The same memorable5 day is marked by the setting of one of the most brilliant stars in the firmament6 of art and the rising of another in the sphere of science, which was to enlighten the world with beams of equal splendour. On the 18th February, 1564, Michael Angelo Buonarotti closed his eyes at Rome, and Galileo Galilei first saw the light at Pisa.
He was the son of the Florentine nobleman, Vincenzo Galilei, and of Julia, one of the ancient family of the Ammanati of Pescia, and was born in wedlock7, as the documents of the church clearly attest8.[7] His earliest years were spent at Pisa, but his parents soon returned to Florence, which was their settled home. Here he received his early education. His father had distinguished9 himself by his writings on the theory[4] of music, particularly the mathematical part of it.[8] They were not merely above mediocrity, but aimed at innovation, and if they did not achieve reform, it was to be attributed to the conservative spirit then reigning11 in Italy, which asserted itself in every department of life, and especially in the spheres of art and science.
Galileo’s father had no property. His income was but scanty13, and the fates had endowed him with a numerous family instead of with fortune.[9] Under these untoward14 circumstances he at first destined the little Galileo, as is related by Gherardini, his earliest biographer, to a career by no means distinguished, though advantageous15 in a material point of view, and one that conferred much of their wealth on the Florentines, so that it was held in high esteem16—he was to be a cloth dealer17. But the young noble first received the education befitting his station, that is, a very mediocre18 teacher instructed him in the Humanities.[10] Fortunately for the clever young scholar, he was handed over to the pious19 brethren of the convent of Vallombrosa for further education. Here he at once made rapid progress. He acquired great facility in the classics. His thorough study of the masterpieces of antiquity20 was of the greatest advantage to him. He doubtless thereby21 laid the foundation of the admirable style to which he afterwards, in some measure, owed his brilliant successes.
Galileo had a great variety of talent. Besides ardent22 pursuit of the solid branches of learning, he had considerable skill in drawing and music, in which he afterwards attained23 so much perfection that his judgment24 was highly esteemed25, even[5] by great artists.[11] He played the lute26 himself with the skill of a master. He also highly appreciated poetry. His later essays on Dante, Orlando Furioso, and Gerusalemme Liberata, as well as the fragment of a play, bear witness to his lively interest in belles27 lettres. But from his earliest youth he showed the greatest preference for mechanics. He made little machines with an ingenuity28 and skill which evinced a really unusual talent for such things.[12]
With these abilities his father must soon have arrived at the conclusion that his son was born for something better than for distributing wool among the people, and resolved to devote him to science; only it was necessary that the branch of it to which he turned his attention should offer a prospect29 of profit. Medicine was decided30 on as the most likely to be lucrative31, although it may not seem the one most suited to his abilities.
On 5th November, 1581, Galileo, then just seventeen, entered the University of Pisa.[13] Even here the young medical student’s independent ideas and aims made way for themselves. At that time any original ideas and philosophical33 views not derived34 from the dogmas of Aristotle were unheard of. All the theories of natural science and philosophy had hitherto been referred to theology. It had been held to be the Alpha and Omega of all human knowledge. But now the period was far advanced in which it was felt to be necessary to cast off the narrow garments fashioned by religion, though at first the will to do so exceeded the power. A stir and ferment35 agitated36 men’s minds. A period of storm and stress had begun for the study of nature and the philosophical speculation37 so closely connected with it. Men did not as yet possess energy and ability for direct advance, so they turned with real fanaticism38 to ancient learning, which, being[6] independent, and not based on religious notions, afforded them satisfaction. Under these circumstances recurrence39 to the past was real progress.
