was known to the Spaniards as Bohorquez.
Some struggles took place between the Portuguese48[305] settlers of Brazil and the Spaniards, who had attempted to penetrate49 the regions watered by the upper Paraná. The “Paulistas,” inhabitants of the state of S?o Paulo, resisted the encroachments of the Spaniards, as they feared the Jesuit influences, which they both feared and hated. They raided the settlements of that order in Misiones and carried off several thousand of the poor natives as captives. The Iguassú River and the east bank of the Uruguay seemed to be adopted informally as the dividing line between the two races, although later differences arose over the territory now embraced in the republic of Uruguay. The Portuguese established a settlement, called Colonia, in 1680, almost opposite to Buenos Aires, which was ever a sore spot for the Spaniards and gave rise to much trouble. It became a harbouring place for smugglers and offenders50 against Spanish laws, but it remained under Portuguese control for a long period.
With the eighteenth century Spain adopted a little more liberal policy toward her colonies in regard to trade. The prestige which England and Holland had obtained practically forced certain concessions51. Uruguay began to be settled[306] by Spaniards. The increase in population and greater demand for wool and hides in Europe caused a remarkable52 advance in trade. In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled, as they had been in Brazil some time previous. This order had accumulated enormous wealth and ruled a large section of the country with an iron hand. The members of the order were forcibly driven out and their property sold at auction53 or divided among other orders.
In 1776, just a few days after the declaration of independence in the American colonies, Buenos Aires was established as a viceroyalty. Lake Titicaca on the north, and the Andes on the west, were established as the boundary lines. It included the territory now divided into the four republics of Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina and Paraguay. South of the city of Buenos Aires, however, there was practically no development. The first viceroy was named Pedro de Zeballos, who came over with a large force of soldiers and sailors in order to drive out the Portuguese. Free commerce with Spain was now permitted and commerce greatly increased. Buenos Aires became the centre of all this trade, was greatly prospered and its population rapidly increased. Wines, brandies,[307] hides, tobacco and maté (Paraguay tea) were the principal articles exported to Europe.
The beginning of the nineteenth century saw unrest all over South America. It began in Quito, Ecuador, and spread in every direction. It did not take long to reach the loosely cohered54 sections of the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, in which the different elements had not coalesced55. The Spaniards generally lived in the populated centres, while the gauchos57, mostly half-breeds, had their homes on the broad pampas. It was essentially58 democratic as compared with more aristocratic Peru and Mexico. The only common bond was religion, and that was not strong. Spain’s selfish policy had destroyed her prestige, while the revolutions in France and North America had propagated the idea of democracy among the youth.
Perhaps no one incident had greater influence upon the final events than the attempt of England, encouraged by her successes in South Africa, to capture Buenos Aires. In June, 1806, a British fleet bearing on board fifteen hundred troops appeared in the La Plata. The Viceroy immediately fled, and the British flag soon floated over his late residence. For several weeks the people acquiesced59 in this change,[308] but a Frenchman, named Jacques de Liniers, headed the opposition60. He organized a force in Montevideo and advanced on Buenos Aires. The citizens, reanimated by his enthusiasm, flocked to his banner and, after some bloody61 street fighting, the English were compelled to surrender. Their flags were captured and are still exhibited as trophies62 of Argentine prowess in the Church of Santo Domingo in that city. The success of the Argentinos, who had accomplished63 this victory without help from the mother country, greatly encouraged the patriots64 and aroused in them a hope of separation from Spain. Reinforcements came from England, to renew the conflict. The troops marched confidently into the city. The flat roofs of the buildings and the parapet-like fronts, however, provided excellent shelter for the defenders65, and the British general was finally compelled to ask for terms. He had lost a quarter of his force but was allowed to leave on honourable66 terms. The attempt of Napoleon to place his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne of Spain also fermented67 the spirit of revolution that was becoming rampant68, for the people felt no loyalty69 or allegiance to this upstart. A new Viceroy was sent out by the mother country,[309] but he did not remain in peace very long. In an effort to placate70 the Spanish-American colonies a royal decree was issued that the colonies were considered an integral part of the monarchy71 and should have representatives in the Cortes. “At last you are raised to the dignity of free men,” came the message to the colonists. It was too late.
