Every vocation1 on its ethical3 side is educational. The reason for accentuating4 the educational aspect of the vocations connected with the state is that this educational significance is generally overlooked. The vocations referred to are those of the lawyer, the judge, the statesman, the teacher in the narrower sense of the word (the teacher in schools and universities).
The Vocation of the Lawyer
Vocation, as I use the term, invariably means related to the spiritual end of life. A profession or occupation becomes a vocation when he who follows it seeks to respond to the call of the latent spiritual possibilities in his fellowmen. If this be not the common definition of calling or vocation, yet I think it will bear scrutiny6. It is the vocation of the lawyer to be the teacher of justice to his clients,—I mean of justice in so far as it is already embodied7 in law,—and at the same time to promote a desire for and a preliminary understanding of the justice which is not yet embodied in law.
The lawyer is commonly regarded as the learned alter ego8 of his client. The lawyer is the client as he would290 be if he were versed9 in the law, and skilled to employ it in his interest. The client is supposed to be an egotist, intent solely10 on securing his advantage to the fullest extent possible under the existing system of social regulations. The lawyer is his expert substitute. The judge appears on the scene as the impartial11 representative of the law.
From the vocational point of view the lawyer is an assistant to the judge, the agent not so much of his client as of justice. He is as much interested in the just issue of the suit as is his legal opponent. His educational function is to teach his client to take the same point of view. Another point, no less important, is the following: Law is a system of general rules, at best a rude social mechanics. And even as such it is constantly deflected12 from its ostensible13 purpose by selfishness and prejudice. The discriminations against women, the conspiracy14 laws against combinations of laborers15, the laws enacted17 in the interests of landed aristocracies, are ample evidence in point. In every country the law as it stands is still largely infected with unfair discriminations, and it is the special duty of those who follow the legal vocation to open the eyes of their clients and of the public to these defects and to suggest remedies.
Every vocation has its special vice18, that is, a kind of behavior the very opposite of that prescribed by the particular ethical function with which it is charged. The vice of the lawyer is blind conservatism (unless he is at the same time progressive and conservative he fails to fulfil his ethical function).
The judge, too, is a teacher, especially in criminal291 cases. The voice of the judge, when he pronounces sentence on a criminal, should reverberate20 throughout the whole of society, awakening21 all men to the fact that society as such shares the guilt22.
The Vocation of the Statesman
What I have to say on this subject will find its proper setting in the next chapter. In general, it is the vocation of the statesman to teach the citizens a sublime23 conception of the state. He is neither to be the obedient tool of the mass—the docile24 “public servant” in that sense—nor yet to impose his arbitrary will upon the people, consulting only his own genius. The one type is seen in the average American politician, who is or affects to be a mere25 instrument executing the public will; the other type is exemplified by the supermen statesmen of ancient and modern times. The ethically26-minded statesman is to evoke27 the spiritual conception of the State in the minds of his constituents28, and in the process of doing so to become more essentially29 a citizen himself.
The Vocation of the Educator
It was unavoidable to discuss the vocations and their aims before considering the school, college and university; for these institutions are orientated30 towards the vocations, are preparatory to the latter, and the true aim of school and university cannot possibly be defined unless the vocational outlook be first distinctly spread before our eyes.
In dealing31 with the vocation of the teacher, I shall292 necessarily be led to define the purpose of the social institution in which he labors32 and I shall for the sake of brevity use the word school to designate the social organs of education, which cover the period of childhood, adolescence33 and the beginning of manhood and womanhood.
The school is like the hundred-gated Thebes. It leads out into a hundred vocational avenues. But note the following: its aim is far greater than merely to prepare the student for that future vocation to which he is best suited. It should no less supply the incentive34 for creating new vocations, and for changing what are at present still occupations into vocations. The school searches out the individuality of its pupils. It undertakes to differentiate35 and to personalize individualities. But when it has done its part, it sends the pupils into a world where little account is taken of the finer differences of aptitude36, where occupations predominate and vocations are few, and where most things, ethically speaking, are still in the rough. The school cannot indeed transform society by merely raising its indignant voice and asking society to pay heed37 to the finer things which it has fostered, and which often are subsequently crushed. But it can at least contribute to the vocational evolution of society by reiterating38 its unsatisfied demands.
