Certainly the great majority of the proverbs are applicable to the affairs of the rank and file of men. So keen were the Wise on the task of admonishing11 and encouraging very ordinary men that they uttered many a commonplace in a fashion too simple to be memorable12 or even momentarily interesting to any person of alert intelligence. Nevertheless such material cannot be neglected here, and ought not to be despised. It must not be neglected, just because it is actually a large section of our subject matter; it ought not to be despised, for it all helps to show the humanism of the Wise, testifying that they were honest and practical teachers rather than clever writers anxious only to compile a book of skilful13 proverbs. That teacher is to be condemned15 who cannot, or will not, relate his thinking to the capacities of his hearers. The Wise deserve praise because they said a great deal that even the simpleton could not plead was beyond him.
We have begun, it seems, by tasting some of the spices with which the Wise seasoned their counsel. We come now to the solid matter of their doctrine16. By noting the qualities they praised or blamed, the deeds which won their approval or their censure17, we shall gain a general conception of their aspirations18. What were their ideals for men as individuals, as members of a family, as citizens of a State?
I.—The Individual
The threefold division just suggested—man in his individual, domestic and political relationships—seems simple and natural, but proves difficult to maintain, because the{138} first category in reality trespasses20 on the other two. Strictly21 speaking, none of the virtues22 and the vices24 concern the individual alone. If a man ruin his health by intemperate26 indulgence of fleshly desires, doubtless he is himself the prime sufferer, but obviously the State loses something thereby28, and woe29 betide his family! Still, such a quality as Temperance may reasonably enough be classed as a personal virtue23, being primarily an aspect of Man’s duty to himself. But what shall be said of duties such as Generosity30, Forbearance, Deceitfulness, the exercise of which might be reckoned almost as much Man’s duty to his neighbours in family or State as to himself? In which division shall we reckon these? For convenience, let these also be considered under the first heading as personal, rather than social, qualities. Enough material will still remain for use in the second and third sections of our topic.
(a) Virtues of Restraint. A convenient starting-point for our review of the characteristics the Wise desired to see in the individual is provided by certain negative virtues of restraint, which the proverbs frequently enjoin31.
I
OF THE
APPETITE
The duty of Moderation in eating and drinking is sufficiently32, though not urgently, commended: He that loveth pleasure shall come to want, and he that loveth wine and oil shall not be rich (Pr. 2117)—A companion of gluttonous34 men shameth his father (Pr. 287). Again, Wine is a mocker, strong drink a brawler35, and whoso erreth therein no wise man is he (Pr. 201; cp. 2329-35). Not that the Wise were advocates of an ascetic36 abstinence: they did no more than commend moderation.[62] Thus Ben Sirach, who certainly enjoyed banqueting on good food and good wine, contents himself with advising the inexperienced “not to eat greedily lest he be hated”; How sufficient, says he, to a{139} well-mannered man is a very little, and he doth not breathe hard upon his bed. Healthy sleep cometh of moderate eating; he riseth early and his wits are with him. The pain of wakefulness and colic and griping, these go to the insatiable man (E. 3119-20).
II
OF ANGER
The duty of curbing37 anger is emphasised in several telling proverbs. Doubtless the evil consequences of unbridled passion are more evident among the quick-tempered peoples of southern and eastern lands; but the northerner is apt to be sullen38, and perhaps what he gains by initial restraint he loses through the permanence of his indignation. Who dare affirm that a warning against wrath39 is not sorely needed in all lands and all centuries? What havoc40 has been wrought41 in human affairs by passion, be it sullen or sudden! Not even poverty is chargeable with causing more pain and misery43. In delivering their admonitions the Wise took up no specially44 exalted45 standpoint: they were content to note the plain consequences of anger—its disastrous46 effect on society, An angry man stirreth up strife47 and a wrathful man abounds48 in transgression49 (Pr. 2922, cp. 1518); and how that the angry man (too weak to conceal50 his emotions, A fool uttereth all his anger but a wise man keepeth it back and stilleth it [Pr. 2911]), must himself suffer in the end, He that is soon angry will deal foolishly and a man of wicked desires is hated (Pr. 1417). And again to much the same effect they said in a phrase that has become immortal51, He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty52, and he that controlleth his temper than he that taketh a city (Pr. 1632). How excellent that last proverb is! “So hot, little man, so hot?” The British Government has discovered the uses of advertisement for thrusting facts before the unobservant: one may disapprove53 the practice but not on the ground that it is ineffective. What if this proverb (and a few other valuable sayings that the Jewish Sages54 could supply) were to appear{140} one fine day on a million placards throughout the Kingdom? Would the money go wasted, or would there be the swiftest and most economical reform on record?
III OF SPEECH
Closely associated with restraint of passion is restraint of speech, a duty which is considered in several forceful proverbs: Death and life are in the power of the tongue, and they that love it shall eat the fruit thereof (Pr. 1821)—He that guardeth his mouth keepeth his life, but he that openeth wide his lips shall have destruction (Pr. 133). Of the specious56 dignity that silence for a time confers, they said with truth and humour: Even a fool when he holdeth his peace is counted wise; when he shutteth his lips he is esteemed57 as prudent59 (Pr. 1728). On the other hand, speaking the right word at the right time won their keen approval. Was it not the very art in which they themselves sought to excel? A man hath joy in the answer of his lips, and a word in due season how good it is (Pr. 1523).
(b) Things to Avoid. Much can be learnt regarding the ideals of the Wise by observing what they counselled men to shun60. Thus the sayings on the Sluggard61 (p. 128) might be used to show how they hated Indolence: As vinegar to the teeth and as smoke to the eyes, so is the sluggard to them that send him (Pr. 1026). They censured62 Disdain63 and Pride: He that despiseth his neighbour is void of wisdom (Pr. 1112)—Pride goeth before destruction and a haughty64 spirit before a fall (Pr. 1618). Ingratitude65 is dealt with in a restrained but memorable saying, Whoso rewardeth evil for good, evil shall not depart out of his house (Pr. 1713); and there are these two splendid proverbs against Revenge, Say not, “I will recompense evil”: wait on the Lord, and he will save thee (Pr. 2022)—and Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth, and let not thine heart be glad when he is overthrown66, lest the Lord seeing it be displeased67, and transfer his anger from him to thee{141} (Pr. 2417-18)[63]. Recall, by way of contrast, the terrible Italian proverbs quoted in Chapter I. (p. 23); remember the innate68 ferocity, derived69 from the ancient custom of the Desert vendettas70, that has always characterised the quarrels of the near East; and the wonder of such generous and noble exhortations72 as these in the Jewish proverbs cannot fail to be perceived.
Here is a vice25 which the Wise counted worse even than anger: Wrath is cruel and anger is overwhelming but who can stand against Jealousy73 (Pr. 274)? They repeatedly point out the evil of contentiousness74: As coals to the hot embers and wood to fire, so is a quarrelsome man to inflame75 strife (Pr. 2621)—It is an honour for a man to keep aloof76 from strife, but every fool sheweth his teeth (Pr. 203). One proverb makes use of two curious similes77 to enforce the lesson, Lay thine hand upon thy mouth; for, as the churning of milk bringeth forth78 butter, and as wringing79 of the nose bringeth forth blood, so the forcing of wrath bringeth forth strife (Pr. 3033) and another with a touch of dry humour remarks, He seizes a dog by the ears who meddles80 with a quarrel not his own (Pr. 2617), i.e., having once taken hold he cannot let go!
What the Wise thought of Slander82 and of Flattery has been indicated sufficiently in the preceding chapter.
Dissimulation83 and Treachery stirred them to a fine contempt: Fervent84 lips and a wicked heart are an earthen vessel85 plated with silver. He that hateth dissembleth with his lips, but layeth up deceit within him: when he speaketh fair, believe him not; for in his heart are seven abominations. Though his hatred86 cloak itself with guile87, his wickedness shall be shown openly before the congregation (Pr. 2623-26)—brave{142} words and vigorous! One feels very sure that the Empire which betrayed its mind in the Hymn88 of Hate would need to show more than the penitence89 of fair words on fervent lips before it could hope for clemency90 from this Sage55.