A group of patriots had already risen who were holding meetings to decide what could be done in this crisis. The leader in this band was Manuel Belgrano. They decided72 to ask the resignation of the Viceroy and waited on him with this request. He knew that his position was untenable because of the disaffection among the troops. On the 25th of May, 1810,[2] an armed assembly met on the plaza73 in front of the government palace under the leadership of Belgrano, Moreno, Castelli and Valcarcel. The colours of blue and white were seen everywhere, for these were the colours adopted by the revolutionists. A provisional junta74 was selected who assumed the executive powers of government. For several years, however, their[310] acts all run in the name of Ferdinand VII, King of Castile and Leon. No attempt was made at this time to secure the adherence75 of the other provinces, but emissaries were later sent asking their co?peration. Troops were afterwards sent, and a number of encounters occurred. Both sides killed their prisoners as a general rule, and the combats were very sanguinary.
Manuel Belgrano was a native of Buenos Aires. He had been educated in Spain and had there imbibed76 republican ideas. His enthusiasm, his radicalism77 and his ability soon placed him at the head of the revolutionary forces. Though lacking in military training he proved himself an able general. He led an unsuccessful expedition into Paraguay, whither he went to induce the Paraguayans to join in the revolt. Another great defeat had been given the Argentine forces in Bolivia. Montevideo was evacuated78, and the situation was becoming desperate. Belgrano was then placed in command and gathered together the scattered79 forces at Tucuman. The result was a decisive victory for the patriots. The gaucho56 cavalry80 followed the fleeing Spaniards clear to the boundaries of Bolivia, and inflicted81 great losses upon them. Belgrano foolishly followed[311] up this real victory by another invasion of Bolivia, and met with an overwhelming defeat at Vilapugio, and again at Ayohuma. With the remnant of his army he returned to Argentine territory, and was succeeded in command by San Martin, who proved to be the real genius of the struggle for independence.
José de San Martin first saw the light on the 25th of February, 1778, in a little town on the Uruguay River, his father being an officer in the Spanish army. While still a small boy he was taken to Spain to be educated. Entering a military school, for his father had destined him for a military career, he finished that course, and at an early age enlisted82 in the army. He served in the many wars of that country against Napoleon, and rose to the rank of lieutenant83-colonel. He also fought for a time under the great English general, Wellington, in his campaign in the Iberian peninsula. In these conflicts San Martin had imbibed liberal principles, and a hatred84 of all forms of oppression and injustice85 filled his soul. The success of the American republic inspired him as well as others, so that he joined with many in a secret society, pledged to the work of establishing a republic in Spain.
[312]
Man proposes, but God disposes. The struggle for independence in Argentina appealed to this patriot21 and he decided to return to his native land. He arrived at an opportune86 time, for the successes of the Spanish troops had plunged87 the patriots into despair. In March, 1812, San Martin landed in Buenos Aires. His first step was to organize and drill some effective regiments88 of infantry90 in that city, for men trained in military tactics were wanting. He selected the finest physical and moral specimens91 of manhood that could be found, and subjected them to a rigid92 discipline. The lazy and cowardly ones were weeded out, until he had only a small force, but this body was composed of real soldiers. With these men he gained some victories, but success did not seem possible to him along these lines. He therefore planned a new move with all the genius of a great commander, who cares not for temporary success but sees only ultimate victory.
To San Martin the only hopeful plan seemed to be to drive the Spaniards out of Chile, and then attack Peru, the stronghold of Spanish power in South America. He aimed not only for the independence of Argentina, but of all of that great continent; he vowed93 he would not[313] be satisfied until the last Spanish soldier had left the soil of South America, and every province was free. To this end he sought the appointment as governor of Cuyo, nestling up against the Andes on the direct route to Chile, and now known as the province of Mendoza, in Argentina. The inhabitants of that section, who breathed the free air of the mountains, were notoriously anti-Spanish, brave and enduring. Chilean patriots who had been exiled were numerous here, too, and it offered good recruiting ground. He brought with him as a nucleus94 a part of the troops he had drilled in Buenos Aires, and the government later sent him a corps95 of negro slaves, who had been freed from bondage96. For three years San Martin laboured steadily97 building up a great war machine. Though civil war waged in and around the capital he kept aloof98 from all these disturbances99, and busied himself in recruiting, drilling and instructing officers, as well as men, raising taxes, gathering100 provisions, making powder, casting guns, building portable bridges and making all arrangements for transport and commissariat on his contemplated101 march into Chile.