Taking the three-fold reverence39 for my guide, I lay it down in the first place that the school is an organ of tradition. True conservatism has its place in the school. In it are preserved the knowledges and the skills of the past. The heir of today comes to his own by appropriating the products of past thinking and past labor16, and the school superintends the process of appro293priation and assimilation. At the same time it sifts41 in tradition what is clean from what is unclean, what is true from what is false, what is usable from what is dead. Reverence is shown in this very sifting42 process. To revere40 the past is to make the past live again; but only what is vital can go on living.
The teaching should be reverential in spirit. The business spirit, the drive towards mere efficiency, cannot in the long run satisfy. Efficiency as commonly understood has in view the utilities of the moment. It merely exploits the past for the sake of present interests, and as a rule is unmindful of the future. Industrial efficiency, in particular, reverses the right ethical relation between work and personality; instead of work being so contrived44 as to liberate45 personality, it is mechanized so as to sacrifice personality.
The teacher should be reverent43 towards the great masters of his own craft, his own art. No one is reverenced46 by others who does not himself habitually47 revere someone. The teachers should be acquainted at first hand with the master educators, such as Plato, Comenius, Pestalozzi and the others.
I pass on to speak of the second type of reverence. This involves cordial reciprocally stimulating48 relations between the members of the teaching staff. It is generally agreed that no other factor counts for more in shaping the character of the young than personal influence. The best personal influence, however, is not unilateral, like that which radiates from a single teacher upon his class. The best is that which proceeds from cross-relations between a number of teachers. Just as in294 the home it is not the father singly, nor the mother singly, but the reciprocal relations between the two that touch child life to finer issues and create a spiritual atmosphere in the learner, so also in the school the best spirit is created by the relations of reciprocal furtherance between the teachers, each doing his work in such a way as to make easier and more successful the work of his colleagues, with a strong sense of partnership49 in the common work of man-building.
The teachers as an organized body should also relate themselves to an organized body of parents. Home and school should not merely co?perate but interpenetrate. The interests and efforts of both are centered on the same young lives. The home is supremely51 concerned in what goes on in the school, and the school in the kind of influence that prevails in the home. An organized conference of parents is in a position to render signal service to a school by appraising52 its ideals, by keeping tally53 on the extent to which acknowledged standards are carried out, and by joining in the unceasing endeavor to advance the standards. Schools must be backed by the interest and appreciation54 of the community. Parents whose children are pupils of a school are for that particular school the best representatives of the community.
The school is to prepare its charges, not only for vocational life, but for citizenship55. Teachers must be good citizens. They cannot give what they do not possess. They must keep in living contact with the civic56 and social movements of the time.
The first and second types are instrumental to the third. Now here, if anywhere, a new departure in edu295cational philosophy is called for. For when we discuss this third kind of reverence, the question of all questions is raised: To what end do we educate? What is to be the aim and outcome of all our effort? And our answer to this question will depend on our philosophy, and if our philosophy is ethical our answer must be distinctively57 ethical. Froebel was a pantheist, and his pantheism colored his conception of the educational end. Pestalozzi was an eighteenth century humanitarian58. Many modern writers on education are biological evolutionists. Others even expressly disclaim59 any general outlook, and appear to be exclusively interested in perfecting the technique of schoolmastering. Reverence of the third type is reverence for the undeveloped human being,—for the new generation, for our successors. What is it that we are to revere in a child? Its spiritual possibilities, its latent personality. To bring to birth its personality is the supreme50 educational end. We show our reverence for the child in the effort to personalize it. Let us consider in brief some of the practical consequences of this idea.
To personalize the individual the first step is to discover the empirical substratum in his nature. There is ever an empirical substratum subject to ethical transformations60. The empirical substratum of personality is individuality! Individuality manifests itself in a leading interest of some kind, a predominant bias61 which indicates the thing which the individual is fit to be and do. To discover the bent62 or bias is the first step, and the difficulties in the way of taking even this first step are admittedly great. Children and even adolescents296 often show no marked intellectual preferences whatever. Many adults too appear to be neutral so far as their mental life is concerned. Circumstances ran them perhaps into a certain mould—they might have been run into some other just as well. It is the task of the educator to discover the predominant interest where it exists, and to try to produce such an interest where it does not. What nature has not done in such cases art must attempt.