(c) The Virtues. So much for the Vices. It is time to consider the positive qualities that the Sages praised, and the foregoing picture of guile raises thoughts of its opposite. Let us begin therefore with the praises of True Friendship. Ben Sirach expands the subject into a little essay: If thou wouldest get thee a friend, get him by dint91 of trial, and be not in haste to trust him. For there is a friend that is such for his own occasion, and he will not continue in the day of thine affliction. And there is a friend that turneth to an enemy, and he will be openly at strife with thee to thy confusion. And there is a friend that is a companion at the table (i.e., a “cupboard-lover”), and he will not remain in the hour of thy distress92.... A faithful friend is a strong defence, and he that hath found him hath found a treasure. There is nothing can be exchanged for a faithful friend, and his excellency is beyond all price. A faithful friend is a medicine of life, and they that fear the Lord shall find him (E. 67ff). To match any single proverb against such words is a hard test, yet there is one that not only can bear the ordeal93 but is perhaps the finest of all epitomes94 of friendship: A friend is always friendly, born to be a brother in adversity (Pr. 1717, mg. R.V.).
Seeing that the Wise saw in the fool’s pride and self-sufficiency his worst and fatal error, it is only to be expected that they should lay constant stress on the duties of preserving an open mind and continuing amenable95 to instruction and reproof96: Take fast hold of instruction; let her not go, for she is thy life (Pr. 413)—Whoso loveth correction loveth knowledge, but he that hateth reproof is a boor97 (Pr. 121)—He that being often reproved hardeneth his neck shall suddenly be broken, and that beyond mending (Pr. 291).{143}
No less prominent and much more remarkable98 (seeing how profoundly and persistently99 falsehood in speech has beset100 the Oriental character) is the demand for Truthfulness101: A righteous man hates deception103 (Pr. 135). We are told that only truth endures: The lip of truth shall be established for ever, whereas a lying tongue is but for a moment (Pr. 1219). Sincerity104 of character is often extolled105 in plain speech and in metaphor106: The righteousness of the perfect shall make straight his way (Pr. 115)—The mouth of the righteous is a fountain of life (Pr. 1011)—The tongue of the righteous is like choice silver (Pr. 1020)—The lips of the righteous feed many (Pr. 1021)—The thoughts of the righteous are just (Pr. 125)—The heart of the righteous studieth what to answer, but the mouth of the wicked poureth out evil things (Pr. 1528).[64]—The fruit of the righteous is a tree of life (Pr. 1130). Integrity of purpose is even more beautifully commended in this memorable proverb: He that loveth pureness of heart, and on whose lips is grace, the king shall be his friend (Pr. 2211).
Perhaps not a few of the Wise wore an air of superiority to their neighbours; some may have given God thanks that they were not as other men; but assuredly not all fell victims to what was for them a natural temptation, and justice demands that full weight be assigned to the numerous sayings in which they castigate107 Vanity or praise Humility108. For instance, When pride cometh, said they, then cometh shame, but with the lowly is Wisdom (Pr. 112).
To be temperate27 in body and mind, energetic, peaceable, honest and truthful102, teachable, sincere, loyal and honourable109—evidently the Wise made no small demand on human nature. But above and beyond these qualities, and very wonderful in the old Oriental world, are these virtues,{144} which the Wise expected good men to possess and show—consideration for others, helpfulness, mercy, kindness of word and deed, and even forgiving love. They declare that, Whoso mocketh the poor reproacheth his Maker110, and he that is glad at calamity111 shall not go unpunished (Pr. 175). The righteous ought to be a guide to his neighbour (Pr. 1226); and (as an arresting passage insists) the obligation must not be shuffled112 off or wilfully113 ignored: Deliver them that are carried away unto death and them that are tottering114 to the slaughter115 see that thou hold back. If thou sayest, “Behold we knew not this,” doth not He that weigheth the hearts consider it? And he that keepeth thy soul doth He not know it? And shall he not render to every man according to his work (Pr. 2411, 12)? As regards the broad social applications of this proverb, the deep guilt116 of all nations leaves little to choose between them. But taking the command on its more intimate and individual aspect, does it not utter a warning that the average Briton has peculiar117 need to hear? For our national character is such that we hate interfering118 with another man’s way of life; we are even shy of rebuking119 the young. There is, of course, a virtue in our natural tolerance120, for men cannot be school-mastered into mending their ways. But conscience will admit that much of our non-interference is mere121 shirking of duty, a passing-by on the other side. If we were less frightened to warn or to help others, less anxious how our words would be received and whether we might be snubbed and made uncomfortable or called a Pharisee, it may be that, whenever we did so warn or help, we should do it with a better grace and therefore more effectually. Since nine out of ten are wont122 to err6 on the side of silence, we reiterate123 the injunction ... them that are tottering to the slaughter see that thou hold back. There are times when diffidence may be a sin, and the fear of contention124 cowardice125.
Concerning Mercy in deed or thought and Honesty in{145} speech the Wise said, Let not mercy and truth forsake126 thee. Bind127 them upon thy neck, write them on the tablet of thine heart; so shalt thou find favour and good repute in the sight of God and man (Pr. 33, 4). There are phrases concerning Kindness which live in the memory and touch the heart: The healing tongue is a tree of life (Pr. 154)—There is that speaketh rashly like the piercings of a sword, but the tongue of the Wise is health (Pr. 1218), and a saying that for all its gentleness holds the conscience in a vice-like grip: A soft answer turneth away wrath (Pr. 151)—so hard to believe when occasion presses, but proved true a thousand thousand times. And here, in conclusion, are three, wonderful, winged proverbs, which haunt one with the magic of their moral challenge: Say not, “I will do so to him as he hath done to me, I will render to the man according to his work” (Pr. 2429)—If thine enemy be hungry give him bread to eat, if he thirst give him water to drink; for thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head, and the Lord shall reward thee (Pr. 2521).
Hatred stirreth up strife,
But love covereth all transgressions128
(Pr. 1012).[65]
So much for Man, the individual. To finish the outline of the Wise-men’s ideal we have still to consider the proverbs concerning family life and the wider relationships of the State.
II.—Family Life
A slight acquaintance with Oriental life will suggest the probability that in the family, as the Wise conceived it, fathers and sons were the only important figures; and Jewish proverbs at first sight confirm the conjecture129: “Daughters,” says Kent[66], “are passed by with a silence that is significant.” But, significant of what? Not that they were ill-used or neglected or unloved in Hebrew{146} homes, but that the Wise not unnaturally130 acquiesced133 in the normal conditions of Oriental existence which inevitably134 made a daughter of much less importance than a son. A girl was debarred from the manifold interests of commercial, social, and political affairs; she could not, like a son, perpetuate135 the family name; nor could the parents hope to see in her the support and strength of their old age. The Wise never attempted to ignore facts, and they never aimed at nor imagined revolutions in the fundamental circumstances of society as they found it. But we have to confess that Ben Sirach does more than acquiesce132 in the recognised limitations of daughters. He was reprehensibly querulous upon the subject, and we fear lest some who read may find it difficult to forgive him for such a ridiculous exhibition of masculine stupidity. Says Ben Sirach (and from the slow shake of his head we infer this to be no hasty dictum, but the result of his mature and cautious consideration), A daughter is a secret cause of wakefulness to a father, and anxiety for her putteth away sleep.... Keep a strict watch over a headstrong daughter, lest she make thee a laughing-stock to thine enemies, a byword in the city, and notorious among the people (E. 429-11).
Closer scrutiny136 of the Wise-men’s thoughts about family life reveals something surprising and gratifying. It might have been expected that in any Eastern society Woman would continue all her days to be held in small esteem58, carrying a heavy yoke137 for scant138 reward. But the Hebrew proverbs testify on the contrary that when a Jewish woman grew up and became wife or mother she stepped at once into a noble and influential139 position, enjoying a real share in the honour or prosperity of her husband, and entitled equally with him to the obedience140 and devotion of her children. No less than the father she was reckoned by the Wise to be the children’s guide and counsellor. She had reasonable opportunity for social intercourse142 with{147} other persons than the members of her own household, and within her own house was trusted with responsibilities that gave her a large share in the making or marring of its happiness and fortunes. The Wise-men’s ideal of married life is presented in a famous panegyric143, which deserves to be given at length, for some writers have declared—not unreasonably144 in view of the immemorial inferiority to which the women of the East have been condemned—that it is the most remarkable feature of the Book of Proverbs.
The Wise and Loyal Wife[67]
The heart of her husband trusteth in her,
And he shall have no lack of gain.
