It is difficult to see the potentially divine nature in men when masked by the forbidding traits which human beings so often exhibit.
A number of vital considerations will now have to be emphasized as pertinent5 to the subject we are dealing6 with.
The first point is that the character of every person contains contrary elements.63 Let the two kinds of qualities be called the fair and foul7, or more simply still the plus and minus traits. The bright qualities, the plus traits, are undoubtedly8 more predominant in some, the dark or minus traits in others. But potential plus qualities exist in the worst characters, and potential minus traits may be surmised9, and on scrutiny10 will be found, in those whom the world most admires.
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A second point is mentioned as an hypothesis not indeed as yet verified, but I believe verifiable, namely, that certain defined minus traits will be found to go with certain plus traits. Wherever bright qualities stand out we are likely to meet with corresponding dark qualities or dispositions12, and conversely. There are, I am persuaded, uniformities of correspondence between the plus and minus traits, and it would be of greatest practical help in judging others and ourselves if these uniformities could be worked out. A kind of chart might then be made, a description of the principal types of human character, with the salient defects and qualities that belong to each. Extensive statistical13 treatment of a multitude of biographies would lay the foundation for such an undertaking14; also sketches15 of the prominent characteristics of nations, like those furnished by Fouillée, would be utilized16. Also the study of the character traits of primitive17 races as partially18 carried out by Waitz in his Anthropology19 and the character types of animals, so far as accessible to observation, might be used for comparison. Instructed in this manner, we should, on coming into contact with others, either on their attractive or repellent side, be prepared to expect and to allow for the opposite traits. And we should learn to see ourselves in the same manner; we should see our empirical character as it really is, the dark traits side by side with the bright. The courage to wish to know the truth about one’s self is rare, and when the revelation comes or is forced upon us, it often breeds a kind of sick self-disgust and despair. The saint at such times in moral agony declares himself to be the worst of sin210ners. He has striven to attain20 a higher than the average moral level, and behold21 he has slipped into only deeper depths. The minister of religion, the revered22 teacher, the political and social leader, when abruptly23 shocked into self-examination by some evidence of grossness or deviousness24 in themselves, no longer to be glossed25 over or explained away, are fated to go through the same ordeal26. A profound despondency is the consequence. It is not only the badness now exposed, but the previous state of hypocrisy27 that seems in the retrospect28 intolerable. Some persons live what is called a double life in the face of the world. But who is quite free from living a double life in his own estimate? Achilles said of himself ?χθο? ?ρο?ρα? (“cumberer of the ground”). Many a man has echoed that cry with a bitterness of soul more poignant29 than that which Achilles felt when he uttered the words.
Now the principle of the duality64 of character traits, or as we may also designate it, the principle of the polarity of character, applies to our natural or empirical character, and our empirical character is not our moral character. The distinction between the two will serve, as we shall presently see, to rescue us from the state of moral dejection just described. But first it is indispensable to fix attention on the natural character, to recognize that we are composite, each and every one of us, and that the all-important thing to know is which of our plus qualities go with which of the minus. Here211 the psychologist can help us. Here a great field is open for a practical science of ethology. This would give us a more adequate knowledge of the empirical character, the substratum in which ethical character is to be worked out.
Point three opens up a great enlightenment in regard to the whole subject. It is that the distinction must be drawn30, and ever be kept in mind, between the bright and dark qualities and the virtues32 and vices33. The bright qualities are not of themselves virtues. The dark qualities are not of themselves vices. To suppose that they are, to confuse the bright with virtue31 and the dark with viciousness, is the most prevalent of moral fallacies.65
A person is found to be kind, sympathetic, gentle, and on this score is said to be virtuous34 or good. But gentleness, kindness, a sympathetic disposition11, while they lend themselves to the process of being transformed into virtues, are not of themselves moral qualities at all, but gifts of nature, happy endowments for which the possessor can claim no merit. And sullenness35, irascibility, the hot, fierce cravings and passions with which some men are cursed, are not vices, though it is obvious how readily they turn into vices as soon as the will consents to them.
The question becomes urgent: What then is a virtue? The fair qualities are the basis, the natural substratum of the virtues, the material susceptible36 of trans212formation into virtues. In what does the transformation37 consist? When does it take place? The answer is, when the plus quality has been raised to the Nth degree, and in consequence the minus qualities are expelled. This result, of course, is never actually achieved. The concept here presented is a concept of limits. But in the direction defined lies growth and continuous development not of but toward ethical personality. In public addresses I have often said: Look to your virtues, and your vices will take care of themselves. I can put this thought more exactly by saying: Change your so-called virtues into real virtues: raise your plus qualities to the Nth degree. And the degree to which you succeed in so doing you can judge of by the extent to which the minus qualities are in process of disappearing.