When the leading interest is found it should next be made the means of creating interest in subjects to which the pupil is naturally indifferent or even averse63. I have illustrated64 the process here implied in a paper on the prevocational art school which is connected with the Ethical Culture School. Young persons devoted65 to art are often unwilling66 to take up subjects which seem to them unrelated to what they really care for, like science and history. They are obsessed67 by a single passionate68 ambition. They are all eagerness to become artists—to draw, paint, model, etc. Time spent on any other subject seems to them misspent. If indulged in this one-sided activity, the chances are that they will not even become competent artists. In any case they will lack breadth and vision. They will lack a cultural background. They will be inferior as human beings. They will not be personalized. For personality, on its mental as well as on its social side, depends on relatedness,—depends not so much on what one does, as on the interrelation between what one does and what other people do.
In order to expand the interest of the young art student, the method employed in the school just mentioned297 is to present those subjects which appear to be alien in such a way as to bring out the art aspects of them, the contact points between them and art. Thus in history special prominence69 is given to the age of Pericles, the age of Rembrandt. In science special attention is paid to the theory of color, the chemistry of etching. And all other branches of knowledge are treated similarly. The aim is not indeed to exploit the other subjects in the interest of art, but so to utilize70 the artistic71 interest as to lead the mind out to a larger comprehensive interest in other related branches on their own account. Or rather, to put my thought precisely72, and thus to connect it with the underlying73 ethical theory, the aim is to prepare the future artist for the give and take relation between his own pursuit and the activities of men in other vocations. He should be helped to enrich his own life as an artist by drawing upon all that the sciences and the humanities can give him, with a view to eventually returning with interest the profit he has derived74. What the artist can do for the scientist, the religious teacher, etc., I have indicated in the previous chapter.
Precisely the same cultural idea should be worked out in prevocational schools of commerce, of technology, of science, etc. In each case the paramount75 interest should be the starting-point, the center from which lines of interest are to be made to radiate out into the correlated branches.
If this ethical idea is carried out the whole educational system will be remodeled. The c?sura in education will then fall about the sixteenth year. Before that the task will be to lay the general foundations and to recon298noiter the individuality of the pupil. After that there will be a system of prevocational schools. The college, a legacy76 which has come to us from a type of society unlike our own, will disappear, and the university will become an organism of vocational schools succeeding the prevocational.83
I mentioned at the end of Book I the problem of specialization, the increased necessity of restricting oneself to a limited field in order to achieve anything like the consciousness of mastery, and the inevitable77 fractionalizing of men which is the consequence of this very tendency toward specialization. In the idea of outreaching radiations of interest and of the give and take relation there is the promise of liberation from the narrowness of specialism without the calamity78 of dilettantism79. That this idea cannot be fully80 realized, that no one can actually extend his web of interest so far, that his reactions at best will be feeble, is perhaps a palmary instance of that law of frustration81 which fatally besets82 all human effort. But the effort will be in the right direction, and the effort counts.
The University
In sketching83 the ethical or spiritual side of the University, initial stress is to be laid on the meaning of the word universitas. The term as at present used hardly
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suggests more than all-inclusiveness. A modern university is an institution in which all the different schools, the school of engineering, the school of science, the school of philosophy, etc., exist side by side, under a single governing body, and in which the various branches of knowledge are pursued without any visible systematic84 connection between them! The spiritual ideal of a university is that of system, of organic connection, for this is what spiritual means.
In looking back on the history of the higher institutions of learning one cannot but be struck by the close correspondence of those institutions to the general ideals of life of the people among whom they flourished. I call to mind the Hindu education with its Brahmanic background; the Mandarin85 education, with Confucianism as its inspiring principle; the musical education of the Greeks; the theological education of Jews and Mohammedans; then among the Western nations, the English university a seminary for training rulers of the Empire; the German university, a training institution for the higher bureaucracy; the French university, visibly reflecting the logical tendency of the French mind.
We in America, instructed by the survey of the past, are bound to face the question: In what way shall the American university differ from universities elsewhere? What characteristic shape shall the American university take on? How can the American university correspond to the American ideal of life? At present our notions in this respect are in a formative, not to say in a chaotic86, condition. The college still survives—an institution designed for the education of gentlemen. Practical ten300dencies, looking toward materialistic87 success, prevail in many of our Western universities. The German research idea has come in as a third factor, penetrating88 deeply in some of our institutions, less deeply in others, but inharmonious everywhere with the rival conceptions that still persist.