She doeth him good and not evil
All the days of her life.
She seeketh wool and flax,
And worketh it up as she pleaseth.
She is like the merchant-ships,
Bringing her food from afar.
She riseth also while it is yet night,
And giveth food to her household.
She examines a field and buyeth it;
She girdeth herself with strength,
And maketh strong her arms.
She perceives that her profit is good;
Her lamp goes not out by night.
She puts out her hand to the distaff,
And layeth hold on the spindle.
She extendeth her hand to the poor;
She feareth not snow for her household,
Her husband is distinguished152 in the gates,
When he sitteth among the elders of the land.
She maketh linen cloth and sells it,
And delivereth girdles to the merchants.
Strength and dignity are her clothing,
And she laughs at the time to come.
Her speech is full of wisdom,
She looketh well to the ways of her household
And eateth not the bread of idleness.
Industrious154, skilful, wise, provident155 and kind, she is rewarded by the praise and affection of husband and children—
Her husband also, and he praiseth her saying:
“Many daughters have done excellently
But thou excellest them all.”
Wherefore despite the despondent156 query157, A virtuous woman who can find? which somewhat quaintly158 introduces this eulogy159, we may believe that the ideal thus pictured was a reality in many Jewish homes. To be critical, the poem has a touch of the Hausfrau conception which is none too pleasing, but it does not set out to say everything about Woman, and one might fairly read some romance between the lines; certainly the enthusiasm of the last verse has a note of something deeper than “thanks for value received.” To give further assurance, if that be required, we may also quote this happy saying, Whoso findeth a wife findeth a good thing, and obtaineth favour from the Lord (Pr. 1822).{149}
The treatment of children advocated by the Wise is accurately160, although too succinctly161, summarised in the notorious “Spare the rod and spoil the child” doctrine (cp. Pr. 1324). Thus we are told, The rod and reproof give wisdom, but a child left to himself causeth shame to his mother (Pr. 2915)—Withhold not correction from a child, for if thou beat him with the rod he shall not die. Thou shalt beat him with the rod, and shalt deliver his soul from Sheol (Pr. 2313, 14). All this sounds merely harsh. But the splendid records of Jewish family life make one suspect that the Wise were sterner in their words than in their deeds, that at least their justice was often tempered with mercy and their discipline with genuine affection. Ben Sirach, the most severe, is also the most encouraging. Here is a truly forbidding passage: Pamper162 thy child, and he shall make thee afraid; play with him and he will grieve thee. Laugh not with him, lest thou have sorrow with him and thou shalt gnash thy teeth in the end. Give him no liberty in his youth, and wink163 not at his follies164. Bow down his neck in his youth, and beat him on the sides while he is a child, lest he wax stubborn and be disobedient unto thee, and there shall be sorrow unto thy soul (E. 309-12). But against its ferocious165 energy set the kindly, peaceable atmosphere of this exhortation71 in which Ben Sirach expands the fifth commandment on the relations of children to parents: He that giveth glory to his father shall have length of days, and he that hearkeneth to the Lord shall bring rest to his mother. In word and deed honour thy father that a blessing166 may come upon thee from him: for the blessing of the father stablisheth the children’s houses, but the curse of the mother rooteth out the foundations.... My son, help thy father in his old age, and grieve him not as long as he liveth. If he fail in understanding, have patience with him, and dishonour167 him not all the days of his life. For the relieving of thy father shall not be forgotten, and over against thy sins it shall be set to thy credit. In the day of thine{150} affliction it shall be remembered to thine advantage, to put away thine iniquities168 as the heat melteth hoar-frost (E. 36-9, 12-15). Further, the severity of the Wise regarding children might seem less repellent if we appreciated more keenly the circumstances of their age. Probably their stern discipline has to be set against a background of disastrous slackness. How were children brought up in the Gr?co-Syrian cities? Were they sent forth untutored to join the mad dances of unbridled inclination169? Was there in but too many Jewish, as well as Hellenic, homes appalling170 blindness to the need of control and moral training? Great allowance must be made for the Wise, if they were under the necessity of pointing a contrast. And who can deny the essential wisdom of their attitude? Who dare say that kindness does not lie in an excess of discipline rather than in an excess of indulgence? Train up a child in the way he should go, and even when he is old he will not depart from it (Pr. 226). As to the value which the Wise attached to the virtue of filial duty, if further evidence than the quotation171 just given from Ben Sirach is needed, it lies to hand in proverbs that condemn14 the deeds of unnatural131 children, who used violence to their parents (Pr. 1926), or mocked and robbed them (Pr. 3017; 2824). Listen to the indignation in this utterance172: Whoso curseth his father and mother, his lamp shall be put out in blackest darkness (Pr. 2020).
The servants of the household are less noticed in the proverbs than one would expect. Usually they were slaves, and the status to our mind suggests hardships and injustice173. But the remarkable provisions laid down in the Hebrew Law regarding Hebrew slaves greatly alleviated174 their lot, preventing or mitigating175 cruelties which frequently befell the slaves of the Gentile nations. Few topics, in fact, more arrestingly demonstrate the superiority of the moral feeling of the Jews as compared with the Greeks or Romans than the treatment accorded to their respective slaves. In{151} ordinary circumstances the life of the Jewish slave was not unhappy, and to gain freedom might be disaster rather than benefit.[68] The trustworthy slave found satisfactory and sometimes honourable position in many Jewish households: he was in reality, though not in theory, a member of the home. On the other hand, among the Greeks and Romans the slave was regarded strictly as property, not necessarily to be treated as a human being. If a man chose to misuse177 or destroy his “property,” so be it! It was solely178 his affair. If he chose to wreak179 his anger at a certain cost to himself, no more need be said on the subject. Doubtless theory and practice did not always agree, and some Roman slaves were happy and well cared for, and some Jewish were miserable180. But, generally speaking, it is true that the Jews were more humane181 to their servants than the Gentiles, although the evidence of the proverbs would not lead one to think so. Here, for instance, is a sufficiently sinister182 saying: A servant will not be corrected by words, for though he understand he will not answer (Pr. 2919). Similarly when Ben Sirach counsels a measure of restraint in dealing183 with a slave he does so on the Gr?co-Roman ground that he is part of one’s possessions, and therefore not to be spent foolishly (E. 3330, 31); and he says bluntly and indeed brutally184, Fodder185, a stick, and burdens for an ass3; bread and discipline, and work for a servant. Set thy servant to work, and thou shalt have rest: leave his hands idle, and he will seek liberty. Yoke and thong186 will bow the neck, and for an evil servant there are racks and tortures. Set him to work, as is fit for him; and if he obey not, make his fetters187 heavy (E. 33{24-28}). On the other side, however, may be set this proverb: A servant that acteth wisely shall have rule over a son that doeth shamefully188, and shall inherit among the brethren (Pr. 172), and Ben Sirach does something to redeem189 himself in these gentler sentiments, Entreat190 not evil a servant{152} that worketh truly nor a hireling that giveth thee his life. Let thy soul love a wise servant; defraud191 him not of liberty (E. 720, 21).
III.—Ideals of Society
The duties of men in general social relationships afforded a wide field for the application of wisdom. In expressing their views on these topics, the Sages said little that was original, much that was truly wise.
The perfect State will be one in which justice between man and man never faileth, and its operation must range from the highest to the lowest in the land. As for the great ones of the earth, the fateful consequences of their conduct is emphasised as follows: As a roaring lion and a ranging bear, so is a wicked ruler over a poor people (Pr. 2815)—By justice the king establisheth the land, but he that exacteth gifts overthroweth it (Pr. 294); and that the latter type of monarch192 or official was, alas193! more than an evil dream is na?vely vouched194 for by the existence of a most unideal, if frank, intimation that A gift in secret pacifieth anger, and a present in the purse strong wrath (Pr. 2114). Princes are exhorted195 to temperance, “It is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine, nor for princes to say ‘Where is strong drink?’ lest they drink and forget the law, and pervert196 the judgement of the afflicted197” (Pr. 314, 5); to justice, and consideration of the lowly, The king that faithfully judgeth the poor, his throne shall be established for ever (Pr. 2914); to kindness and truth, Mercy and truth preserve the king, and he upholdeth his throne by mercy (Pr. 2028). Two other sayings are worthy176 of mention; one a subtle proverb, It is the glory of God to conceal a thing, but the glory of kings to search out a matter (Pr. 252); the other ominous198, The heaven for height, and the earth for depth, and the heart of kings is unsearchable (Pr. 253).
