The possession of gold ornaments1 by the natives of Cuba at the time of Columbus’ discovery of the Island gave it a reputation for mineral wealth which was maintained for centuries on a somewhat slender basis. The precious metals have never been found in considerable quantities, and it was only in comparatively recent years that any serious mining enterprises were established. The Spanish Government, for some incomprehensible reason, discouraged the exploitation and even the investigation2 of the mineral resources of Cuba, and practically nothing was definitely known about them until the United States Geological Survey made a geological reconnaissance shortly after the Spanish-American War.
With the exception of asphalt, which is produced on a commercial scale in the provinces of Habana, Matanzas, Santa Clara, and Puerto{201} Principe, the mineral development, and perhaps the mineral resources of Cuba are restricted to the mountainous region at the eastern end of the Island, occupied mainly by the Province of Oriente. There is no doubt but that this region is extremely rich in many valuable minerals. The present development is insignificant3 as compared with the future possibilities. Lack of labor4 is a bar to the extension of mining, and several deposits of ascertained5 value are not worked on account of the absence of transportation facilities. With improvement in these conditions it is certain that the mineral output of the Island will take an important place in its commerce.
To the east and west of Santiago de Cuba are many deposits of iron ore, most of them denounced, but none of them developed. Among these is a group of mines, chief of which is the Camaroncids, fifty-six miles from Santiago de Cuba, the ore of which is said to average sixty-eight per cent. iron.
In part, it is widely believed that iron ore of the finest quality abounds6 throughout the Sierra Maestra region. A mining engineer of experience is responsible for the statement that, in the vicinity of Mayari, near Nipe Bay, de{202}posits of high grade ore have been discovered “of sufficient extent to supply the demands of the whole world for the next century.”
Iron is the chief mineral product of Cuba. The first “denouncement” of an iron mine in the Island was made in the year 1861, but it was not until 1883 that the investment of capital made the exploitation of the deposits of the Sierra Maestra possible. In the following year, the Juragua Iron Company, an American concern, made the first shipment of iron ore from the Island. At this time the Spanish authorities granted a number of concessions7 favorable to foreign corporations engaged in mining. Under this encouragement the pioneer company extended its operations and a few years later the Spanish-American Iron Company, organized in the United States, entered the field. The Sigua Iron Company and the Cuban Steel Ore Company followed. The operations of all these concerns were carried on in the vicinity of Santiago de Cuba until a few years ago, when the Spanish-American Iron Company established a large plant at Felton, in the Nipe Bay district.
The most important recent development in the industry is the acquisition by the Bethle{203}hem Steel Company of an iron ore deposit occupying an area of about 900 acres, lying twelve miles to the east of Santiago. This is regarded by experts as one of the most important mineral discoveries ever made in Cuba. Measurements by mining engineers give the contents of the ore-beds as 75,000,000 tons.
The ore obtained from the Sierra Maestra is both hematite and magnetite, rich in iron and low in phosphorus and sulphur. It is especially adapted to the Bessemer process of manufacture. An average analysis shows more than sixty-two per cent. metallic8 iron.
These properties are not mines in the strict sense of the word. The ore is found in small irregular bodies, near the tops of the hills, and it is extracted by quarrying9, so that the workings are entirely10 exposed to view. Explosives and steam shovels11 are used in taking out the ore, which is unusually hard. As it does not lie in seams, with definite walls, one of the chief difficulties of operation consists in sorting it from the ordinary rock.
The first shipment of iron ore from Cuba, made by the Juragua Iron Company in 1884, amounted to somewhat more than 25,000 tons.{204} Since that time there has been an almost steady increase in the output of Oriente. The annual production is now in excess of a million tons, approximating $5,000,000 in value. It is probable that the American investments in iron mines in Cuba amount to at least $20,000,000. The large operating companies, with one exception, originated in Philadelphia, and have now affiliated12 interests.
The labor problem has been a constant difficulty with the mining companies. They find the native whites quite unequal to the arduous13 work of the mines, and the blacks are not satisfactory on account of their irregularity and difficulty of control. Despite the cost, the greater part of the labor employed is imported from the provinces of Spain. These men are strong, steady workers, and orderly. The companies take great pains to secure their comfort and health, with the result that there are practically no desertions and little difficulty in recruiting the force.
In this connection it will be of interest to describe the measures by which the Spanish-American Mining Company has almost banished14 malaria15 from its settlement at Daiquiri, especially as their experience should be sig{205}nificant and suggestive to every corporation largely employing labor in Cuba.