One or two examples will illustrate38 the pivotal thought thus reached in the exposition of our ethical system with respect to its practical consequences. To raise to the Nth degree is to infinitize a finite quality, or to enhance it in the direction of infinity39. I shall take two examples, one self-sacrifice, the other justice, both viewed in their finite aspect as plus traits requiring to be subjected to the process of transformation.
The empirical motive40 of self-sacrifice may be egocentric or altruistic42. In egocentric self-sacrifice, doing for others is a means of exalting43 the idea of self to the mind of the doer. He uses others, not as sacred personalities44, worth while on their own account, but subtly exploits them by benefiting them. He uses them as objects by means of which to achieve a finer self-aggrandize213ment. He may indeed go to the utmost lengths of devotion for his friends. He may perform for them the most repulsive45 offices. He may give freely of his means, denying himself meanwhile comforts and even necessaries in order perhaps to extricate46 them from pecuniary47 difficulties. He may contribute in refined ways to their pleasure. As a physician he may watch night after night at the bedside of the sick, foregoing sleep though fatigued48 to the point of exhaustion49 in order to be at hand to mitigate50 the pains of the sufferer, jeopardizing51 his own health in order to assist others in recovering theirs. Yes, he may even give of his own blood to renew their ebbing52 life. In all this he will look for no material compensation. Gratitude53, especially gratitude expressed in words, is repugnant to him. The lofty image of self which he strives to create would be marred54 if any such coarsely selfish motive were allowed to intrude55. All that he requires, but this he does inexorably require, is that his beneficiaries shall silently confess their dependence56 on him, that he shall see the exalted57 image of himself mirrored in their attitude, and that they shall move in their orbits as satellites around his sun. The egocentrism is veiled and easily confounded with the purest moral disposition. But it is there all the same, and the proof of it is that the very same person who is thus friendly to his friends, and an unstinting benefactor58 to those who pay him the kind of homage59 he exacts, is capable of behaving with almost inconceivable hardness and even cruelty toward others who will not stand in this subordinate relation to him, or who in any way wound his self-esteem. Sister Dora,214 serving enthusiastically in a small-pox hospital, while neglecting the nearer duties at home, intent on dramatic, histrionic self-representation, is likewise a palpable instance of egocentric self-sacrifice.
The self is precious on its own account. The non-self, the other, equally so. A virtuous act is one in which the ends of self and of the other are respected and promoted jointly60. It is an act which has for its result the more vivid consciousness of this very jointness. Egocentric self-sacrifice errs61 on the one side, the personality of another being made tributary62 to the empirical self, despite the actual benefits conferred. Altruistic self-sacrifice errs in the opposite way. In it the personality of the self is effaced63 or made servile to the interests or supposed interests of another. Not, let me add, to the real interests, for the spiritual interests are never achievable at the expense of other spiritual natures. The wife or mother is an instance, who slaves for husband or children, obliterating64 herself, never requiring the services due to her in return and the respect for her which such services imply, degrading herself and thereby injuring the moral character of those whom she pampers65. An historic instance of the altruistic error on a larger scale is afforded by the Platonic66 scheme of scientific breeding under state supervision67, a suggestion revived in modern times, in which freedom of choice between the sexes, and the integrity of the personality of those concerned, is sacrificed to the supposed interests of the community. Nietzsche’s doctrine68 may possibly be regarded as a compound of the two errors described, the Superman representing the egocentrism,215 while altruistic self-sacrifice, entire annulment69 of their personalities is expected of the multitude.
It is easy to distinguish the plus and minus qualities in the characters of the egocentrist and the altruist41: in the one case, beneficence combined with hardness; in the other, service of others combined with absence of self-respect.
The second example to be briefly70 considered is the finite trait commonly mistaken for justice. A typical illustration of this is presented by the merchant who ascribes to himself a just character on the ground that he is punctual in the payment of his debts, that his word is as good as his bond; or by the manufacturer who entertains the same opinion of himself because he pays scrupulously72 the wages on which he has agreed with his employees.66 One wonders that so great and pro216found a notion as that of justice should be understood so superficially, restricted to such narrow limits, and that rational human beings should claim to possess so lofty a virtue on the score of credentials73 so inadequate74. The reason is that the empirical substratum of justice is mistaken for the ethical virtue itself. This substratum may be described as an inborn75 propensity76 toward order in things and in relations, a natural impatience77 of loose fringes, a certain mental neatness. Hence insistence78 on explicitly79 defined arrangements and on simple, over-simple formulas. These are favored because they keep out of sight the complex elements which if considered might introduce uncertainty80 and possibly disorder81 into the situation. Thus a manufacturer, impatient of looseness, over-rating explicitness82, will be led to grasp at a formula of justice which reduces it to the bare literal performance of a fixed83 agreement, no matter with what unfreedom, owing to the pressure of want, it was entered into by the wage-earners, and no matter how deteriorating84 the effect of the insufficient85 wage may prove to be on their standard of living.