But this demand for right-dealing is extended through{153}out the body politic19: honesty was required in the courts of law from the witness (Pr. 2428) and from the judge (Pr. 1723); from dealers199 in shop and market (Pr. 2023); and generally from all men, in a saying which is a significant and ringing echo of the Prophets’ work in Israel: To do justice and judgement is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice (Pr. 213).
Turning next to the disorders200 of society we find that the Wise set their face against the following offences. Land-grabbing, they declare, is a sin God will assuredly punish (Pr. 2310, 11), and so also oppression of the poor, Rob not the poor because he is poor, nor crush the afflicted in the gate; for the Lord will plead their cause and despoil201 of life those that despoil them (Pr. 2222, 23). Warnings are given against lawlessness: Envy not thou the man of violence, and choose none of his ways; for the perverse202 are an abomination unto the Lord, but His friendship is with the upright (Pr. 331, 32); and in Pr. 111ff, there is an amusing description of outlaws203 enticing204 a novice205 to join them: “Come with us, let us lay wait for blood.... We shall fill our houses with spoil. Thou shalt cast thy lot amongst us; we will all have one purse.” Against drunkenness there is this effective saying: Who hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath quarrels? who hath complainings? who hath wounds without cause? who hath dimness of eyes? They that tarry long at the wine, that go to seek out mixed wine. Look not thou upon the wine when it is red, when it sparkles in the cup, when it goeth down smoothly206. At the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder207 (Pr. 2329-31). Still greater stress was laid on the peril208 of unchastity, and there are many earnest entreaties209 to shun the seductions of wicked women (cp. Pr. 51-14; 620-727): My son, attend to my wisdom, incline thine ear to my understanding, that thou mayest preserve discretion210 and thy lips keep knowledge. For the lips of a strange woman drop honey, and her mouth is smoother than{154} oil; but her latter end is bitter as wormwood, sharp as a two-edged sword: her feet go down to death, and her steps take hold on Sheol. The spread of Hellenic civilisation211 in Palestine had increased luxury and sensuality, and in these matters the Wise doubtless were combating the most prominent vices of the age. Another common fault of town life which merited and received their vehement212 rebuke was malice213 against neighbours: to the portrait of the Slanderer214 already given (see p. 122) two proverbs may here be added: Devise not evil against thy neighbour seeing he dwelleth securely beside thee (Pr. 329)—and this grand one, Whoso diggeth a pit shall fall therein, and he that rolleth a stone, it shall return upon him (Pr. 2627).
Several interesting maxims215 of the Wise concerning Wealth and Poverty are kept for consideration in a subsequent chapter, and some have already been recorded, but the topic is one so intimately affecting the common weal that here also it must receive mention. These Wisdom proverbs are sometimes charged with exhibiting too mundane216 an attitude towards riches, so frankly217 and unreservedly do certain of them recognise the material advantages wealth confers. For the moment, however, we are not concerned with a general judgment218 but with noting ideals. Isolating219 therefore the nobler sayings, we find emphasis rightly laid on the broad distinction between just and unjust gains. For the former riches, which were the reward of diligence and shrewd but upright conduct, there is cordial approbation220. Our deeper modern perplexities as to the proper distribution of wealth was of course beyond the Wise-men’s ken81; it is enough that we find them clear on the issue presented to their day and generation: The treasures of wickedness, said they, profit nothing (Pr. 102)—Better is the poor that walketh in his integrity than he that is perverse in his ways, though he be rich (Pr. 286)—Better is a little with righteousness than great revenues with injustice (Pr. 168), and lastly the noble{155} passage (Pr. 307-9, see p. 121) in praise of the Golden Mean will perhaps be remembered.
Further the Sages were stern in denunciation of greed and of indifference221 to the needs of the poor and defenceless: for instance, He that augmenteth his substance by usury222 and interest gathereth for him that hath pity on the poor (Pr. 288)—The Lord will root up the house of the proud, but he will establish the property of the widow (Pr. 1525); and correspondingly, they exalted the virtues of generosity and kindly help He that giveth unto the poor shall not lack, but he that hideth his eyes shall have many a curse (Pr. 2827)—Withhold not good from them to whom it is due, when it is in thy power to do it. Say not unto thy neighbour, “Go, and come again, and to-morrow I will give,” when thou hast it by thee (Pr. 327, 28).
The ideals of the Sages, so far as they are immediately visible in the proverbs, have now been given, at least in broad outline. It remains224 to sum up and to consider the result. Of the vices condemned, deeds of violence and sins of the flesh are prominent enough, but (and the fact is remarkable) almost equal stress is laid on the iniquity225 of many of the sins of the spirit. Thus, pride, jealousy, malice, revenge, contentiousness, and all forms of dishonesty, guile, and treachery are the way of the wicked; whereas humility, charity, peaceableness, purity of heart, and honest purpose mark the upright man. To be indolent, obstinate226, and passionate227 in speech or action is characteristic of the fool intellectual and the fool ethical228; whereas the sensible man is diligent230, faithful to his friends, helpful to his neighbours, tactful and teachable. On the last point the Wise were urgent, and they deserve praise for their insight: that men have need to be apt to learn, not merely when they are young and ignorant, but after they have attained231 maturity232 and learnt much, is doctrine as important as it is unpopular. The frigid233 discipline advised by the{156} Sages for the upbringing of children must be admitted to be harsh, but perhaps the conditions of the age almost dictated234 it, and at least it reflects the value that the Wise most rightly placed on learning young. Moreover, stern as their rule may seem, they did not deem it incompatible235 with the growth of affection and trust between fathers and sons. Of womanly virtue they held a high ideal, and the esteem felt for the good wife and wise mother was, for the ancient world, extraordinarily236 great. Ideal relations between master and servant were conceived in terms of fidelity237, care for the interests of both parties, and possibly of friendship. In the perfect State there would be an upright government, riches acquired by just means only, and generous care to preserve the poor from suffering. There would be commercial honesty, thrift238 and industry; no slander, no impurity239, no impiety240, but only honourable and prudent conduct: in short, a peaceful, prosperous, kindly and contented242 society, devoted243 primarily to the pursuit neither of comfort nor of pleasure nor of riches, but of high Wisdom. Finally, as the climax244, we must remember those exalted proverbs demanding the exercise of mercy, forgiveness, mutual245 help and love.
The standard of character the Wise thus set before men is open to adverse246 comment. It savours of salvation247 by merit. That therefore it falls below the Christian248 ideal, and below the majestic249 and penetrating250 conception of human possibilities that the great Hebrew Prophets urged, is undeniable. But such radical251 criticism may for the moment be put aside; later on we shall discuss what may be the relative values of the Wise-men’s words and works. For the present all that is desirable is to consider certain surprising features which the reader may have noted252 in this outline of Good and Evil.
First, then, there are curious deficiencies in the list of the Virtues. Several qualities we admire are ignored or touched{157} rarely and with hesitation253, as for example Courage. But, with one exception, these gaps in the Ideal are not so serious as might appear. The proverbs do not show all that was in their authors’ minds and hearts. Altogether fallacious, as we shall see later, would be the notion that the prudence254 of the Wise was really pusillanimous255, that they had in reality no place for courage in their conception of life, as they have little or no room for its mention in their proverbs. The valid256 inference from these absences is only that, as Toy says, “the Wise attached more importance to other qualities as effective forces in the struggle of life.” But what can possibly be said concerning the apparent absence of Religion, the exception alluded257 to above? That which one looked to find in the foreground of the picture—where is it? Yet even in this point the plea just made might be repeated. The immediate223 object of the Wise was to commend certain ethical conduct as being, despite appearances, the right line to follow in order to command true success in the contingencies258 of daily life; and in pursuance of that task they could say a great many things without requiring to express their views on ritual worship or theological belief. Still, when the point at issue is a man’s love for religion, to plead simply that he more or less ignored it in his teaching because other qualities seemed more effective in the struggle of life, would verily be a thin apology. The real reply to this serious charge is vastly stronger. It is the admission that our exposition of the Wise-men’s thoughts has not been fair to them. One emphatic259 and reiterated260 proverb of theirs, which is evidently a key-proverb and interpretative of the general tenor261 of all their teaching, has not yet been given, and it is essentially262 religious:
THE FEAR OF THE LORD IS THE FOUNDATION OF WISDOM:
AND THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE HOLY ONE IS UNDERSTANDING
(Pr. 910; 17).