An outbreak of yellow fever in 1908 led to the thorough sanitation16 of Daiquiri by the United States Army Medical Corps17. The Company fully18 appreciated the condition in which the camps were left, and decided19 to maintain it. A sanitary20 department was organized and has been since kept up at a monthly expense of a thousand or more dollars. A corps of experienced men make frequent inspections21 of the dwellings23, see that they are kept clean and that all water barrels are covered with netting. A determined24 and systematic25 campaign has been waged against the anopheles, or malaria mosquito. As a result, malaria, which Cubans look upon as a necessary evil, has been reduced to a negligible quantity, and the general efficiency of the force has been greatly increased.
The total number of malaria cases in the year 1909 were 234. For the last five months of the year the number was only 48, and on December 31, there was not a single case in the hospital. The improvement has been maintained. The following table shows how the present condition compares with that of former years:{206}
Year Average number
on pay roll Total cases of
malaria Percentage of labor force sick with
malaria at some time of the year
1901 920 1,131 123
1902 1,312 1,362 104
1903 1,348 1,116 83
1904 858 394 46
1905 941 436 46
1906 1,309 746 57
1907 1,315 689 52
1908 1,292 632 49
1909 1,391 234 17
In 1909, with 1,391 men on the pay roll, the average number of patients in the hospital daily was fourteen. In other words, there was only one per cent. of the force on the sick list.
The men themselves, who at first looked upon the sanitary campaign as a combination of joke and nuisance, now fully appreciate the effects of it, and lend their hearty26 aid to the sanitary corps in their efforts.
The work of the sanitary force consists of the daily collection and burning of all household rubbish, the care and cleaning of the barracks, a house to house inspection22 of sanitary conditions, care of water tanks and water barrels in the mine cuts, petrolization of standing27 water, general cleaning of the villages and camps, and constant war on the mosquitoes. The villages, camps, and settlements under the Company’s control are free from mosquitoes, and the diseases which they transmit have no{207} chance of propagation. Care is taken to inspect all newcomers and any found to be malarial28 are sent away.
The cost of the sanitary work for a year is about $12,000, but the full value of it can not be estimated in figures. Its chief benefits are contingent29, and appear in general cleanliness, health, cheerfulness, and efficiency. Whilst these results would warrant the expenditure30, if there were no financial return for it whatever, the fact is that the outlay31 is fully justified32 if measured solely33 on the basis of dollars and cents. Under present conditions there are at least ten men fewer in hospital each day than there were formerly34. Instead of being a charge on the work, these ten men produce during the year 8,000 to 9,000 tons of ore, which far more than repay the expense of sanitation.
Manganese, a material essential to the manufacture of Bessemer steel, is found in large quantities in the mountain range running between Santiago de Cuba and Manzanillo. Attention was first called to the deposits shortly before the Spanish-American War, and several companies were formed to exploit them. One of these, the Ponupo Mining and Transportation Company, is responsible for by far the{208} greater part of the operations in this mineral. It has its headquarters in Santiago de Cuba, but is controlled by American capital. The equipment of this company includes a sixteen-mile railroad, enabling it to ship its product to Santiago. The output of the Ponupo Company’s mines averages forty-seven per cent. metallic manganese.
Several other companies are in possession of good yielding properties and are well equipped for operation, but the development of the business seems to have been checked. The reason for this is not apparent. Conditions appear to be favorable to profitable operation. The demand in the United States is constant at prices that should be satisfactory to the miners. To quote Mr. Robert P. Porter: “Whatever conditions of taxation35, duties, and other expenses on the production of manganese existed previously36 have been changed by the war, and entirely new conditions are presented now for the continuance of the work. It is believed that the mines are practically inexhaustible, and that the metal, while varying considerably37 in quantity, is in the main high grade and can be mined and shipped at prices that will extend the industry until the United States steel
[Image unavailable.]
SANTIAGO DE CUBA.
{209}
manufacturers will get their entire manganese supply from this nearest known manganese district.”
On the other hand, the report of the geological survey, referred to above, presents an entirely different view of the matter. From this report it is gathered that the manganese deposits of Cuba usually occur in limestone38 and sandstone, associated with a secondary silica, called jasper. The ore is not in large bodies, but in small pockets, irregularly scattered39, deposits varying in size from a pebble40 to masses that weigh several hundred tons. Manganese is also found in the form of wash dirt, which is the result of decomposition41 of the original ore-bearing rock. Most of the Cuban ore is in this form.
“The concensus of opinion of various experts who have looked into the matter seems to be that the Cuban deposits of manganese ore are not likely to be very valuable, as they are too scattered, too irregular, too small, and too inaccessible42 to be profitably worked. The fact that there is undoubtedly43 a considerable quantity of manganese in the Province of Santiago de Cuba seems to be more than offset44 by the peculiarities45 of its occurrence. If, however, the{210} world’s supply of manganese should run short, these deposits would undoubtedly be thought considerable and important. With the new facilities for concentration that have recently been installed in the plants already in operation, some of the deposits may, indeed, be very profitably worked.”