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But it is a far cry from this empirical predisposition to the sublime86 ethical idea itself. The idea of “the just” as exemplified in any act performed by me includes the totality of all those conditions which make for the development of the ethical personality of others in so far as it can be affected87 by my action. To do a just act is to act with the totality of these conditions in view, in order to promote the end in view, which is the liberation of personality or at least the idea of personality in others and in myself.
It is thus evident that a just act—an ideally, perfectly88 just act,—can be performed by no man. First because the right conditions of human development are but very imperfectly known, and are only brought to light by slow degrees. Secondly89 because even as to the known conditions of justice, for instance the abolition90 of the evils of the present industrial wage system, a single employer, or even a group of well-intentioned employers can bring about the desired changes only to a very limited extent.
Raising the finite quality underlying91 justice to the Nth degree therefore means opening an illimitable prospect92. The ethical effort in this, as in all other instances, is destined93 to be thwarted94. It is an effort in the direction of the finitely unattainable; the effort itself, with the conviction it fosters as to the reality of that which is finitely unattainable, being the ethically95 valuable outcome. The just man, therefore, in any proper sense of the word, is one who is convinced of218 the fact that he is essentially96 not a just man, and a deep humility97 as to both his actual and possible achievements will distinguish him from the “just man” so-called, who arrogates98 to himself that sublime attribute on the ground of the scrupulous71 payment of debts, or the fulfilment of contracts. Humility in fact will be found to be the characteristic mark of those who have attained99 ethical enlightenment in any direction. It is the outward sign from which we may infer that the finite quality in them is in process of being raised to the Nth degree.
I have given these few specific illustrations of my meaning, but what has been said applies equally to any of the plus qualities. The plus qualities are the ones which are favorable for transformation into the infinitized ethical quality. The ethical principle itself is one and indivisible. Any one of the plus qualities, when ethicized, will conduce to the same result. From whatever point of the periphery100 of the ethical sphere we advance toward the center we shall meet with the same experience. Thus self-affirmation or egoism when in idea raised to the Nth degree will reveal that the highest selfhood can be achieved only when the unique power of a spiritual being is deployed101 in such a way as to challenge the unique, distinctive102 power that is lodged103 in each of the infinite multitude of spiritual beings that are partners with us in the eternal life.
And altruism104, or care for others, at its spiritual climax105, will conversely involve the recognition that true service to others can only be perfectly performed when219 the power that is resident in ourselves is exercised in its most vigorous, most spontaneous, and most self-affirming mode. And as the diverse empirical qualities which we observe in one another all appear to be modes of or cognate106 with these two principal tendencies—the self-affirming and the altruistic—the method of transfiguring empirical qualities which has been set forth107 may be found to apply in every instance.
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1
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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ethical
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| adj.伦理的，道德的，合乎道德的 | |
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elicit
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| v.引出,抽出,引起 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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pertinent
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| adj.恰当的；贴切的；中肯的；有关的；相干的 | |
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dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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foul
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| adj.污秽的；邪恶的；v.弄脏；妨害；犯规；n.犯规 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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surmised
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| v.臆测，推断( surmise的过去式和过去分词 )；揣测；猜想 | |
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scrutiny
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| n.详细检查，仔细观察 | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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dispositions
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| 安排( disposition的名词复数 )； 倾向； （财产、金钱的）处置； 气质 | |
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statistical
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| adj.统计的，统计学的 | |
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undertaking
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| n.保证，许诺，事业 | |
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sketches
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| n.草图( sketch的名词复数 )；素描；速写；梗概 | |
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utilized
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| v.利用，使用( utilize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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partially
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| adv.部分地，从某些方面讲 | |
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anthropology
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| n.人类学 | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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behold
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| v.看，注视，看到 | |
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revered
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| v.崇敬，尊崇，敬畏( revere的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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abruptly
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| adv.突然地，出其不意地 | |
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deviousness
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glossed
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| v.注解( gloss的过去式和过去分词 )；掩饰（错误）；粉饰；把…搪塞过去 | |
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ordeal
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| n.苦难经历，（尤指对品格、耐力的）严峻考验 | |
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hypocrisy
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| n.伪善，虚伪 | |
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retrospect
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| n.回顾，追溯；v.回顾，回想，追溯 | |
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poignant
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| adj.令人痛苦的，辛酸的，惨痛的 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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vices
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| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
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virtuous
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| adj.有品德的，善良的，贞洁的，有效力的 | |
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sullenness
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| n. 愠怒, 沉闷, 情绪消沉 | |
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susceptible
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| adj.过敏的，敏感的；易动感情的，易受感动的 | |
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transformation
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| n.变化；改造；转变 | |
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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infinity
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| n.无限，无穷，大量 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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altruist
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| n.利他主义者，爱他主义者 | |