{158}
Consider the implication. The word “foundation” (usually rendered “beginning”) in Hebrew unites the notions both of “beginning” and “best”; and “fear,” of course, is to be interpreted religiously as “reverence” not as “terror.” Such awe263 of God (say the Wise) is to be reckoned the commencement of Wisdom and also Wisdom’s quintessence: it is both the root and the fruit of perfect living. Now Wisdom was the sublime264 source to which the Sages traced back even the simplest of their counsels, and the most practical of their observations on men and affairs; it was the creative sun, the derivative265 proverbs being, as it were, the rays by which its light is distributed over the whole of life. But now it appears that this sun and centre of all things itself was conceived as rising out of religious faith, for when the Sages considered this high Wisdom and asked what was its sum and substance, they answered, “The fear of the Lord,” and, when they wondered what might be its origin, again they answered, “God.” The fundamental importance of this one saying would therefore be obvious even if it stood alone as a solitary266 expression of faith. But other religious proverbs occur as we shall note in due course; for example, Ben Sirach’s opening words, All wisdom cometh from the Lord, and is ever with him (E. 11), or this—Trust in the Lord with all thy heart, and lean not on thine own understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he shall make plain thy path (Pr. 35, 6). Such sayings may not be numerous in comparison with the secular267 sayings, but there are enough of them to show that the great proverb quoted above is not an isolated268 sentiment of formal piety241 thrust into a mass of worldly-wisdom for appearance’s sake. The soul of the Wise-men cannot accurately be gauged269 by deducting270 the few religious from the many non-religious proverbs, and drawing the inference that these men must have cared very little for God and overwhelmingly much for worldly prosperity. Human{159} nature guards its secrets from such cynical or mechanical treatment. Rather will it be true that when, as here, even one earnest plea is made for the love of God as the ultimate inspiration of conduct, that will give us the heart of the whole matter to which all else is subsidiary and only to be interpreted in and through the underlying271 religious faith. Matter-of-fact, prudential, moralisms might be far more numerous than they are in these Jewish proverbs, and still it would not follow that the Wise-men were devoid272 of religious feeling or fervour. Some doubtless were, but others assuredly were not, and all (save an occasional sceptic) would have stoutly273 maintained the view that their counsel was derived from the ultimate, fundamental doctrine of “the fear of the Lord.”
The second obvious point of criticism is the indefiniteness apparent in this so-called Ideal of the Wise. Their ethic229 may justly be called redundant274, or defective275, or both; and in truth their Utopia, even in its broad outline, does seem too confused and too fragmentary to provide any coherent scheme. Contrast the relatively276 clear-cut work of the Hellenic thinkers who, starting also from similar vague popular notions of ethics277, correlated, combined, and sifted278 the material until, as in the Stoic279 and other philosophies, precisely280 formulated281 systems were elaborated. Was not the Jewish lack of method fatal to effective teaching? No. The Wise did not, indeed could not, construct a strict unity141 out of their free-and-easy, uncorrelated aims. But they were not candidates for a degree in Moral Sciences, nor are their doctrines282 here exhibited as a satisfactory substitute for modern social philosophy. Their thinking, as a matter of fact, was definite enough to serve their day and generation. The position was not quite so serious as it may appear from a theoretical point of view. In reality, the Sages knew very well what they were aiming at, and had a reasonably{160} clear idea of the type of character they wished to see developed in themselves and other men. Now it is fortunate that in the pages of Ecclesiasticus we possess not a little information about the thoughts, habits, and fortunes of its author, Jesus ben Sirach; for this man, though doubtless not a perfect embodiment of Wisdom, provides just what we most require at this point of our study—a historical figure, and an admirable and typical representative of his class. To envisage283 him will humanise our notion of the Wise-men and may give to their ideals a coherence284 which in the abstract they may seem to lack.
Jesus ben Sirach was a Jew of Jerusalem who lived about 250 to 180 B.C.; that is, well on in the period of Hellenic influence. By profession a scribe, he seems all his days to have been a man of earnest mind, naturally inclined to intellectual and literary pursuits. He was of good family, and presumably possessed285 of considerable means, to judge by his life-long leisure for study, the tone of his remarks on wealth, his easy and regular participation286 in social entertainment, and his foreign travels, which provided the one stirring episode in a placid287 career. From some remarks in his book we gather that his travels were undertaken whilst he was still a young man. Just when and where he journeyed is uncertain, but since he says that he came into touch with a foreign Court, in all probability he visited the great cities of Egypt and the Court of Alexandria. The important point is that his tour was not without excitement and real peril (E. 3412, 513ff). Through some lying and malicious288 gossip he had the misfortune to incur289 royal displeasure, suffered imprisonment290, and, in his own firm opinion, was for a time in gravest danger of losing his life. Such an experience is inevitably a severe test of any man’s mettle291, and is doubly sure to produce a deep impression on the mind of one so naturally unadventurous as Ben Sirach. His comments on the{161} matter are therefore a valuable clue to his character. He took the view that his travels, notwithstanding the danger, had been a great and lasting292 benefit, an experience in which anyone who aspired293 to be counted wise would do well to imitate him. It had proved worth all the hardship and anxiety—a fine broadening influence: He that hath no experience knoweth few things, but he that hath travelled shall increase his skill. Many things, he reflects, have I seen in my wanderings (E. 3410). The other impression left by his adventures was the paramount294 value of Israel’s Wisdom. In the hour of his danger he would have perished but for the principles of discreet295 and honest conduct in which Wisdom had instructed him. (E. 3412).
He returned from abroad to settle for the rest of his days in beloved Jerusalem, where he became an honoured citizen, a man of considerable weight socially as well as intellectually, and a notable exponent296 of Wisdom, whose advice in the manifold affairs of daily life was sought and respected. There are grounds for thinking that for some years he may have conducted a regular school for instruction in the science of Wisdom. He was a thorough townsman, loving the busy life of his city, keenly observant of its varied297 occupations and appreciative298 of all opportunities of human intercourse. So far from thinking of him as a scholarly recluse299, careless of all save his duties as a scribe or teacher, we have to picture a man who enjoyed dining out with his friends; no glutton33, yet a frank connoisseur300 of food and wine. Feasting he considered a subject not to be trifled with, as is shown by the rules for polite behaviour, which he is careful in all seriousness to detail in his book. As for his faults, one suspects that in public he was inclined to be dictatorial301 and perhaps pompous302, but he possessed a saving grace of humour. In his home, if we are to trust his own assertions, he must have been a strict disciplinarian.{162} Many of his sayings are too worldly-wise to be commendable303. Now and then he is cynical, and for the out-and-out fool he allows no hope: to essay teaching such an one is as futile304 as glueing a broken potsherd together (E. 227); and again, Seven days are the days of mourning for the dead, but for a fool all the days of his life (E. 2212)! Still, Ben Sirach was no pessimist305 about humanity, and his judgments306 of men for the most part are kindly and hopeful.
The outstanding feature of his personality was his breadth of interest. “Whether it is upon the subject of behaviour at table, or concerning a man’s treatment of a headstrong daughter, or about the need of keeping a guard over one’s tongue, or concerning the folly of a fool, or the delights of a banquet, or whether he is dealing with self-control, borrowing, loose women, slander, diet, the miser42, the spendthrift, the hypocrite, the parasite307, keeping secrets, giving alms, standing8 surety, mourning for the dead, and a large variety of other topics—he has always something to say, which for sound and robust308 common-sense is of abiding309 value.”[69]
Except that he puts the point in his own way, there is in matter or opinion little in Ben Sirach’s book that could not be paralleled from the Book of Proverbs. But in manner an interesting difference is observable. Ecclesiasticus is far and away superior in point of literary charm. It has the merit of constant variety, and in places real grace of expression, for to a much greater degree than in the Book of Proverbs Ben Sirach has developed the brief unit-proverb into epigrams and sonnets310, short essays, eulogies311 and longer odes; and although the unit-proverb is still frequent, it is no longer the sum and substance of the book. Thus by the skilful use of the more elaborate forms, the almost unrelieved disjointedness that detracts{163} so seriously from the pleasure of reading Proverbs is triumphantly312 overcome.