The first mines worked in the Island of Cuba were at the place now called El Cobre, situated46 about twelve miles west of the City of Santiago de Cuba, and celebrated47 for its shrine48 and miracle-working image of the Virgin49. These mines were opened in the year 1530, and were worked as Crown property for more than two centuries, and then abandoned. Following a century of disuse, the mines were re-opened by a British corporation, exactly five hundred years after work was first started in them. The venture proved highly successful. The official records show that between fifty and sixty million dollars’ worth of ore was taken from El Cobre between the years 1830 and 1868. About the close of this period the mine-owners encountered various difficulties. They became involved in a long and costly50 lawsuit51, which they lost, with the railroad upon which they were dependent for the transportation of their{211} product. This was followed by a fall in the price of copper52, and unsettled political conditions. As a result, the mines were shut down, and in the succeeding wars the plant was destroyed and the workings flooded to such an extent that it was not even possible to inspect them.
After the last war, an American company, styled the San José Copper Mining Company, took over the property and revived it. This concern and a few others are now actively53 at work in the El Cobre district, with good prospects54 of success.
Previous to the year 1830, the only copper properties in Cuba that were developed were those at El Cobre. But about that time, deposits were discovered in numerous parts of the Provinces of Puerto Principe, Santa Clara, and Matanzas. The most notable of these that were worked in days past are near the town of Las Minas, which is about twenty-seven miles east of the City of Puerto Principe, on the Puerto Principe and Nuevitas Railroad. Some of the many old shafts55 at this place show signs of considerable productiveness at one time. About ten years ago these properties were taken in hand by an American corporation,{212} called the Cuban Copper Company, which in 1909 exported 59,430 tons of copper.
It seems to be the general opinion of experts, who have investigated the conditions, that Cuba will never produce gold in large quantities, although her silver mines may be profitably developed to a considerable extent. Nevertheless, gold mining enterprises are started every few years in the Island. The sole basis for these appears to be the traditions and questionable57 records of the past production of the old mine at Holguin, in the Province of Oriente. The group of workings at this point are said to have been known since the discovery of the Island. They were operated by a native in 1856, and it is claimed that one shaft56 produced ore bearing sixty-seven ounces of gold and twenty-three ounces of silver per ton of 2,000 pounds, making a value of $1,407 a ton at the time. In the same district, a native is said to have discovered a pocket that yielded $15,000 in fifteen days, the ore being worth one thousand dollars for every hundred pounds of mineral. Samples taken from the same place, and expertly assayed, showed a maximum of thirty-two ounces of gold to the ton of 2,240 pounds, and four ounces of silver.{213}
Frequent rumors58 of rich finds in Cuba reach New York and London, but at present there is not a gold or silver mine in profitable operation in the Island.
Bituminous deposits are found in every province of Cuba. They vary from a clear translucent59 oil resembling petroleum60 to hard grahamite and substances that closely resemble lignite coal. The report of the Geological Survey’s reconnaissance says: “Every sugar planter claims to have an asphalt property on his estate, and every other man knows where there is one in which is a fortune for his friend. Many of these deposits have been worked, more or less extensively, in past years. Oil has been found in Cuba which has been successfully refined in the island and used as a luminant, also as a fuel; asphalt is mined there which is being employed as an enricher in the manufacture of gas, and is also doing duty as a material for roofing and street paving; grahamite and pitch are found there, which sell in this country and abroad to manufacturers of varnish61 and paint; and on at least one plantation62 a substance is being mined which performs the functions of coal in the kitchen brasero, although experts have frequently declared that{214} there is no coal in Cuba. Whatever the exact and proper titles for these various forms of bitumen63, their uses would seem to be sufficiently64 varied65 and the deposits extensive enough to be of some commercial interest. There is, however, only a limited demand for the kind of bitumens most frequently found in Cuba, the class which is most suitable for varnishes66; and, on the other hand, no convincing evidence has been offered that great supplies exist of the asphalt suitable for roofing and paving, the uses to which the largest quantities of asphalt are applied67. By large supplies we mean supplies similar to those of the asphalt lake in Trinidad. It should be remembered, however, that the asphalt deposits of Cuba have not yet been scientifically exploited, and it is impossible for anyone to say definitely that the supply is not sufficient to be commercially important.”
One of the greatest needs of Cuba’s industrial development is a domestic fuel supply. The discovery of a coal mine might be more profitable than that of a gold mine. This fact has led to extensive prospecting68 and to frequent declarations of the presence of coal, which turned out to be lignite or grahamite.