Dictator succeeded dictator, military chief[314] followed military chief in Buenos Aires. A formal act of independence from Spain had been drawn102 up and proclaimed on the 9th of July, 1816, in Tucuman, where Congress had convened103 for that purpose. Pueyrredon was selected as supreme director. He was succeeded by Rordeau, and he again was defeated by Artigas. Then came Ramirez and other military leaders who gained more or less power and authority. San Martin paid no attention to these military or governmental affairs. One idea, one definite plan absorbed all his energy and attention. This plan he confided104 to no one. This taciturn general, however, was preparing a thunderbolt that would clear the Argentine sky of all these clouds, except internal dissensions. When summer came in 1817, which is our winter, and all the passes were freed from snow, he felt that he was ready to advance. Among his forces were the picked youth of Buenos Aires, reckless, enthusiastic and ambitious, who were willing to follow this leader anywhere; manumitted negroes, who were scarcely inferior to their white comrades; Chilean exiles, who preferred death to submission105, and looked upon this as their only hope of again seeing their homes. All of these men had[315] been thoroughly106 drilled in the arts of war as practised by the armies of Europe in the Napoleonic era. No detail had been omitted. The last few months had been spent in preparing rations107 of dried beef and parched108 corn, in gathering mules109 for transport, and in making sledges110 to be used on the slopes which were too steep for cannon111 on wheels. Every possible route across the Andes had been examined, and the most careful calculation of distances made. Spies were placed in all the passes, and the Spaniards were kept in absolute ignorance as to which of many passes along hundreds of miles of frontier would be used for the impending112 attack. These men were sworn to remain “united in sentiment and courage, in order not to suffer for the future any tyrant113 in America; and like new Spartans114 never to bear the chains of slavery while the stars shone in the sky and blood ran in their veins115.”
The precautions of this astute116 leader are shown by the fact that his real intentions were not revealed until on the very eve of the advance, through fear of treachery. In the middle of January General San Martin broke camp and left Mendoza. His army was divided into two divisions. The smaller force was sent[316] through what is known as the Uspallata pass, which was the old Inca trail, and is now followed by the railway which has just been completed across the Andes. This trail runs across the Bridge of the Incas, one of the most famous natural bridges in the world. The other followed the more difficult pass of Las Platas, farther to the north. The solitude117, barrenness and utter desolation of these Andean passes can only be fully118 appreciated by those who have traversed them as has the writer. Majestic119 Aconcagua looks down upon both routes, and all around are lofty peaks which seem like giant sentinels guarding these solitudes120 of nature from the invasion of man. Terrific wind and snow storms are common, and the dust blows in clouds that are almost stifling121 at times. It was an undertaking122 that would have appalled123 an ordinary man.
SAN MARTIN AND O’HIGGINS AT LA CUMBRE, CROSSING THE ANDES INTO CHILE
Courtesy of the Bulletin of Pan-American union
But San Martin was no ordinary man. A high and lofty purpose thrilled his soul and steeled his heart against all discouragement. An advance guard of the Spaniards in the Uspallata pass was driven out by that wing of his little army of four thousand men. Before reinforcements could come up the two divisions had successfully accomplished the crossing and[317] were united. Disconcerted by the report that two armies had crossed the Andes and were advancing against him, the Spanish commander retreated to Santiago for reinforcements. With admirable forethought San Martin chose his positions and awaited the conflict which was inevitable124. The two armies approached each other. The Spanish commander had a superior force, composed of veterans of the peninsular wars. San Martin’s men were inspired by an enthusiastic commander and a love of country. The battle raged for hours until, surrounded on three sides by the enemy, their artillery125 gone, a third of their number dead on the field of battle, the Spanish forces broke and fled toward Santiago. Less than half their number escaped death or capture. Thus was the decisive battle of Chacabuco won by the patriots on the 12th of February, 1817, with a loss of only twelve men killed. The next day the Spanish governor of Chile was flying from the capital, and two days later the conquerors126 entered that city. San Martin had won his first great victory, and was everywhere hailed as a deliverer.