In criticism of Ben Sirach’s ethical attainments313, one is inclined to call attention to the juxtaposition314 of great and little matters which he perpetrates in his book: a feature also to be observed in Proverbs. Questions of fundamental moral law and trivialities of etiquette315 are astonishingly conjoined, apparently316 without his feeling the least sense of the absurdity317. Thus he bids his pupil be ashamed “of unjust dealing before a partner and a friend, of theft in the place where he sojourns318, and of falsifying an oath and a covenant319, and of leaning on the table with the elbow when at meat” (E. 4117-19)! Manners and morals, one is driven to suppose, had not been sufficiently differentiated320 in general opinion. Then also, just when our respect for Ben Sirach is quietly increasing, he is apt to dismay us by interjecting some most unideal observation, as when immediately after delivering a stinging censure on lying speech, he remarks (E. 2029) that gifts which blind the eyes of the Wise, and are a muzzle321 on the mouth, are an effective way of appeasing322 influential persons. Nevertheless, as one reads his book, the conviction deepens that Ben Sirach was sincere and earnest in his profession of morality, and such falls from grace as the proverb just quoted are probably due to his anxiety to give an honest representation of the facts of life. It has been said in his favour that he was no platitudinarian, by which, of course, is not meant that his book contains no platitudes323, but only that in face of the supreme324 problems of human existence he did not cravenly blink the facts, but faced them and sought to do justice to them; as for instance when, writing of death, he owns that to a healthy and prosperous man it is wholly a “bitter remembrance” (E. 411).
From youth to his dying day this man loved and served Wisdom, and his volume is a storehouse of many noble{164} and valuable thoughts. It may be charged against the authors of Proverbs that they paid scant regard to the peculiar national aspirations of their race. If so, Ben Sirach can be acquitted325 on that score. He had a thoroughly326 patriotic327 outlook, for he makes it quite clear that to his mind Judaism was the real home of Wisdom and the truly wise man is a loyal Jew obedient to the Law. His sense of the marvel328 of the world as a revelation of divine power, which he expresses in two chapters of considerable ability, shows that he was not without poetic329 feeling.[70] All his thinking rested on belief in a great and holy God, Source of all Wisdom, in whom he exhorts330 men to put their trust, from whom they must ever seek guidance.
A worthy citizen! Of whom does he remind us? Surely of such a man as was Horace, strolling on the Appian Way, pleased with himself and with his fortunes, much interested in the pageant331 of life, keenly observant both of the faults and the graces of his fellows, humorous, shrewd and kindly? Or of Chaucer, part courtier, part business man of London town, yet with a quick eye and swift sympathy for the deeper issues in the human drama? Or (to come nearer our own days) of Pepys, with his matter-of-fact ways, his sturdy, average morality, and his honest enjoyment332 of the good things of life? Or of Dr. Johnson, with his natural pomposity333 and his big, generous soul? Yes, of all these; but Ben Sirach had one great quality that perhaps none of these possessed to the same extent—a most earnest sense of duty in regard to his fellow men, a whole-hearted desire to give them the advantage of the lessons life had taught him.
Perhaps the reader is disappointed still. When the utmost has been said for these ideals, he may feel that there is no new insight into the mystery of things, and no irresistible334 appeal to conscience. But remember that even an{165} imperfect Cause and an inadequate335 Ideal, provided the fundamental aim be generous and sound, may be the source of real and lasting benefits to men, for life is such that the goal we fain would reach instantaneously must, as a matter of fact, be approached by small advances, which therefore ought not be despised. The Wise, it is true, were neither perfect Saints nor complete Philosophers, but our subject is the Humanism of the Jewish proverbs, and if even this Ben Sirach, model pupil of Wisdom, is not a wholly inspiring figure—is he not very human? Moreover, the utmost has not yet been said on behalf of the Sages.
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cynical
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| adj.(对人性或动机)怀疑的，不信世道向善的 | |
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incorrigible
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| adj.难以纠正的，屡教不改的 | |
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ass
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| n.驴；傻瓜，蠢笨的人 | |
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snobbery
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| n. 充绅士气派, 俗不可耐的性格 | |
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secondly
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err
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attentively
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standing
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folly
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rebuke
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admonishing
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| v.劝告( admonish的现在分词 )；训诫；（温和地）责备；轻责 | |
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memorable
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skilful
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condemn
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| vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑 | |
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condemned
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doctrine
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censure
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| v./n.责备；非难；责难 | |
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aspirations
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| 强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音 | |
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politic
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trespasses
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| 罪过( trespass的名词复数 )； 非法进入 | |
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strictly
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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virtue
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vices
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vice
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intemperate
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temperate
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thereby
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woe
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generosity
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enjoin
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| v.命令；吩咐；禁止 | |
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sufficiently
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glutton
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gluttonous
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brawler
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ascetic
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curbing
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sullen
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wrath
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havoc
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| n.大破坏，浩劫，大混乱，大杂乱 | |
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wrought
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miser
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| n.守财奴，吝啬鬼 (adj.miserly) | |
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misery
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| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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45
exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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46
disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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47
strife
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| n.争吵，冲突，倾轧，竞争 | |
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48
abounds
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| v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的第三人称单数 ) | |
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49
transgression
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| n.违背；犯规；罪过 | |
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50
conceal
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| v.隐藏，隐瞒，隐蔽 | |
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51
immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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52
mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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53
disapprove
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| v.不赞成，不同意，不批准 | |
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54
sages
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| n.圣人( sage的名词复数 )；智者；哲人；鼠尾草（可用作调料） | |
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55
sage
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| n.圣人，哲人；adj.贤明的，明智的 | |
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56
specious
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| adj.似是而非的；adv.似是而非地 | |
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57
esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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58
esteem
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| n.尊敬，尊重；vt.尊重，敬重；把…看作 | |
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59
prudent
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| adj.谨慎的，有远见的，精打细算的 | |
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60
shun
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| vt.避开，回避，避免 | |
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61
sluggard
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| n.懒人；adj.懒惰的 | |
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62
censured
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| v.指责，非难，谴责( censure的过去式 ) | |
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63
disdain
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| n.鄙视，轻视；v.轻视，鄙视，不屑 | |
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64
haughty
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| adj.傲慢的，高傲的 | |
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65
ingratitude
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| n.忘恩负义 | |
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66
overthrown
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| adj. 打翻的，推倒的，倾覆的 动词overthrow的过去分词 | |
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67
displeased
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| a.不快的 | |
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68
innate
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| adj.天生的，固有的，天赋的 | |
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69
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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70
vendettas
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| n.家族世仇( vendetta的名词复数 )；族间仇杀；长期争斗；积怨 | |
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71
exhortation
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| n.劝告，规劝 | |
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72
exhortations
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| n.敦促( exhortation的名词复数 )；极力推荐；（正式的）演讲；（宗教仪式中的）劝诫 | |
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73
jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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74
contentiousness
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75
inflame
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| v.使燃烧；使极度激动；使发炎 | |
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76
aloof
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| adj.远离的；冷淡的，漠不关心的 | |
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77
similes
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| （使用like或as等词语的）明喻( simile的名词复数 ) | |
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78
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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79
wringing
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| 淋湿的，湿透的 | |
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80
meddles
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| v.干涉，干预（他人事务）( meddle的第三人称单数 ) | |
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81
ken
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| n.视野，知识领域 | |
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82
slander
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| n./v.诽谤，污蔑 | |
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83
dissimulation
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| n.掩饰，虚伪，装糊涂 | |
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84
fervent
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| adj.热的，热烈的，热情的 | |
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85
vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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86
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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87
guile
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| n.诈术 | |
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88
hymn
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| n.赞美诗，圣歌，颂歌 | |
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89
penitence
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| n.忏悔，赎罪；悔过 | |
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90
clemency
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| n.温和，仁慈，宽厚 | |
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91
dint
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| n.由于，靠；凹坑 | |
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92
distress
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| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
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93
ordeal
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| n.苦难经历，（尤指对品格、耐力的）严峻考验 | |
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94
epitomes
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| n.缩影 | |
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95
amenable
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| adj.经得起检验的；顺从的；对负有义务的 | |
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96
reproof
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| n.斥责，责备 | |
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97
boor
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| n.举止粗野的人；乡下佬 | |
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98
remarkable
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|
| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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99
persistently
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| ad.坚持地；固执地 | |
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100
beset
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| v.镶嵌；困扰，包围 | |
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101
truthfulness
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| n. 符合实际 | |
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102
truthful
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| adj.真实的，说实话的，诚实的 | |
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103
deception
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| n.欺骗，欺诈；骗局，诡计 | |
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104
sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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105
extolled
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| v.赞颂，赞扬，赞美( extol的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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106
metaphor
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|
| n.隐喻，暗喻 | |