Unconditional40 surrender to the ideas of others, entire adoption41 of opinions, some of which were not too well verified, might suit mediocrity, but it could not suffice for the powerful mind of Galileo, who was striving to find out the truth for himself. The genius of the young student rebelled fiercely against rigid42 adherence43 to an antiquated44 standpoint. To the horror of the followers45 of Aristotle, who were quite taken aback at such unheard-of audacity46, he resolutely47 attacked in public disputations many oracular dicta of their great master hitherto unquestioned, and this even then made him many enemies, and acquired for him the epithet48 of “the Wrangler49.”[14]
Two circumstances occur during Galileo’s student years, which, in their main features, are not without historical foundation, although in detail they bear an anecdotal impress. One, which is characteristic of Galileo’s observant eye, shows us the student of nineteen devoutly50 praying in the Cathedral at Pisa; but he seems to have soon wearied of this occupation, for he dreamily fixed51 his eye on the Maestro Possenti’s beautiful lamp, hanging from an arch, which, in order to light it more readily, had been moved out of its vertical52 position and then left to itself. The oscillations were at first considerable, became gradually less and less, but notwithstanding the varying distances, they were all performed in the same time, as the young medical student discovered to a nicety by feeling his pulse. The isochronism of the vibrations54 of the pendulum was discovered![15]
The other story refers to Galileo’s first mathematical studies. Gherardini relates that he was scarcely acquainted with the elements of mathematics up to his twentieth year, which, by the by, seems almost incredible. But while he was[7] diligently55 studying medicine at Pisa, the court of Tuscany came there for some months. Among the suite32 was Ostilio Ricci, governor of the pages, a distinguished mathematician56 and an old friend of the Galilei family; Galileo, therefore, often visited him. One morning when he was there, Ricci was teaching the pages. Galileo stood shyly at the door of the schoolroom, listening attentively57 to the lesson; his interest grew greater and greater; he followed the demonstration58 of the mathematical propositions with bated breath. Strongly attracted by the science almost unknown to him before, as well as by Ricci’s method of instruction, he often returned, but always unobserved, and, Euclid in hand, drank deeply, from his uncomfortable concealment59, of the streams of fresh knowledge. Mathematics also occupied the greater part of his time in the solitude60 of his study. But all this did not satisfy his thirst for knowledge. He longed to be himself taught by Ricci. At last he took courage, and, hesitatingly confessing his sins of curiosity to the astonished tutor, he besought61 him to unveil to him the further mysteries of mathematics, to which Ricci at once consented.
When Galileo’s father learnt that his son was devoting himself to Euclid at the expense of Hippocrates and Galen, he did his utmost to divert him from this new, and as it seemed to him, unprofitable study. The science of mathematics was not then held in much esteem, as it led to nothing practical. Its use, as applied62 to the laws of nature, had scarcely begun to be recognised. But the world-wide mission for which Galileo’s genius destined him had been too imperiously marked out by fate for him to be held back by the mere10 will of any man. Old Vincenzo had to learn the unconquerable power of genius in young Galileo, and to submit to it. The son pursued the studies marked out for him by nature more zealously64 than ever, and at length obtained leave from his father to bid adieu to medicine and to devote himself exclusively to mathematics and physics.[16]
[8]
The unexpected successes won by the young philosopher in a very short time in the realm of science, soon showed that his course had now been turned into the proper channel. Galileo’s father, who, almost crushed with the burden of his family, could with difficulty bear the expense of his son’s residence at the University, turned in his perplexity to the beneficence of the reigning Grand Duke, Ferdinand de’ Medici, with the request that, in consideration of the distinguished talents and scientific attainments65 of Galileo, he would grant him one of the forty free places founded for poor students at the University. But even then there were many who were envious66 of Galileo in consequence of his unusual abilities and his rejection67 of the traditional authority of Aristotle. They succeeded in inducing the Grand Duke to refuse poor Vincenzo’s petition, in consequence of which the young student had to leave the University, after four years’ residence, without taking the doctor’s degree.[17]
In spite of these disappointments, Galileo was not deterred68, on his return home, from continuing his independent researches into natural phenomena69. The most important invention of those times, to which he was led by the works of Archimedes, too little regarded during the Middle Ages, was his hydrostatic scales, about the construction and use of which he wrote a treatise4, called “La Bilancetta.” This, though afterwards circulated in manuscript copies among his followers and pupils, was not printed until after his death, in 1655.