The principal circumstance that retards89 our university development doubtless is that the ideal of American life itself, which the university is to express and to promote, is as yet undefined in the minds of the American people. But without presuming to anticipate what must be the outcome of gradual and prolonged growth, it may still be serviceable to clear our minds as to the goal towards which we desire that the development shall tend. The fundamental ideal of the American people is that of freedom! The notion of freedom is crude as yet, but is capable of being ennobled and refined. To be free is to express power. To be free in the highest sense is to express the highest kind of power. The highest kind is that which is exercised in such wise as to elicit90 unlike yet cognate91 power in others. A people is to be called free when all the different social or vocational groups of which it is the integrated whole spontaneously react upon one another, and when in each group each member of it realizes some mental gift of his own. A free people is not one which is merely released from the authority of autocrats92. That is only a condition of freedom, not freedom itself. A free people is not one in which strong individuals are permitted to thrive parasitically93 at the expense of the weak. Nor yet one in which merely equal opportunity is afforded to all in the race for material301 well-being94. A free people is one in which the essential energies of all effectuate themselves unhindered, the life of each swelling95 the surrounding tide of life, and being enriched in turn by the returning tide. This to my mind is liberty,—the liberation of what is best in each. This is freedom,—the free flow of life into life. The ideal American University is one which expresses and promotes this ideal of freedom.
A university is a group of vocational schools. A truly democratic university is an organic system of vocational schools, one which in the relations that subsist96 between its schools affords a shining, stimulating example of the kind of relations that ought to subsist between the vocational groups in the state.
The aim of an American university should be to furnish leaders for all the various groups who will undertake the great business of truly organizing democracy.
Education for Adults
Education should be continuous through life. The University Extension movement is endeavoring to meet this demand. It has already to its credit a considerable extension of knowledge, as well as the stirring up of interest in things of the mind among those whom it reaches. But far greater tasks than it has yet attacked remain. The academic method is not suited to the instruction of adults. A method will have to be worked out for teaching a subject to mature minds different from that which is appropriate in introducing the subject to the relatively97 immature98 minds of students. The student who has not yet entered vocational life needs to302 be put in possession of the principles by which he can lay hold of life. A mature person who is deficient99 in theoretical education needs to be helped to interpret his vocational experience in such a manner as to find his way back to the principles. In the one case there is the outlook and the emptiness; in the other case the fullness of content without the comprehensive outlook.
Secondly100, the stages of vocational development through which the worker has already passed in his vocation are to be borne in mind, and the teaching adapted to the different stages. I have suggested four divisions: that of apprenticeship101, that of initial mastery, that of more complete mastery, and the emeritus102 stage.84
Thirdly, it is getting to be increasingly difficult for a specialist in any one branch to keep abreast103 of the progress made in other branches. Popularization of the ordinary kind does not satisfy. It means, as a rule, diluting104 the subject-matter, not truly simplifying it. Provision should be made, in any large and generous scheme of public education, for enabling ripe minds to assimilate the ripest fruits produced by contemporary thinkers and writers who work in other fields.
NOTE
A few outstanding points in regard to what is called Moral Education may be added to this chapter.
There should be ethical teaching in the universities. The kinds of ethics105 taught should be adapted to the university period of life, emphasis being put on the experiences of the303 student at that time of life,—on friendship, the sex relation, the vocational outlook, etc. be included in the programme for the education of adults.
Systematic moral education in schools and high schools is advisable. It is frequently criticised on the ground that it is apt to be schematic and unreal. Moral counsels given as the occasion arises are believed to be more effective. They hit the nail on the head and drive it home. The reply to this is that incidental moral advice and exhortation106 is not excluded, but that it by no means adequately answers the purpose. The occasions for giving the necessary guidance simply do not arise. This kind of moral teaching is apt to be patchy. In the next place, ethical instruction, when rightly planned, has two objects: the one to bring into clear relief the life axioms that underlie107 the entire home and school experience of the pupil, and secondly, to give to the pupil a provisional chart and compass or ethical outlook upon his future life. Ethical teaching conceived of and conducted in this manner is neither schematic nor artificial. It does not drive home a nail here and there, it constructs a mental house in which the mind of the pupil can be at home,—with windows in it, looking out upon a large landscape outside.
The capital significance of right relations, ethical relations, between the members of the teaching staff has been noted108 in the text. In every school clubs should be formed consisting of pupils specially19 interested in any one subject and of the special teachers of that subject:—or if not formal clubs, then at least more intimate personal relations should exist between the special teacher and those selected pupils, the object being through personal intercourse109 to introduce the young aspirant110 to a knowledge of the problems on which the older person is intent. There is nothing nearly so educative for the young as to be taken into the counsels of their elders.