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107
castigate
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| v.谴责；惩治 | |
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108
humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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109
honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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110
maker
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| n.制造者，制造商 | |
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111
calamity
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| n.灾害，祸患，不幸事件 | |
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112
shuffled
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| v.洗（纸牌）( shuffle的过去式和过去分词 )；拖着脚步走；粗心地做；摆脱尘世的烦恼 | |
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113
wilfully
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| adv.任性固执地；蓄意地 | |
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114
tottering
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| adj.蹒跚的，动摇的v.走得或动得不稳( totter的现在分词 )；踉跄；蹒跚；摇摇欲坠 | |
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115
slaughter
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|
| n.屠杀，屠宰；vt.屠杀，宰杀 | |
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116
guilt
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| n.犯罪；内疚；过失，罪责 | |
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117
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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118
interfering
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| adj. 妨碍的 动词interfere的现在分词 | |
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119
rebuking
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| 责难或指责( rebuke的现在分词 ) | |
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120
tolerance
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| n.宽容；容忍，忍受；耐药力；公差 | |
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121
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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122
wont
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| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
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123
reiterate
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| v.重申，反复地说 | |
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124
contention
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| n.争论，争辩，论战；论点，主张 | |
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125
cowardice
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| n.胆小，怯懦 | |
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126
forsake
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| vt.遗弃，抛弃；舍弃，放弃 | |
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127
bind
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| vt.捆，包扎；装订；约束；使凝固；vi.变硬 | |
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128
transgressions
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| n.违反，违法，罪过( transgression的名词复数 ) | |
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129
conjecture
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| n./v.推测，猜测 | |
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130
unnaturally
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| adv.违反习俗地；不自然地；勉强地；不近人情地 | |
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131
unnatural
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| adj.不自然的；反常的 | |
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132
acquiesce
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| vi.默许，顺从，同意 | |
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133
acquiesced
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| v.默认，默许( acquiesce的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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134
inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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135
perpetuate
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| v.使永存，使永记不忘 | |
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136
scrutiny
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| n.详细检查，仔细观察 | |
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137
yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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138
scant
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| adj.不充分的，不足的；v.减缩，限制，忽略 | |
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139
influential
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| adj.有影响的，有权势的 | |
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140
obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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141
unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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142
intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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143
panegyric
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| n.颂词，颂扬 | |
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144
unreasonably
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| adv. 不合理地 | |
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145
virtuous
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| adj.有品德的，善良的，贞洁的，有效力的 | |
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146
rubies
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| 红宝石( ruby的名词复数 )； 红宝石色，深红色 | |
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147
earnings
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| n.工资收人；利润，利益，所得 | |
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148
needy
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| adj.贫穷的，贫困的，生活艰苦的 | |
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149
scarlet
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| n.深红色，绯红色，红衣；adj.绯红色的 | |
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150
tapestry
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| n.挂毯，丰富多采的画面 | |
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151
linen
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| n.亚麻布，亚麻线，亚麻制品；adj.亚麻布制的，亚麻的 | |
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152
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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153
kindly
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| adj.和蔼的，温和的，爽快的；adv.温和地，亲切地 | |
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154
industrious
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| adj.勤劳的，刻苦的，奋发的 | |
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155
provident
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| adj.为将来做准备的，有先见之明的 | |
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156
despondent
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| adj.失望的，沮丧的，泄气的 | |
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157
query
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| n.疑问，问号，质问；vt.询问，表示怀疑 | |
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158
quaintly
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| adv.古怪离奇地 | |
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159
eulogy
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| n.颂词；颂扬 | |
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160
accurately
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| adv.准确地，精确地 | |
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161
succinctly
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| adv.简洁地；简洁地，简便地 | |
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162
pamper
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| v.纵容，过分关怀 | |
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163
wink
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| n.眨眼，使眼色，瞬间；v.眨眼，使眼色，闪烁 | |
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164
follies
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| 罪恶，时事讽刺剧； 愚蠢，蠢笨，愚蠢的行为、思想或做法( folly的名词复数 ) | |
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165
ferocious
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| adj.凶猛的，残暴的，极度的，十分强烈的 | |
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166
blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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167
dishonour
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| n./vt.拒付（支票、汇票、票据等）；vt.凌辱，使丢脸；n.不名誉，耻辱，不光彩 | |
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168
iniquities
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| n.邪恶( iniquity的名词复数 )；极不公正 | |
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169
inclination
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| n.倾斜；点头；弯腰；斜坡；倾度；倾向；爱好 | |
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170
appalling
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| adj.骇人听闻的，令人震惊的，可怕的 | |
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171
quotation
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| n.引文，引语，语录；报价，牌价，行情 | |
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172
utterance
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| n.用言语表达，话语，言语 | |
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173
injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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174
alleviated
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| 减轻，缓解，缓和( alleviate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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175
mitigating
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| v.减轻，缓和( mitigate的现在分词 ) | |
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176
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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177
misuse
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| n.误用，滥用；vt.误用，滥用 | |
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178
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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179
wreak
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| v.发泄；报复 | |
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180
miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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181
humane
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| adj.人道的，富有同情心的 | |
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182
sinister
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| adj.不吉利的，凶恶的，左边的 | |
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183
dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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184
brutally
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| adv.残忍地，野蛮地，冷酷无情地 | |
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185
fodder
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| n.草料；炮灰 | |
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186
thong
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| n.皮带；皮鞭；v.装皮带 | |
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187
fetters
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| n.脚镣( fetter的名词复数 )；束缚v.给…上脚镣，束缚( fetter的第三人称单数 ) | |
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188
shamefully
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| 可耻地； 丢脸地； 不体面地； 羞耻地 | |
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189
redeem
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| v.买回，赎回，挽回，恢复，履行（诺言等） | |
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190
entreat
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| v.恳求，恳请 | |
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191
defraud
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| vt.欺骗，欺诈 | |
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192
monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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193
alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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194
vouched
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| v.保证( vouch的过去式和过去分词 )；担保；确定；确定地说 | |
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195
exhorted
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| v.劝告，劝说( exhort的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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196
pervert
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| n.堕落者，反常者；vt.误用，滥用；使人堕落，使入邪路 | |
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197
afflicted
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| 使受痛苦，折磨( afflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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198
ominous
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| adj.不祥的，不吉的，预兆的，预示的 | |
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199
dealers
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| n.商人( dealer的名词复数 )；贩毒者；毒品贩子；发牌者 | |
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200
disorders
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|
| n.混乱( disorder的名词复数 )；凌乱；骚乱；（身心、机能）失调 | |
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201
despoil
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| v.夺取，抢夺 | |
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202
perverse
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| adj.刚愎的；坚持错误的，行为反常的 | |
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203
outlaws
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| 歹徒，亡命之徒( outlaw的名词复数 )； 逃犯 | |
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204
enticing
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| adj.迷人的；诱人的 | |
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205
novice
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|
| adj.新手的，生手的 | |
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206
smoothly
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| adv.平滑地，顺利地，流利地，流畅地 | |
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207
adder
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| n.蝰蛇；小毒蛇 | |
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208
peril
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| n.(严重的)危险；危险的事物 | |
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209
entreaties
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| n.恳求，乞求( entreaty的名词复数 ) | |
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210
discretion
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| n.谨慎；随意处理 | |
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211
civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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212
vehement
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| adj.感情强烈的；热烈的；(人)有强烈感情的 | |
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213
malice
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| n.恶意，怨恨，蓄意；[律]预谋 | |
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214
slanderer
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| 造谣中伤者 | |
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215
maxims
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|
| n.格言，座右铭( maxim的名词复数 ) | |
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216
mundane
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|
| adj.平凡的；尘世的；宇宙的 | |
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217
frankly
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|
| adv.坦白地，直率地；坦率地说 | |
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218
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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219
isolating
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| adj.孤立的，绝缘的v.使隔离( isolate的现在分词 )；将…剔出（以便看清和单独处理）；使（某物质、细胞等）分离；使离析 | |
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220
approbation
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| n.称赞；认可 | |
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221
indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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222
usury
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| n.高利贷 | |
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223
immediate
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|
| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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224
remains
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|
| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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225