Steadfast127 in his purpose of driving the Spaniards from all of South America the victor refused[318] to be drawn into local fights. The Argentine patriots were fighting among themselves and his friends wanted San Martin to return and aid them. This he refused to do, and his friends were embittered128. Unwilling129 to accept the supreme authority in Chile, General O’Higgins, who had materially assisted in the victory at Chacabuco, was selected as executive. The independence of Chile was soon after proclaimed. In connection with Lord Cochrane, an English officer, San Martin began to devote all his energies to the building of a fleet, in order to drive the hated Spaniards from Peru. Three years more were spent in these preparations. At last, in 1820, a little fleet was ready, and he sailed with a small army for that stronghold of Spanish power. In four months, without a pitched battle, he sent the enemy flying from Peru. Lima yielded and that country was declared to be independent. He then assumed the r?le of protector of Peru and commander in chief of the insurgent130 army. San Martin desired to co?perate with Bolivar, and a personal interview was arranged between these two liberators at Guayaquil. Bolivar refused. Without a word of explanation, without a complaint, the disappointed San Martin gave up the command[319] of the army, resigned the dictatorship of Peru to Bolivar, and left that country. There was no place for him in Argentina, except as a leader in civil war, and this he would not indulge in. For honours or position he cared not. Thus he went into voluntary exile. Rather than jeopardize131 the independence secured after so much hard fighting, rather than take part in the divisions of the factions132 fighting among themselves, he sacrificed home, friends and honours, and even submitted to cruel charges of ingratitude133 and cowardice134. Few finer examples of unselfishness are recorded in the annals of the world’s history. If not abler San Martin was at least more unselfish than Bolivar.
General San Martin, heartbroken and disappointed, went to Boulogne-sur-Mer, in France, and established his home. The remaining years of his life were passed in obscurity and poverty, with only a faithful daughter to comfort and cheer his old age. Once he started for the land of his birth, and got as far as Montevideo. There he learned that Argentina was in the throes of a revolution. Fearing that his presence might be misconstrued, the old warrior135 sorrowfully turned his face back toward France. The generosity136 of a Spaniard was all that saved[320] this hero from absolute want during the last few years of his life, for he lived to a good old age. Reading was the only resource left to brighten his later years, but approaching blindness deprived him of even this pleasure during the last few months. On the 17th of August, 1850, General San Martin expired in the arms of his loving and faithful daughter.
It was many years before Argentina fully appreciated the services of this grand old man, and it was then too late to bring cheer to his broken heart. His sacred remains137 were brought back to Buenos Aires and placed in the Cathedral, where they now repose138. Honours were decreed him. There are few cities in that republic that have not erected139 a monument to his memory. Chile and Peru have raised statues in his honour. Only a few months ago the Argentine government dedicated140 a fine memorial in the French city where he died. Last year, while Argentina was celebrating her first centennial, the memory of the patriot San Martin was kept green, and the youth were taught his great and unselfish love of country. It is little wonder that the Argentinians do not go into raptures141 over the name of Bolivar, but hold up their own San Martin as the real liberator[321] of at least four of the republics of South America.
For a half-century following the 25th of May, 1810, the history of Argentina is a record of wars, revolutions and other disturbances. It was the unavoidable conflict between centralizationists and autonomists, between military and civil principles of government. A detailed142 account of all these conflicts would be confusing and wearisome, and it can best be treated in a consideration of those involved in the struggle.
An oligarchy143 grew up in Buenos Aires at first that sought to rule the rest of the original viceroyalty in almost as arbitrary a manner as Spain herself had done. This caused constant friction144 with the other cities, each of which aspired145 to be an independent province. Military chieftains arose here and there who defied the authority of that oligarchy. Civil war broke out in numerous places, and bloody encounters took place followed by much devastation146. Within a few years nearly all the provinces were practically independent of Buenos Aires and there were a half dozen centres of authority, although that city did not yield in her pretensions147. San Martin was peremptorily[322] ordered to return, but refused. Belgrano attempted to lead his army there, but they revolted and abandoned him, joining the local forces. The outside provinces themselves split up through local differences. Cordoba lost Rioja, from the old intendencia of Salta seceded148 Tucuman, Santiago del Estero and Catamarca, and Cuyo split up into Mendoza, San Juan and San Luiz. Buenos Aires itself was subdivided149, losing Uruguay, Corrientes, Santa Fé and Entre Rios. Thus were formed the provinces which have since become the units of the Argentine confederation. The outside provinces were willing to unite with Buenos Aires on an equal basis, but the people of that city would not consent on such terms.