Galileo now began to be everywhere spoken of in Italy. The discovery of the movement of the pendulum as a measurement of time, the importance of which was increasingly recognised, combined with his novel and intellectual treatment of physics, by which the phenomena of nature were submitted, as far as possible, to direct proof instead of to the a priori reasoning of the Aristotelians, excited much attention in all scientific circles. Distinguished men of learning, like[9] Clavius at Rome, with whom he had become acquainted on his first visit there in 1587,[18] Michael Coignet at Antwerp, Riccoboni, the Marquis Guidubaldo del Monte, etc., entered into correspondence with him.[19] Intercourse70 with the latter, a distinguished mathematician, who took the warmest interest in Galileo’s fate, became of the utmost importance to him. It was not merely that to his encouragement he owed the origin of his excellent treatise on the doctrine71 of centres of gravity, which materially contributed to establish his fame, and even gained for him from Del Monte the name of an “Archimedes of his time,” but he first helped him to secure a settled and honourable72 position in life. By his opportune73 recommendation in 1589, the professorship of mathematics at the University of Pisa, just become vacant, was conferred on Galileo, with an income of sixty scudi.[20] It is indicative of the standing53 of the sciences in those days that, while the professor of medicine had a salary of two thousand scudi, the professor of mathematics had not quite thirty kreuzers[21] a day. Even for the sixteenth century it was very poor pay. Moreover, in accordance with the usage at the Italian Universities, he was only installed for three years; but in Galileo’s needy74 circumstances, even this little help was very desirable, and his office enabled him to earn a considerable additional income by giving private lessons.
During the time of his professorship at Pisa he made his grand researches into the laws of gravitation, now known under the name of “Galileo’s Laws,” and wrote as the result of them his great treatise “De Motu Gravium.” It then had but a limited circulation in copies, and did not appear in print until two hundred years after his death, in Albèri’s “Opere complete di Galileo Galilei.” Aristotle,[10] nearly two thousand years before, had raised the statement to the rank of a proposition, that the rate at which a body falls depends on its weight. Up to Galileo’s time this doctrine had been generally accepted as true, on the mere word of the old hero of science, although individual physicists75, like Varchi in 1544, and Benedetti in 1563, had disputed it, maintaining that bodies of similar density76 and different weight fall from the same height in an equal space of time. They sought to prove the correctness of this statement by the most acute reasoning, but the idea of experiment did not occur to any one. Galileo, well aware that the touchstone of experiment would discover the vulnerable spot in Aristotelian infallibility, climbed the leaning tower of Pisa, in order thence to prove by experiment, to the discomfiture77 of the Peripatetic78 school, the truth of the axiom that the velocity79 with which a body falls does not depend on its weight but on its density.[22]
It might have been thought that his opponents would strike sail after this decisive argument. Aristotle, the master, would certainly have yielded to it—but his disciples80 had attained no such humility81. They followed the bold experiments of the young professor with eyes askance and miserable82 sophistries83, and, being unable to meet him with his own weapons of scientific research, they eagerly sought an opportunity of showing the impious and dangerous innovator84 the door of the aula.
An unforeseen circumstance came all at once to their aid in these designs. An illegitimate son of the half-brother of the reigning Grand Duke,—the relationship was somewhat farfetched, but none the less ominous85 for Galileo—John de’ Medici, took an innocent pleasure in inventing machines, and considered himself a very skilful86 artificer. This ingenious semi-prince had constructed a monster machine for cleaning the harbour of Leghorn, and proposed that it should be brought into use. But Galileo, who had been commissioned to examine the marvel87, declared it to be useless, and, unfortunately,[11] experiment fully88 confirmed the verdict. Ominous head-shakings were seen among the suite of the deeply mortified89 inventor. They entered into alliance with the Peripatetic philosophers against their common enemy. There were cabals90 at court. Galileo, perceiving that his position at Pisa was untenable, voluntarily resigned his professorship before the three years had expired, and migrated for the second time home to Florence.[23]
His situation was now worse than before, for about this time, 2nd July, 1591, his father died after a short illness, leaving his family in very narrow circumstances. In this distress91 the Marquis del Monte again appeared as a friend in need. Thanks to his warm recommendation to the Senate of the Republic of Venice, in the autumn of 1592 the professorship of mathematics at the University of Padua, which had become vacant, was bestowed92 on Galileo for six years.[24] On 7th December, 1592, he entered on his office with a brilliant opening address, which won the greatest admiration93, not only for its profound scientific knowledge, but for its entrancing eloquence94.[25] His lectures soon acquired further fame, and the number of his admirers and the audience who eagerly listened to his, in many respects, novel demonstrations95, daily increased.