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The more gifted pupils of the school should be invited to take a personal interest in helping111 the more backward students. In every school, high school and university there are social misfits,—shy, sensitive, solitary112 youths who fail to come into easy touch with their fellows, and suffer acutely. They are objects of the most delicate, deferential113 charity, and the task of bringing them into fellowship offers one of the finest opportunities for ethical education.
A vital system of self-government is to be used as a means of placing real responsibility upon the students under due advice. To exercise responsibility is to acquire character. Self-government is particularly important so far as it relates to the administration of justice in a school. Cases of discipline should be used as means to create the right conception of punishment, the right attitude towards those who have erred5.
The relation between the adolescent boy and girl and the parents is of prime significance as illustrating114 in a way that young persons can understand the general conception of the ethical relation as reciprocal. The youth should be shown that he can be not only the recipient115 but a giver of benefits, that he can be a real help to his parents, chiefly by sympathetically entering into the problems and difficulties with which they have to contend. The parents, instead of being regarded by the young as an earthly providence116, existing only for the purpose of bestowing117 benefits, should be seen in their true light as struggling, and often heavily burdened human beings. At the same time the young son or daughter will in this way gain an invaluable118 preparation for comprehending the difficulties under which the effort to live must be carried on.
In regard to patriotism119, it is important that the errors and mistakes committed by one’s nation in the past should not be overlooked or minimized.
The school should furnish to the students various outlets120 for social service such as they in their period of life are capable of rendering121.
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vocation
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| n.职业，行业 | |
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vocations
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| n.（认为特别适合自己的）职业( vocation的名词复数 )；使命；神召；（认为某种工作或生活方式特别适合自己的）信心 | |
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ethical
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| adj.伦理的，道德的，合乎道德的 | |
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accentuating
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| v.重读( accentuate的现在分词 )；使突出；使恶化；加重音符号于 | |
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erred
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| 犯错误，做错事( err的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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scrutiny
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| n.详细检查，仔细观察 | |
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embodied
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| v.表现( embody的过去式和过去分词 )；象征；包括；包含 | |
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ego
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| n.自我，自己，自尊 | |
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versed
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| adj. 精通，熟练 | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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impartial
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| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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deflected
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| 偏离的 | |
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ostensible
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| adj.(指理由)表面的，假装的 | |
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conspiracy
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| n.阴谋，密谋，共谋 | |
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laborers
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| n.体力劳动者，工人( laborer的名词复数 )；（熟练工人的）辅助工 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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enacted
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| 制定（法律），通过（法案）( enact的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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reverberate
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| v.使回响，使反响 | |
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awakening
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| n.觉醒，醒悟 adj.觉醒中的；唤醒的 | |
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guilt
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| n.犯罪；内疚；过失，罪责 | |
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sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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docile
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| adj.驯服的，易控制的，容易教的 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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ethically
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| adv.在伦理上，道德上 | |
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evoke
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| vt.唤起，引起，使人想起 | |
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constituents
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| n.选民( constituent的名词复数 )；成分；构成部分；要素 | |
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essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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orientated
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| v.朝向( orientate的过去式和过去分词 )；面向；确定方向；使适应 | |
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dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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labors
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| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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adolescence
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| n.青春期，青少年 | |
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incentive
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| n.刺激；动力；鼓励；诱因；动机 | |
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differentiate
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| vi.(between)区分；vt.区别；使不同 | |
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aptitude
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| n.(学习方面的)才能，资质，天资 | |
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heed
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| v.注意，留意；n.注意，留心 | |
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reiterating
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| 反复地说，重申( reiterate的现在分词 ) | |
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reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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revere
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| vt.尊崇，崇敬，敬畏 | |
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sifts
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| v.筛( sift的第三人称单数 )；筛滤；细查；详审 | |
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sifting
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| n.筛，过滤v.筛( sift的现在分词 )；筛滤；细查；详审 | |
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reverent
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| adj.恭敬的，虔诚的 | |
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contrived
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| adj.不自然的，做作的；虚构的 | |
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45
liberate
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| v.解放，使获得自由，释出，放出；vt.解放，使获自由 | |
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46
reverenced
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| v.尊敬，崇敬( reverence的过去式和过去分词 )；敬礼 | |
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47
habitually
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| ad.习惯地，通常地 | |
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48
stimulating
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| adj.有启发性的，能激发人思考的 | |
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49
partnership
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| n.合作关系，伙伴关系 | |
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50
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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51
supremely
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| adv.无上地，崇高地 | |
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52
appraising
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| v.估价( appraise的现在分词 )；估计；估量；评价 | |
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53
tally
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| n.计数器，记分，一致，测量；vt.计算，记录，使一致；vi.计算，记分，一致 | |