For years no really constructive150 statesman appeared out of the confusion and selfishness of the oligarchies151. At last there loomed152 above all the personality of Rivadavia, who undertook the reformation of the laws and their administration. He introduced numerous reforms and founded a number of charitable institutions, and infused a more modern spirit into the government. A congress met in Buenos Aires in 1825, in which all the provinces were represented by delegates. By this time the[323] independence of the Argentine Confederation had been acknowledged by all of the leading powers except Spain. Rivadavia and his followers153 gained control of this assembly. In the following year he was elected president, although this selection did not mean much because of the power of the military chieftains, called caudillos. Buenos Aires was not satisfied because of his plan to place the city under the direct control of the federal government, much as Washington in the United States. At the same time war broke out with Brazil. That country attempted a blockade, but the doughty154 Irish sailor, William Brown, made this ineffective. He destroyed a large part of their fleet. General Alvear defeated the Brazilians at Ituzaingo, and this victory caused great rejoicing. Negotiations155 for peace followed soon afterwards. Rivadavia’s envoy156 agreed to allow Uruguay to remain a part of the empire of Brazil, and this treachery aroused such a wave of indignation that he was compelled to resign. He was succeeded by Dorrego. Dorrego did not rule long in peace. The standard of revolt was raised in Buenos Aires and General Lavalle declared himself as governor. Dorrego fled to the interior, but was pursued. He was[324] finally captured and, without even the form of a trial, was shot by the direct order of Lavalle. This precipitated157 a bloody civil war which soon desolated158 Argentina. The gauchos arose in revolt, and a series of campaigns began in different sections of the country. It is the leader of the southern gauchos who stands out as the strongest historical character of this period.
One of the most picturesque159 figures in Argentine history is Juan Manuel Rosas, a native of the province of Cordoba, who soon became the chief figure in Argentine affairs. This man ruled the new nation with an iron hand for almost two decades. He became an absolute tyrant and the most bitterly hated man in the country. Descendant of a wealthy family he devoted160 himself to pastoral pursuits from early life. By the time he was twenty-five he was the undisputed leader of the gauchos on the southern pampas, and had a full regiment89 of the half-breed horsemen of the plains at his back and ready to do his bidding. He had been fairly well educated and had ability, but this talent was not supported by character. He can best be compared with the notorious Santa Anna, of Mexico, in his greed for power, his cruelty and his craving161 for homage162. Another similar[325] type was the half-savage Carrera of Guatemala.
Rosas first appeared in public life at the head of a troop of gaucho cavalry, in a revolution that began in 1818. During the civil war he gave valuable aid to the Federalist cause. After a decisive defeat of the famous General Lavalle in 1829 he was appointed governor over the province of Buenos Aires with the rank of Captain-General, and this made him nominal163 head of Argentina. This event gave this monster his first taste of power and whetted164 his insatiable appetite for more. The remaining provinces were gradually subdued165 and one after another came under the authority of this dictator, although thousands of lives were lost in the conquest. As a rule no quarter was given, and the losing side generally fought it out to the last man. On one occasion five hundred prisoners were shot in cold blood at Tucuman. From the year 1832 the power of Rosas became absolute. Says Mr. Akers: “Unitarian advocates were hunted down like wild beasts. Rosas became suspicious of his own generals, and one by one they disappeared. Quiroga was assassinated166 at Cordoba; Lopez died suddenly in Buenos Aires; and Cullen, Reinafe and Heredia[326] were sentenced to death. Under the tyranny of Rosas human life had small value. If any man was a danger to the dictatorial167 régime he was murdered by a band of assassins retained for this purpose. Expression of public opinion was rendered impossible. Men dared not think for themselves, much less put into words their abhorrence168 of the dictator.”
The attempt of Rosas to close the Paraná to foreign commerce led to a blockade of Buenos Aires by French and English warships169 in 1845, so that this attempt failed. He also endeavoured to annex170 Uruguay, but foreign influence prevented this also. These acts made him intensely jealous of foreign governments. Nevertheless, with all foreign powers against him, and with powerful forces in his own land opposing him, he ruled Argentina with despotic tyranny for eighteen years. Rosas placed his political favourites at the head of the provincial171 governments, but he was not able to keep them loyal to his interests. His arbitrary acts alienated172 his best friends. The longer he ruled the more united became all other factions. A common hatred of the tyrant overshadowed all other differences of opinion. Foreigners were excluded from the provinces, everything imported[327] or exported was required to be transhipped at Buenos Aires in order that duties might be collected. It was not long until the whole population was ready to support a rebellion. The provinces which had placed this tyrant in power finally overthrew173 him.