During his residence at Padua, Galileo displayed an extraordinary and versatile96 activity. He constructed various machines for the service of the republic, and wrote a number of excellent treatises, intended chiefly for his pupils.[26] Among the larger works may be mentioned his writings on the laws of motion, on fortification, gnomonics (the making of sun-dials), mechanics, and on the celestial97 globe, which attained a wide circulation even in copies, and were some of them printed[12] long afterwards—the one on fortification not until the present century;[27] others, including the one on gnomonics, are unfortunately lost. On the wide field of inventions two may be specially12 mentioned, one of which was not fully developed until much later. The first was his proportional circle, which, though it had no special importance as illustrative of any principle, had a wide circulation from its various practical uses. Ten years later, in 1606, Galileo published an excellent didactic work on this subject, dedicated98 to Cosmo de’ Medici, and in 1607 a polemical one against Balthasar Capra, of Milan, who, in a treatise published in 1607, which was nothing but a plagiarism99 of Galileo’s work disfigured by blunders, gave himself out as the inventor of the instrument. Galileo’s reply, in which he first exhibited the polemical dexterity100 afterwards so much dreaded101, excited great attention even in lay circles from its masterly satire102.[28] The other invention was a contrivance by which heat could be more exactly indicated. Over zealous63 biographers have therefore hastened to claim for their hero the invention of the thermometer, which, however, is not correct, as the instrument, which was not intended to measure the temperature, could not be logically called a thermometer, but a thermoscope, heat indicator103. Undoubtedly104 it prepared the way by which improvers of the thermoscope arrived at the thermometer.[29]
Before proceeding105 further with Galileo’s researches and discoveries, so far as they fall within our province, it seems important to acquaint ourselves with his views about the Copernican system. From a letter of his to Mazzoni, of 30th May, 1597,[30] it is clear that he considered the opinions of Pythagoras and Copernicus on the position and motion of the earth to be far more correct than those of Aristotle and Ptolemy. In another letter of 4th August of the same year[13] to Kepler, he thanks him for his work, which he had sent him, on the Mysteries of the Universe,[31] and writes as follows about the Copernican system:—
“I count myself happy, in the search after truth, to have so great an ally as yourself, and one who is so great a friend of the truth itself. It is really pitiful that there are so few who seek truth, and who do not pursue a perverse106 method of philosophising. But this is not the place to mourn over the miseries107 of our times, but to congratulate you on your splendid discoveries in confirmation108 of truth. I shall read your book to the end, sure of finding much that is excellent in it. I shall do so with the more pleasure, because I have been for many years an adherent109 of the Copernican system, and it explains to me the causes of many of the appearances of nature which are quite unintelligible110 on the commonly accepted hypothesis. I have collected many arguments for the purpose of refuting the latter; but I do not venture to bring them to the light of publicity111, for fear of sharing the fate of our master, Copernicus, who, although he has earned immortal112 fame with some, yet with very many (so great is the number of fools) has become an object of ridicule113 and scorn. I should certainly venture to publish my speculations114 if there were more people like you. But this not being the case, I refrain from such an undertaking115.”[32]
In an answer from Gr?tz, of 13th October of the same year, Kepler urgently begs him to publish his researches into the Copernican system, advising him to bring them out in Germany if he does not receive permission to do so in Italy.[33] In spite of this pressing request of his eminent116 friend, however, Galileo was not to be induced to bring his convictions to the light yet, a hesitation117 which may not appear very commendable118. But if we consider the existing state of science, which condemned119 the Copernican system as an unheard of and fantastic hypothesis, and the religious incubus121 which weighed down all knowledge of nature irrespective of religious belief, and if, besides all this, we remember the entire revolution in the sphere both of religion and science involved in the reception of the Copernican system, we shall be more ready to admit that Galileo had good reason to be cautious. The Copernican[14] cause could not be served by mere partisanship122, but only by independent fresh researches to prove its correctness, indeed its irrefragability. Nothing but the fulfilment of these conditions formed a justification123, either in a scientific or moral point of view, for taking part in overturning the previous views of the universe.