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54
appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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55
citizenship
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| n.市民权，公民权，国民的义务(身份) | |
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56
civic
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| adj.城市的，都市的，市民的，公民的 | |
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57
distinctively
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| adv.特殊地，区别地 | |
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58
humanitarian
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| n.人道主义者，博爱者，基督凡人论者 | |
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59
disclaim
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| v.放弃权利，拒绝承认 | |
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60
transformations
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| n.变化( transformation的名词复数 )；转换；转换；变换 | |
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bias
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| n.偏见，偏心，偏袒；vt.使有偏见 | |
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bent
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| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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averse
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| adj.厌恶的；反对的，不乐意的 | |
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illustrated
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| adj. 有插图的，列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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unwilling
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| adj.不情愿的 | |
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obsessed
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| adj.心神不宁的,鬼迷心窍的,沉迷的 | |
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passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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69
prominence
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| n.突出；显著；杰出；重要 | |
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utilize
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| vt.使用，利用 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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underlying
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| adj.在下面的，含蓄的，潜在的 | |
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74
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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paramount
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| a.最重要的，最高权力的 | |
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76
legacy
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| n.遗产，遗赠；先人(或过去)留下的东西 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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calamity
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| n.灾害，祸患，不幸事件 | |
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dilettantism
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| n.业余的艺术爱好，浅涉文艺，浅薄涉猎 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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frustration
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| n.挫折，失败，失效，落空 | |
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82
besets
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| v.困扰( beset的第三人称单数 )；不断围攻；镶；嵌 | |
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83
sketching
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| n.草图 | |
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84
systematic
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| adj.有系统的，有计划的，有方法的 | |
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85
Mandarin
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| n.中国官话，国语，满清官吏；adj.华丽辞藻的 | |
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86
chaotic
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| adj.混沌的，一片混乱的，一团糟的 | |
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87
materialistic
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| a.唯物主义的，物质享乐主义的 | |
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88
penetrating
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| adj.（声音）响亮的，尖锐的adj.（气味）刺激的adj.（思想）敏锐的，有洞察力的 | |
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retards
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| 使减速( retard的第三人称单数 )； 妨碍； 阻止； 推迟 | |
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elicit
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| v.引出,抽出,引起 | |
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cognate
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| adj.同类的，同源的，同族的；n.同家族的人，同源词 | |
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autocrats
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| n.独裁统治者( autocrat的名词复数 )；独断专行的人 | |
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parasitically
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| adv.寄生地，由寄生虫引起地 | |
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well-being
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| n.安康，安乐，幸福 | |
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95
swelling
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| n.肿胀 | |
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96
subsist
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| vi.生存，存在，供养 | |
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97
relatively
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| adv.比较...地，相对地 | |
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98
immature
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| adj.未成熟的，发育未全的，未充分发展的 | |
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deficient
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| adj.不足的，不充份的，有缺陷的 | |
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100
secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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101
apprenticeship
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| n.学徒身份；学徒期 | |
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102
emeritus
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| adj.名誉退休的 | |
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103
abreast
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| adv.并排地；跟上(时代)的步伐，与…并进地 | |
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104
diluting
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| 稀释，冲淡( dilute的现在分词 )； 削弱，使降低效果 | |
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105
ethics
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| n.伦理学；伦理观，道德标准 | |
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106
exhortation
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| n.劝告，规劝 | |
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107
underlie
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| v.位于...之下，成为...的基础 | |
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108
noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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109
intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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110
aspirant
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| n.热望者；adj.渴望的 | |
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111
helping
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| n.食物的一份&adj.帮助人的，辅助的 | |
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112
solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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113
deferential
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| adj. 敬意的，恭敬的 | |
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114
illustrating
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的现在分词 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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115
recipient
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| a.接受的,感受性强的 n.接受者,感受者,容器 | |
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116
providence
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| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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117
bestowing
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| 砖窑中砖堆上层已烧透的砖 | |
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118
invaluable
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| adj.无价的，非常宝贵的，极为贵重的 | |
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119
patriotism
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| n.爱国精神，爱国心，爱国主义 | |
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120
outlets
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| n.出口( outlet的名词复数 )；经销店；插座；廉价经销店 | |
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121
rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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