iniquity
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| n.邪恶；不公正 | |
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226
obstinate
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|
| adj.顽固的，倔强的，不易屈服的，较难治愈的 | |
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227
passionate
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|
| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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228
ethical
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|
| adj.伦理的，道德的，合乎道德的 | |
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229
ethic
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| n.道德标准，行为准则 | |
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230
diligent
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|
| adj.勤勉的，勤奋的 | |
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231
attained
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|
| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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232
maturity
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|
| n.成熟；完成；(支票、债券等)到期 | |
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233
frigid
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|
| adj.寒冷的，凛冽的；冷淡的；拘禁的 | |
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234
dictated
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|
| v.大声讲或读( dictate的过去式和过去分词 )；口授；支配；摆布 | |
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235
incompatible
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|
| adj.不相容的，不协调的，不相配的 | |
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236
extraordinarily
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|
| adv.格外地；极端地 | |
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237
fidelity
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|
| n.忠诚，忠实；精确 | |
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238
thrift
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|
| adj.节约，节俭；n.节俭，节约 | |
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239
impurity
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| n.不洁，不纯，杂质 | |
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240
impiety
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|
| n.不敬；不孝 | |
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241
piety
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|
| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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242
contented
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|
| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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243
devoted
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|
| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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244
climax
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|
| n.顶点；高潮；v.(使)达到顶点 | |
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245
mutual
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|
| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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246
adverse
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|
| adj.不利的；有害的；敌对的，不友好的 | |
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247
salvation
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|
| n.（尤指基督）救世，超度，拯救，解困 | |
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248
Christian
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|
| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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249
majestic
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|
| adj.雄伟的，壮丽的，庄严的，威严的，崇高的 | |
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250
penetrating
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|
| adj.（声音）响亮的，尖锐的adj.（气味）刺激的adj.（思想）敏锐的，有洞察力的 | |
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251
radical
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|
| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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252
noted
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|
| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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253
hesitation
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|
| n.犹豫，踌躇 | |
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254
prudence
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|
| n.谨慎，精明，节俭 | |
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255
pusillanimous
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|
| adj.懦弱的，胆怯的 | |
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256
valid
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|
| adj.有确实根据的；有效的；正当的，合法的 | |
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257
alluded
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|
| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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258
contingencies
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|
| n.偶然发生的事故，意外事故( contingency的名词复数 )；以备万一 | |
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259
emphatic
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|
| adj.强调的，着重的；无可置疑的，明显的 | |
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260
reiterated
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|
| 反复地说，重申( reiterate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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261
tenor
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| n.男高音（歌手），次中音（乐器），要旨，大意 | |
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262
essentially
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|
| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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263
awe
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| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
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264
sublime
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|
| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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265
derivative
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|
| n.派(衍)生物；adj.非独创性的，模仿他人的 | |
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266
solitary
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|
| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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267
secular
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|
| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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268
isolated
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|
| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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269
gauged
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|
| adj.校准的；标准的；量规的；量计的v.（用仪器）测量( gauge的过去式和过去分词 )；估计；计量；划分 | |
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270
deducting
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|
| v.扣除，减去( deduct的现在分词 ) | |
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271
underlying
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|
| adj.在下面的，含蓄的，潜在的 | |
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272
devoid
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| adj.全无的，缺乏的 | |
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273
stoutly
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| adv.牢固地，粗壮的 | |
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274
redundant
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| adj.多余的，过剩的；(食物)丰富的；被解雇的 | |
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275
defective
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|
| adj.有毛病的，有问题的，有瑕疵的 | |
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276
relatively
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|
| adv.比较...地，相对地 | |
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277
ethics
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| n.伦理学；伦理观，道德标准 | |
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278
sifted
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| v.筛( sift的过去式和过去分词 )；筛滤；细查；详审 | |
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279
stoic
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| n.坚忍克己之人，禁欲主义者 | |
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280
precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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281
formulated
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|
| v.构想出( formulate的过去式和过去分词 )；规划；确切地阐述；用公式表示 | |
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282
doctrines
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|
| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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283
envisage
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|
| v.想象，设想，展望，正视 | |
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284
coherence
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|
| n.紧凑；连贯；一致性 | |
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285
possessed
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|
| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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286
participation
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|
| n.参与，参加，分享 | |
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287
placid
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|
| adj.安静的，平和的 | |
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288
malicious
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|
| adj.有恶意的，心怀恶意的 | |
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289
incur
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| vt.招致，蒙受，遭遇 | |
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290
imprisonment
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| n.关押，监禁，坐牢 | |
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291
mettle
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| n.勇气，精神 | |
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292
lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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293
aspired
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| v.渴望，追求( aspire的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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294
paramount
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| a.最重要的，最高权力的 | |
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295
discreet
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| adj.(言行)谨慎的；慎重的；有判断力的 | |
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296
exponent
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|
| n.倡导者，拥护者；代表人物；指数，幂 | |
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297
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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298
appreciative
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| adj.有鉴赏力的，有眼力的；感激的 | |
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299
recluse
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| n.隐居者 | |
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300
connoisseur
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| n.鉴赏家，行家，内行 | |
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301
dictatorial
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|
| adj. 独裁的，专断的 | |
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302
pompous
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|
| adj.傲慢的，自大的；夸大的；豪华的 | |
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303
commendable
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| adj.值得称赞的 | |
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304
futile
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|
| adj.无效的，无用的，无希望的 | |
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305
pessimist
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|
| n.悲观者；悲观主义者；厌世 | |
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306
judgments
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|
| 判断( judgment的名词复数 )； 鉴定； 评价； 审判 | |
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307
parasite
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|
| n.寄生虫；寄生菌；食客 | |
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308
robust
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|
| adj.强壮的，强健的，粗野的，需要体力的，浓的 | |
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309
abiding
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| adj.永久的，持久的，不变的 | |
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310
sonnets
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| n.十四行诗( sonnet的名词复数 ) | |
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311
eulogies
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| n.颂词，颂文( eulogy的名词复数 ) | |
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312
triumphantly
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| ad.得意洋洋地；得胜地；成功地 | |
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313
attainments
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| 成就，造诣； 获得( attainment的名词复数 )； 达到； 造诣； 成就 | |
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314
juxtaposition
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| n.毗邻，并置，并列 | |
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315
etiquette
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| n.礼仪，礼节；规矩 | |
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316
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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317
absurdity
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| n.荒谬，愚蠢；谬论 | |
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318
sojourns
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| n.逗留，旅居( sojourn的名词复数 ) | |
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319
covenant
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| n.盟约，契约；v.订盟约 | |
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320
differentiated
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| 区分，区别，辨别( differentiate的过去式和过去分词 )； 区别对待； 表明…间的差别，构成…间差别的特征 | |
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321
muzzle
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| n.鼻口部；口套；枪(炮)口；vt.使缄默 | |
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322
appeasing
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| 安抚，抚慰( appease的现在分词 )； 绥靖（满足另一国的要求以避免战争） | |
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323
platitudes
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| n.平常的话，老生常谈，陈词滥调( platitude的名词复数 )；滥套子 | |
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324
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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325
acquitted
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| 宣判…无罪( acquit的过去式和过去分词 )； 使（自己）作出某种表现 | |
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326
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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327
patriotic
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| adj.爱国的，有爱国心的 | |
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328
marvel
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| vi.(at)惊叹vt.感到惊异；n.令人惊异的事 | |
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329
poetic
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| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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330
exhorts
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| n.劝勉者，告诫者，提倡者( exhort的名词复数 )v.劝告，劝说( exhort的第三人称单数 ) | |
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331
pageant
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| n.壮观的游行；露天历史剧 | |
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332
enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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333
pomposity
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| n.浮华；虚夸；炫耀；自负 | |
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334
irresistible
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| adj.非常诱人的，无法拒绝的，无法抗拒的 | |
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335
inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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