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altruistic
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| adj.无私的，为他人着想的 | |
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exalting
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| a.令人激动的，令人喜悦的 | |
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personalities
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| n. 诽谤，（对某人容貌、性格等所进行的）人身攻击； 人身攻击；人格, 个性, 名人( personality的名词复数 ) | |
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repulsive
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| adj.排斥的，使人反感的 | |
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extricate
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| v.拯救，救出；解脱 | |
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47
pecuniary
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| adj.金钱的；金钱上的 | |
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fatigued
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| adj. 疲乏的 | |
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exhaustion
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| n.耗尽枯竭，疲惫，筋疲力尽，竭尽，详尽无遗的论述 | |
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50
mitigate
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| vt.（使）减轻，（使）缓和 | |
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51
jeopardizing
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| 危及，损害( jeopardize的现在分词 ) | |
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52
ebbing
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| （指潮水）退( ebb的现在分词 )； 落； 减少； 衰落 | |
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53
gratitude
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| adj.感激，感谢 | |
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54
marred
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| adj. 被损毁, 污损的 | |
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55
intrude
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| vi.闯入；侵入；打扰，侵扰 | |
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dependence
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| n.依靠，依赖；信任，信赖；隶属 | |
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exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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benefactor
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| n. 恩人，行善的人，捐助人 | |
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homage
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| n.尊敬，敬意，崇敬 | |
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jointly
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| ad.联合地，共同地 | |
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errs
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| 犯错误，做错事( err的第三人称单数 ) | |
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tributary
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| n.支流；纳贡国；adj.附庸的；辅助的；支流的 | |
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effaced
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| v.擦掉( efface的过去式和过去分词 )；抹去；超越；使黯然失色 | |
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obliterating
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| v.除去( obliterate的现在分词 )；涂去；擦掉；彻底破坏或毁灭 | |
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pampers
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| v.纵容，宠，娇养( pamper的第三人称单数 ) | |
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platonic
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| adj.精神的；柏拉图（哲学）的 | |
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supervision
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| n.监督，管理 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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annulment
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| n.废除，取消，（法院对婚姻等）判决无效 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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71
scrupulous
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| adj.审慎的，小心翼翼的，完全的，纯粹的 | |
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scrupulously
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| adv.一丝不苟地；小心翼翼地，多顾虑地 | |
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73
credentials
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| n.证明，资格，证明书，证件 | |
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inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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75
inborn
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| adj.天生的，生来的，先天的 | |
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propensity
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| n.倾向；习性 | |
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impatience
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| n.不耐烦，急躁 | |
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insistence
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| n.坚持；强调；坚决主张 | |
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explicitly
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| ad.明确地，显然地 | |
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80
uncertainty
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| n.易变，靠不住，不确知，不确定的事物 | |
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disorder
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| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
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explicitness
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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84
deteriorating
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| 恶化，变坏( deteriorate的现在分词 ) | |
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85
insufficient
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| adj.(for，of)不足的，不够的 | |
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86
sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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90
abolition
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| n.废除，取消 | |
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underlying
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| adj.在下面的，含蓄的，潜在的 | |
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prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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94
thwarted
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| 阻挠( thwart的过去式和过去分词 )； 使受挫折； 挫败； 横过 | |
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ethically
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| adv.在伦理上，道德上 | |
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96
essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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97
humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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98
arrogates
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| v.冒称，妄取( arrogate的第三人称单数 )；没来由地把…归属（于） | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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periphery
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| n.(圆体的)外面；周围 | |
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deployed
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| （尤指军事行动）使展开( deploy的过去式和过去分词 )； 施展； 部署； 有效地利用 | |
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102
distinctive
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| adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的 | |
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103
lodged
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| v.存放( lodge的过去式和过去分词 )；暂住；埋入；（权利、权威等）归属 | |
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104
altruism
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| n.利他主义，不自私 | |
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105
climax
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| n.顶点；高潮；v.(使)达到顶点 | |
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106
cognate
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| adj.同类的，同源的，同族的；n.同家族的人，同源词 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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