The chief lieutenant of Rosas for many years had been General Urquiza, whom he appointed governor of the province of Entre Rios. The administration of Urquiza was successful, and he could always be counted on to raise troops for Rosas from among the ranchmen of that province. Urquiza was a “caudillo”, but had no particular thirst for power. At last, in 1846, the rupture174 with the tyrant came, and from that time on Urquiza led the fight against Rosas. Three times his efforts failed, but the fourth time in alliance with some Brazilian and Uruguayan troops he crossed the river with an army of twenty-four thousand, the largest army ever assembled on South American soil up to that time. Rosas awaited Urquiza at Buenos Aires and trusted all to a single battle. Of his army half deserted175 him and many of his officers betrayed him. The result was a disastrous176 defeat for the tyrant-dictator. When General Urquiza entered Buenos Aires, Rosas fled the[328] country. Clad as an English sailor he escaped to a British man-of-war and was conveyed to England. He lived on a farm near Southampton until his death on the 14th of March, 1877, upon the proceeds of his ill-gotten wealth.
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| n.殖民地开拓者，移民，殖民地居民( colonist的名词复数 ) | |
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12
unnatural
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| adj.不自然的；反常的 | |
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13
dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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14
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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15
proficient
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| adj.熟练的，精通的；n.能手，专家 | |
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16
nomadic
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| adj.流浪的；游牧的 | |
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17
temperament
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| n.气质，性格，性情 | |
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18
hostilities
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| n.战争；敌意(hostility的复数)；敌对状态；战事 | |
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19
enunciation
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| n.清晰的发音；表明，宣言；口齿 | |
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20
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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21
patriot
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| n.爱国者，爱国主义者 | |
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22
patriotism
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| n.爱国精神，爱国心，爱国主义 | |
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23
destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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24
isthmus
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| n.地峡 | |
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25
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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26
forfeiture
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| n.（名誉等）丧失 | |
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27
corruption
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| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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28
evasion
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| n.逃避，偷漏(税) | |
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29
iniquitous
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| adj.不公正的；邪恶的；高得出奇的 | |
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30
modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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31
obdurate
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| adj.固执的，顽固的 | |
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32
smuggling
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| n.走私 | |
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33
statute
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| n.成文法，法令，法规；章程，规则，条例 | |
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34
cape
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| n.海角，岬；披肩，短披风 | |
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35
mule
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| n.骡子，杂种，执拗的人 | |
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36
winking
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| n.瞬眼，目语v.使眼色( wink的现在分词 )；递眼色（表示友好或高兴等）；（指光）闪烁；闪亮 | |
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37
enact
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| vt.制定(法律)；上演，扮演 | |
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38
qualms
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| n.不安；内疚 | |
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39
eradicated
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| 画着根的 | |
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40
relic
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| n.神圣的遗物，遗迹，纪念物 | |
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41
vocation
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| n.职业，行业 | |
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42
judicial
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| adj.司法的，法庭的，审判的，明断的，公正的 | |
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43
territorial
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| adj.领土的，领地的 | |
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44
jurisdiction
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| n.司法权，审判权，管辖权，控制权 | |
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45
curbing
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| n.边石，边石的材料v.限制，克制，抑制( curb的现在分词 ) | |
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46
prospered
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| 成功，兴旺( prosper的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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47
disturbance
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| n.动乱，骚动；打扰，干扰；(身心)失调 | |
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48
Portuguese
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| n.葡萄牙人；葡萄牙语 | |
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49
penetrate
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| v.透(渗)入；刺入，刺穿；洞察，了解 | |
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50
offenders
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| n.冒犯者( offender的名词复数 )；犯规者；罪犯；妨害…的人（或事物） | |
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51
concessions
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| n.（尤指由政府或雇主给予的）特许权( concession的名词复数 )；承认；减价；（在某地的）特许经营权 | |
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52
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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53
auction
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| n.拍卖；拍卖会；vt.拍卖 | |
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54
cohered
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| v.黏合( cohere的过去式和过去分词 )；联合；结合；（指看法、推理等）前后一致 | |
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55
coalesced
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| v.联合，合并( coalesce的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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56
gaucho
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| n. 牧人 | |
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57
gauchos
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| n.南美牧人( gaucho的名词复数 ) | |
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58
essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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59
acquiesced
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| v.默认，默许( acquiesce的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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60
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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61
bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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62