[Image unavailable.]
A STREET IN JIGUANI.
{215}
The British Consul69 at Santiago de Cuba, in 1895, reported the discovery of a coal deposit within fifty miles of that City. The analyses claimed for samples seemed to indicate commercial possibilities, but no operation of the deposit has followed.
The extent and richness of the deposits of iron ore in Cuba are beyond question, and, although their operation has become an important industry, development in that direction has hardly more than commenced. As to other mineral resources, there is a decided probability of their proving great in the future. At present little is definitely known about the matter. With the exception of the geological reconnaissance to which reference has been made, and which was necessarily somewhat cursory70, no scientific investigation of the Island’s mineral wealth has ever been made. The Government might profitably devote some of the money which it is wasting on needless consulates71 abroad to such a useful purpose.
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1
ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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5
ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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abounds
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| v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的第三人称单数 ) | |
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7
concessions
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| n.（尤指由政府或雇主给予的）特许权( concession的名词复数 )；承认；减价；（在某地的）特许经营权 | |
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8
metallic
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| adj.金属的；金属制的；含金属的；产金属的；像金属的 | |
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9
quarrying
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| v.采石；从采石场采得( quarry的现在分词 )；从（书本等中）努力发掘（资料等）；在采石场采石 | |
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10
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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11
shovels
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| n.铲子( shovel的名词复数 )；锹；推土机、挖土机等的)铲；铲形部份v.铲子( shovel的第三人称单数 )；锹；推土机、挖土机等的)铲；铲形部份 | |
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12
affiliated
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| adj. 附属的, 有关连的 | |
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13
arduous
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| adj.艰苦的，费力的，陡峭的 | |
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14
banished
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| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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15
malaria
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| n.疟疾 | |
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16
sanitation
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| n.公共卫生，环境卫生，卫生设备 | |
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17
corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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18
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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19
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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20
sanitary
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| adj.卫生方面的，卫生的，清洁的，卫生的 | |
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21
inspections
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| n.检查( inspection的名词复数 )；检验；视察；检阅 | |
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22
inspection
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| n.检查，审查，检阅 | |
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23
dwellings
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| n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 ) | |
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24
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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25
systematic
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| adj.有系统的，有计划的，有方法的 | |
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hearty
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| adj.热情友好的；衷心的；尽情的，纵情的 | |
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27
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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malarial
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| 患疟疾的，毒气的 | |
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contingent
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| adj.视条件而定的；n.一组，代表团，分遣队 | |
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30
expenditure
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| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
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31
outlay
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| n.费用，经费，支出；v.花费 | |
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32
justified
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| a.正当的，有理的 | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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34
formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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35
taxation
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| n.征税，税收，税金 | |
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36
previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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38
limestone
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| n.石灰石 | |
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scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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40
pebble
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| n.卵石，小圆石 | |
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41
decomposition
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| n. 分解, 腐烂, 崩溃 | |
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42
inaccessible
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| adj.达不到的，难接近的 | |
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43
undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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44
offset
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| n.分支，补偿；v.抵消，补偿 | |
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45
peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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46
situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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47
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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48
shrine
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| n.圣地，神龛，庙；v.将...置于神龛内，把...奉为神圣 | |
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49
virgin
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| n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的 | |
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50
costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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51
lawsuit
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| n.诉讼，控诉 | |
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52
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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53
actively
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| adv.积极地，勤奋地 | |
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54
prospects
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| n.希望，前途(恒为复数) | |
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55
shafts
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| n.轴( shaft的名词复数 )；（箭、高尔夫球棒等的）杆；通风井；一阵（疼痛、害怕等） | |
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56
shaft
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| n.(工具的)柄，杆状物 | |
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57
questionable
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| adj.可疑的，有问题的 | |
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58
rumors
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| n.传闻( rumor的名词复数 )；[古]名誉；咕哝；[古]喧嚷v.传闻( rumor的第三人称单数 )；[古]名誉；咕哝；[古]喧嚷 | |
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59
translucent
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| adj.半透明的；透明的 | |
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60
petroleum
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| n.原油，石油 | |
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61
varnish
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| n.清漆；v.上清漆；粉饰 | |
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62
plantation
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| n.种植园，大农场 | |
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63
bitumen
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| n.沥青 | |
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64
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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65
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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66
varnishes
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| 清漆的面（尤指木器或金属制品上的）( varnish的名词复数 )； 光泽面； 罩光漆 | |
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67
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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68
prospecting
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| n.探矿 | |
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69
consul
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| n.领事；执政官 | |
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70
cursory
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| adj.粗略的；草率的；匆促的 | |
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71
consulates
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| n.领事馆( consulate的名词复数 ) | |
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