Before the powerful mind of Copernicus ventured to question it, our earth was held to be the centre of the universe, and about it all the rest of the heavenly bodies revolved124. There was but one “world,” and that was our earth; the whole firmament, infinity125, was the fitting frame to the picture, upon which man, as the most perfect being, held a position which was truly sublime126. It was an elevating thought that you were on the centre, the only fixed point amidst countless127 revolving128 orbs129! The narrations130 in the Bible, and the character of the Christian131 religion as a whole, fitted this conception exceedingly well; or, more properly speaking, were made to fit it. The creation of man, his fall, the flood, and our second venerable ancestor, Noah, with his ark in which the continuation of races was provided for, the foundation of the Christian religion, the work of redemption;—all this could only lay claim to universal importance so long as the earth was the centre of the universe, the only world. Then all at once a learned man makes the annihilating132 assertion that our world was not the centre of the universe, but revolved itself, was but an insignificant133 part of the vast, immeasurable system of worlds. What had become of the favoured status of the earth? And this indefinite number of bodies, equally favoured by nature, were they also the abodes134 of men? The bare possibility of a number of inhabited worlds could but imperil the first principles of Christian philosophy.
The system of the great Copernicus, however, thanks to the anonymous135 preface to his famous work, “De Revolutionibus Orbium C?lestium,” had not, up to this time, assumed to be a correct theory, but only a hypothesis, which need not be considered even probable, as it was only intended to facilitate[15] astronomical136 calculations. We know now that this was a gigantic mistake, that the immortal astronomer137 had aimed at rectifying138 the Ptolemaic confusion, and was fully convinced of the correctness of his system; we know that this unprincipled Introduction is by no means to be attributed to Copernicus, but to Andreas Osiander, who took part in publishing this book, which formed so great an epoch139 in science, and whose anxious soul thereby desired to appease140 the anticipated wrath141 of the theologians and philosophers. And we know further that the founder142 of our present system of the universe, although he handled the first finished copy of his imperishable work when he was dying, was unable to look into it, being already struck by paralysis143, and thus never knew of Osiander’s weak-minded Introduction, which had prudently144 not been submitted to him.[34]
A few days after receiving a copy of the great work of his genius, Copernicus died, on 24th May, 1543; and his system, for which he had been labouring and striving all his life, was, in consequence of Osiander’s sacrilegious act, reduced to a simple hypothesis intended to simplify astronomical calculations! As such it did not in the least endanger the faith of the Church. Even Pope Paul III., to whom Copernicus had dedicated his work, received it “with pleasure.” In 1566 a second edition appeared at Basle, and still it did not excite any opposition145 from the Church. It was not till 1616, when it had met with wide acceptance among the learned, when its correctness had been confirmed by fresh facts, and it had begun to be looked upon as true, that the Roman curia felt moved to condemn120 the work of Copernicus until it had been corrected (donec corrigantur).
Having thus rapidly glanced at the opposition between the Copernican system and the Ptolemaic, which forms the prelude146 to Galileo’s subsequent relations with Rome, we are at liberty to fulfil the task we have set ourselves, namely, to portray147 “Galileo and the Roman Curia.”