trophies
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| n.（为竞赛获胜者颁发的）奖品( trophy的名词复数 )；奖杯；（尤指狩猎或战争中获得的）纪念品；（用于比赛或赛跑名称）奖 | |
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63
accomplished
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|
| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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64
patriots
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| 爱国者，爱国主义者( patriot的名词复数 ) | |
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65
defenders
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| n.防御者( defender的名词复数 )；守卫者；保护者；辩护者 | |
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66
honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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67
fermented
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| v.（使）发酵( ferment的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）激动；骚动；骚扰 | |
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68
rampant
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| adj.(植物)蔓生的；狂暴的，无约束的 | |
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69
loyalty
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| n.忠诚，忠心 | |
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70
placate
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| v.抚慰，平息(愤怒) | |
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71
monarchy
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| n.君主，最高统治者；君主政体，君主国 | |
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72
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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73
plaza
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| n.广场，市场 | |
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74
junta
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| n.团体；政务审议会 | |
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75
adherence
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|
| n.信奉，依附，坚持，固着 | |
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76
imbibed
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|
| v.吸收( imbibe的过去式和过去分词 )；喝；吸取；吸气 | |
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77
radicalism
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|
| n. 急进主义, 根本的改革主义 | |
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78
evacuated
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| 撤退者的 | |
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79
scattered
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|
| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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80
cavalry
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|
| n.骑兵；轻装甲部队 | |
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81
inflicted
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| 把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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82
enlisted
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| adj.应募入伍的v.（使）入伍， （使）参军( enlist的过去式和过去分词 )；获得（帮助或支持） | |
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83
lieutenant
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|
| n.陆军中尉，海军上尉；代理官员，副职官员 | |
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84
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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85
injustice
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|
| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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86
opportune
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|
| adj.合适的，适当的 | |
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87
plunged
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| v.颠簸( plunge的过去式和过去分词 )；暴跌；骤降；突降 | |
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88
regiments
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| （军队的）团( regiment的名词复数 )； 大量的人或物 | |
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89
regiment
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| n.团，多数，管理；v.组织，编成团，统制 | |
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90
infantry
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| n.[总称]步兵(部队) | |
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91
specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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92
rigid
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|
| adj.严格的，死板的；刚硬的，僵硬的 | |
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93
vowed
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| 起誓，发誓（vow的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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94
nucleus
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| n.核，核心，原子核 | |
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95
corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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96
bondage
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| n.奴役，束缚 | |
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97
steadily
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| adv.稳定地；不变地；持续地 | |
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98
aloof
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| adj.远离的；冷淡的，漠不关心的 | |
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99
disturbances
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| n.骚乱( disturbance的名词复数 )；打扰；困扰；障碍 | |
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100
gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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101
contemplated
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|
| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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102
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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103
convened
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| 召开( convene的过去式 )； 召集； （为正式会议而）聚集； 集合 | |
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104
confided
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| v.吐露（秘密，心事等）( confide的过去式和过去分词 )；（向某人）吐露（隐私、秘密等） | |
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105
submission
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| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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106
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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107
rations
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| 定量( ration的名词复数 )； 配给量； 正常量； 合理的量 | |
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108
parched
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| adj.焦干的；极渴的；v.（使）焦干 | |
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109
mules
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| 骡( mule的名词复数 )； 拖鞋； 顽固的人； 越境运毒者 | |
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110
sledges
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|
| n.雪橇，雪车( sledge的名词复数 )v.乘雪橇( sledge的第三人称单数 )；用雪橇运载 | |
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111
cannon
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| n.大炮，火炮；飞机上的机关炮 | |
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112
impending
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| a.imminent, about to come or happen | |
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113
tyrant
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| n.暴君，专制的君主，残暴的人 | |
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114
spartans
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| n.斯巴达（spartan的复数形式） | |
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115
veins
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| n.纹理；矿脉( vein的名词复数 )；静脉；叶脉；纹理 | |
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116
astute
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| adj.机敏的，精明的 | |
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117
solitude
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| n. 孤独; 独居,荒僻之地,幽静的地方 | |
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118
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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119