点击
收听单词发音
收听单词发音 |
1
destined
|
|
| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
2
pendulum
|
|
| n.摆，钟摆 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
3
treatises
|
|
| n.专题著作，专题论文，专著( treatise的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
4
treatise
|
|
| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
5
memorable
|
|
| adj.值得回忆的，难忘的，特别的，显著的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
6
firmament
|
|
| n.苍穹；最高层 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
7
wedlock
|
|
| n.婚姻，已婚状态 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
8
attest
|
|
| vt.证明，证实；表明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
9
distinguished
|
|
| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
10
mere
|
|
| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
11
reigning
|
|
| adj.统治的，起支配作用的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
12
specially
|
|
| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
13
scanty
|
|
| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
14
untoward
|
|
| adj.不利的，不幸的，困难重重的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
15
advantageous
|
|
| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
16
esteem
|
|
| n.尊敬，尊重；vt.尊重，敬重；把…看作 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
17
dealer
|
|
| n.商人，贩子 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
18
mediocre
|
|
| adj.平常的，普通的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
19
pious
|
|
| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
20
antiquity
|
|
| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
21
thereby
|
|
| adv.因此，从而 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
22
ardent
|
|
| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
23
attained
|
|
| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
24
judgment
|
|
| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
25
esteemed
|
|
| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
26
lute
|
|
| n.琵琶，鲁特琴 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
27
belles
|
|
| n.美女( belle的名词复数 )；最美的美女 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
28
ingenuity
|
|
| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
29
prospect
|
|
| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
30
decided
|
|
| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
31
lucrative
|
|
| adj.赚钱的，可获利的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
32
suite
|
|
| n.一套(家具)；套房；随从人员 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
33
philosophical
|
|
| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
34
derived
|
|
| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
35
ferment
|
|
| vt.使发酵；n./vt.（使）激动，（使）动乱 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
36
agitated
|
|
| adj.被鼓动的，不安的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
37
speculation
|
|
| n.思索，沉思；猜测；投机 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
38
fanaticism
|
|
| n.狂热，盲信 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
39
recurrence
|
|
| n.复发，反复，重现 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
40
unconditional
|
|
| adj.无条件的，无限制的，绝对的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
41
adoption
|
|
| n.采用，采纳，通过；收养 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
42
rigid
|
|
| adj.严格的，死板的；刚硬的，僵硬的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
43
adherence
|
|
| n.信奉，依附，坚持，固着 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
44
antiquated
|
|
| adj.陈旧的，过时的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
45
followers
|
|
| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
46
audacity
|
|
| n.大胆，卤莽，无礼 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
47
resolutely
|
|
| adj.坚决地，果断地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
48
epithet
|
|
| n.（用于褒贬人物等的）表述形容词，修饰语 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
49
wrangler
|
|
| n.口角者，争论者；牧马者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
50
devoutly
|
|
| adv.虔诚地，虔敬地，衷心地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
51
fixed
|
|
| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
52
vertical
|
|
| adj.垂直的，顶点的，纵向的；n.垂直物，垂直的位置 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
53
standing
|
|
| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
54
vibrations
|
|
| n.摆动( vibration的名词复数 )；震动；感受；（偏离平衡位置的）一次性往复振动 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
55
diligently
|
|
| ad.industriously;carefully | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
56
mathematician
|
|
| n.数学家 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
57
attentively
|
|
| adv.聚精会神地；周到地；谛；凝神 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
58
demonstration
|
|
| n.表明，示范，论证，示威 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
59
concealment
|
|
| n.隐藏, 掩盖，隐瞒 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
60
solitude
|
|
| n. 孤独; 独居,荒僻之地,幽静的地方 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
61
besought
|
|
| v.恳求，乞求（某事物）( beseech的过去式和过去分词 )；(beseech的过去式与过去分词) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
62
applied
|
|
| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
63
zealous
|
|
| adj.狂热的，热心的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
64
zealously
|
|
| adv.热心地；热情地；积极地；狂热地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
65
attainments
|
|
| 成就，造诣； 获得( attainment的名词复数 )； 达到； 造诣； 成就 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
66
envious
|
|
| adj.嫉妒的，羡慕的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
67
rejection
|
|
| n.拒绝，被拒，抛弃，被弃 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
68
deterred
|
|
| v.阻止，制止( deter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
69
phenomena
|
|
| n.现象 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
70
intercourse
|
|
| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
71
doctrine
|
|
| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
72
honourable
|
|
| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
73
opportune
|
|
| adj.合适的，适当的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
74
needy
|
|
| adj.贫穷的，贫困的，生活艰苦的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
75
physicists
|
|
| 物理学家( physicist的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
76
density
|
|