majestic
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| adj.雄伟的，壮丽的，庄严的，威严的，崇高的 | |
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120
solitudes
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| n.独居( solitude的名词复数 )；孤独；荒僻的地方；人迹罕至的地方 | |
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121
stifling
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| a.令人窒息的 | |
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122
undertaking
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| n.保证，许诺，事业 | |
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123
appalled
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| v.使惊骇，使充满恐惧( appall的过去式和过去分词)adj.惊骇的；丧胆的 | |
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124
inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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125
artillery
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| n.(军)火炮，大炮；炮兵(部队) | |
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126
conquerors
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| 征服者，占领者( conqueror的名词复数 ) | |
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127
steadfast
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| adj.固定的，不变的，不动摇的；忠实的；坚贞不移的 | |
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128
embittered
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| v.使怨恨，激怒( embitter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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129
unwilling
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| adj.不情愿的 | |
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130
insurgent
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| adj.叛乱的，起事的；n.叛乱分子 | |
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131
jeopardize
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| vt.危及，损害 | |
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132
factions
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| 组织中的小派别，派系( faction的名词复数 ) | |
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133
ingratitude
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| n.忘恩负义 | |
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134
cowardice
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| n.胆小，怯懦 | |
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135
warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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136
generosity
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| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
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137
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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138
repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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139
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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140
dedicated
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| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
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141
raptures
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| 极度欢喜( rapture的名词复数 ) | |
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detailed
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| adj.详细的，详尽的，极注意细节的，完全的 | |
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oligarchy
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| n.寡头政治 | |
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friction
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| n.摩擦，摩擦力 | |
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145
aspired
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| v.渴望，追求( aspire的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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devastation
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| n.毁坏；荒废；极度震惊或悲伤 | |
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147
pretensions
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| 自称( pretension的名词复数 )； 自命不凡； 要求； 权力 | |
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148
seceded
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| v.脱离，退出( secede的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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subdivided
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| 再分，细分( subdivide的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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150
constructive
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| adj.建设的，建设性的 | |
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151
oligarchies
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| n.寡头统治的政府( oligarchy的名词复数 )；寡头政治的执政集团；寡头统治的国家 | |
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152
loomed
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| v.隐约出现，阴森地逼近( loom的过去式和过去分词 )；隐约出现，阴森地逼近 | |
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153
followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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154
doughty
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| adj.勇猛的，坚强的 | |
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155
negotiations
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| 协商( negotiation的名词复数 )； 谈判； 完成（难事）； 通过 | |
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156
envoy
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| n.使节，使者，代表，公使 | |
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157
precipitated
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| v.（突如其来地）使发生( precipitate的过去式和过去分词 )；促成；猛然摔下；使沉淀 | |
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158
desolated
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| adj.荒凉的，荒废的 | |
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159
picturesque
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| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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161
craving
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| n.渴望,热望 | |
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162
homage
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| n.尊敬，敬意，崇敬 | |
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nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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whetted
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| v.（在石头上）磨（刀、斧等）( whet的过去式和过去分词 )；引起，刺激（食欲、欲望、兴趣等） | |
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165
subdued
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| adj. 屈服的，柔和的，减弱的 动词subdue的过去式和过去分词 | |
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assassinated
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| v.暗杀( assassinate的过去式和过去分词 )；中伤；诋毁；破坏 | |
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167
dictatorial
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| adj. 独裁的，专断的 | |
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168
abhorrence
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| n.憎恶；可憎恶的事 | |
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169
warships
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| 军舰，战舰( warship的名词复数 )； 舰只 | |
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170
annex
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| vt.兼并，吞并；n.附属建筑物 | |
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171
provincial
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| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
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172
alienated
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| adj.感到孤独的，不合群的v.使疏远( alienate的过去式和过去分词 )；使不友好；转让；让渡（财产等） | |
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173
overthrew
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| overthrow的过去式 | |
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174
rupture
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| n.破裂；(关系的)决裂；v.(使)破裂 | |
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deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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