| n.密集，密度，浓度 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
77
discomfiture
|
|
| n.崩溃；大败；挫败；困惑 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
78
peripatetic
|
|
| adj.漫游的，逍遥派的，巡回的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
79
velocity
|
|
| n.速度，速率 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
80
disciples
|
|
| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
81
humility
|
|
| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
82
miserable
|
|
| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
83
sophistries
|
|
| n.诡辩术( sophistry的名词复数 )；（一次）诡辩 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
84
innovator
|
|
| n.改革者；创新者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
85
ominous
|
|
| adj.不祥的，不吉的，预兆的，预示的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
86
skilful
|
|
| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
87
marvel
|
|
| vi.(at)惊叹vt.感到惊异；n.令人惊异的事 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
88
fully
|
|
| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
89
mortified
|
|
| v.使受辱( mortify的过去式和过去分词 )；伤害（人的感情）；克制；抑制（肉体、情感等） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
90
cabals
|
|
| n.（政治）阴谋小集团，（尤指政治上的）阴谋( cabal的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
91
distress
|
|
| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
92
bestowed
|
|
| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
93
admiration
|
|
| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
94
eloquence
|
|
| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
95
demonstrations
|
|
| 证明( demonstration的名词复数 )； 表明； 表达； 游行示威 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
96
versatile
|
|
| adj.通用的，万用的；多才多艺的，多方面的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
97
celestial
|
|
| adj.天体的；天上的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
98
dedicated
|
|
| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
99
plagiarism
|
|
| n.剽窃，抄袭 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
100
dexterity
|
|
| n.(手的)灵巧，灵活 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
101
dreaded
|
|
| adj.令人畏惧的；害怕的v.害怕，恐惧，担心( dread的过去式和过去分词) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
102
satire
|
|
| n.讽刺，讽刺文学，讽刺作品 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
103
indicator
|
|
| n.指标；指示物，指示者；指示器 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
104
undoubtedly
|
|
| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
105
proceeding
|
|
| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
106
perverse
|
|
| adj.刚愎的；坚持错误的，行为反常的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
107
miseries
|
|
| n.痛苦( misery的名词复数 )；痛苦的事；穷困；常发牢骚的人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
108
confirmation
|
|
| n.证实，确认，批准 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
109
adherent
|
|
| n.信徒，追随者，拥护者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
110
unintelligible
|
|
| adj.无法了解的，难解的，莫明其妙的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
111
publicity
|
|
| n.众所周知，闻名；宣传，广告 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
112
immortal
|
|
| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
113
ridicule
|
|
| v.讥讽，挖苦；n.嘲弄 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
114
speculations
|
|
| n.投机买卖( speculation的名词复数 )；思考；投机活动；推断 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
115
undertaking
|
|
| n.保证，许诺，事业 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
116
eminent
|
|
| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
117
hesitation
|
|
| n.犹豫，踌躇 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
118
commendable
|
|
| adj.值得称赞的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
119
condemned
|
|
| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
120
condemn
|
|
| vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
121
incubus
|
|
| n.负担；恶梦 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
122
Partisanship
|
|
| n. 党派性, 党派偏见 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
123
justification
|
|
| n.正当的理由；辩解的理由 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
124
revolved
|
|
| v.（使）旋转( revolve的过去式和过去分词 )；细想 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
125
infinity
|
|
| n.无限，无穷，大量 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
126
sublime
|
|
| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
127
countless
|
|
| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
128
revolving
|
|
| adj.旋转的，轮转式的；循环的v.（使）旋转( revolve的现在分词 )；细想 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
129
orbs
|
|
| abbr.off-reservation boarding school 在校寄宿学校n.球，天体，圆形物( orb的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
130
narrations
|
|
| 叙述事情的经过，故事( narration的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
131
Christian
|
|
| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
132
annihilating
|
|
| v.（彻底）消灭( annihilate的现在分词 )；使无效；废止；彻底击溃 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
133
insignificant
|
|
| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
134
abodes
|
|
| 住所( abode的名词复数 )； 公寓； （在某地的）暂住； 逗留 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
135
anonymous
|
|
| adj.无名的；匿名的；无特色的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
136
astronomical
|
|
| adj.天文学的，（数字）极大的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
137
astronomer
|
|
| n.天文学家 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
138
rectifying
|
|
| 改正，矫正( rectify的现在分词 )； 精馏； 蒸流； 整流 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
139
epoch
|
|
| n.(新)时代；历元 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
140
appease
|
|
| v.安抚，缓和，平息，满足 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
141
wrath
|
|
| n.愤怒，愤慨，暴怒 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
142
Founder
|
|
| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
143
paralysis
|
|
| n.麻痹(症)；瘫痪(症) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
144
prudently
|
|
| adv. 谨慎地，慎重地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
145
opposition
|
|
| n.反对，敌对 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
146
prelude
|
|
| n.序言，前兆，序曲 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
147
portray
|
|
| v.描写，描述；画(人物、景象等) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
| 欢迎访问英文小说网 |