More disquieting15 would be the contention16, which the number of self-regarding maxims readily suggests, that the general moral tone of these proverbs is not merely normal but actually low. There is no denying the unblushing utilitarianism that at times crops out. It is said: I (Wisdom) walk in the paths of righteousness, in the midst of the paths of judgement, that I may cause those that love me to inherit substance and that I may fill their treasuries18 (Pr. 821)—The reward of humility19 and the fear of the Lord is riches and honour and life (Pr. 224). This sounds even more reprehensible20 than the famous definition of Christianity as “doing good for the sake of the kingdom of heaven.” It seems suspiciously like doing good for the sake of the kingdoms of this earth! But, hear the defence. First it has already been urged that general judgments22 on the proverbs as a whole require most careful handling, if they are to be even moderately fair: let the utilitarian17 sage6 bear his own sin; his brother who said, “Love{168} covereth all transgressions,” ought not to be implicated24 in his fall. Secondly25, there is the sensible, though not lofty, argument that since the Wise were dealing26 with men tempted27 to throw off even ordinary moral restraint in the burning desire to get all possible prosperity and enjoyment28 out of life, if they had pitched their key much higher it is very probable they would have received no hearing at all. Modern students of ethics29 are well aware that pleasure, however often it may accompany good conduct, cannot be made the motive30 for virtue31. But the Wise were less sophisticated than ourselves, and it was therefore easy for them to make the mistake of expressing in too commercial a fashion their conviction that “honesty is the best policy”[72]; and even if they did sometimes over-emphasise the thought of external reward, we should remember that perhaps it was the only way to catch the ear of certain men and draw them back from the hot pursuit of Folly. The third point will be surprising to those who are not aware how late in Jewish history was the development of a worthy32 conception of immortality34 and the just judgment23 of the soul after death. Compared with the Christian21, who starts from the belief that “God is not the God of the dead, but of the living”, and that the consequences of good or evil conduct reach onwards beyond the grave, the Wise-men of Israel were cruelly handicapped in their consideration of the moral problem. Oesterley with justice pleads in extenuation35 of Ben Sirach’s stress on the worldly advantages of Wisdom, “This is natural in a writer whose whole attention is concentrated on the present life, and who has nothing but the vaguest ideas about a life hereafter.”[73] Fourthly, the Wise were not conscious of their utilitarianism. Of course it is bad to be utilitarian at all, but it is better to be so uninten{169}tionally than deliberately36. The ancients did not, could not, speak or write with that precise realisation of the implications of words, which often does, and certainly should, characterise a modern thinker. While therefore the Wise cannot be exonerated37 from blame in this respect, there is not a little to be said in mitigation of their offence.
But the last plea we have to advance on their behalf is the best; and indeed it is the main apology we wish to make for all their shortcomings—
A man’s utterances38 are often an inadequate39 expression of his soul. Our final estimate ought to be based, not on the proverbs themselves, singly or collectively, but on what is behind them, the character of the speakers. The question is, Were these sayings just verbal piety40 and respectable commonplace, or were they, so to speak, waves borne on the swell41 of an advancing tide, having beneath and behind them the deep impulse of a live enthusiasm? What manner of men were the Sages at heart—mere talkers, seeking the mental satisfaction of turning a neat phrase and sunning themselves in popular esteem42, or men genuinely concerned for the moral welfare of their fellows? One we have already considered and not found him altogether wanting. Much can be forgiven if only the majority of the Wise were like Ben Sirach, in earnest about their task. We ventured to describe him as a typical Wise-man, but what ground is there for that assertion?
Now this vital question is not an easy one to investigate and answer, since concerning the individual Sages, except Ben Sirach, no personal information has been transmitted, and we have therefore only their sayings from which to draw a conclusion. Even so the material is perhaps sufficient. Surely there is a valuable hint to be found in the “strict attention to business” of Proverbs as well as Ecclesiasticus; both of these books preach at us incessantly43 from their text “Wisdom.” Why is it{170} that every word they contain is directed to the end of moral improvement? Must there not have been a remarkable44 concentration on moral interests to account for the comparative absence of what one might describe as the neutral, non-moral observations on life, which are common in the proverbs of every other nation?[74] Fortunately however, there is one much stronger piece of evidence available. It has been explained that the abstract conception “Wisdom” represented the teaching of the Wise in epitome45, and was the unification in thought of their manifold opinions. It follows that what they said, or left unsaid, about “Wisdom” furnishes an admirable test of their sincerity46, revealing the presence or absence of enthusiasm for their work. Wisdom was the Cause they championed against Folly: it will be easy to tell whether they truly loved it. If they had been only clever people, content to parade their shrewdness, or comfortable upholders of law and order, proclaiming the maxims of respectability with a business eye to the security of their own possessions, then inevitably47 they would have betrayed themselves by giving an exposition of Wisdom coldly intellectual. But the opposite is what has happened, and the warmth and passion as well as the reverence48, of their words in honour of Wisdom bear eloquent49, unconscious testimony50 to the admiration51 and affection in which the Sages held their calling. Hear then the Praises of Wisdom—
Happy is the man that findeth Wisdom, and the man that getteth understanding; for the merchandise of it is better than silver, and the gain thereof than fine gold. She is more precious than rubies52, and none of the things that thou canst desire are comparable unto her.... (Pr. 313-15): surely a disconcerting verse for upholders of the supposed utilitarianism of the proverbs? Again, How{171} much better is it to get Wisdom than gold! Yea to get understanding is to be chosen rather than silver (Pr. 1616, cp. 810)—so much for the Sages’ notion of comparative values. In chapter 9 of Proverbs, by a touch of fine imagination, Wisdom is daringly pictured as a noble Lady, bidding guests to her banquet. She is the counterpart of Madam Folly, who also gives a banquet and who thus invites a passer-by: Stolen waters are sweet, and bread eaten in secret is pleasant, (to which the Wise add in caustic53 comment as they see the foolish one enter: But he knoweth not that the dead are there, that her guests are in the depth of Sheol, Pr. 917, 18). But, in contrast, Wisdom—Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven pillars: she hath killed her beasts, she hath made ready her wine, and furnished her table. She hath sent forth54 her maidens55; on the highest parts of the city she crieth aloud, “Whoso is ignorant, let him turn in hither”; and to him that is void of understanding she speaketh, “Come, eat ye of my bread, and drink of the wine which I have made ready” (Pr. 91-5). Ben Sirach knew that Wisdom was high, and he does not disguise that only by long, unwearying efforts can her favour be attained57. But the reward, says he, outweighs58 the toil59, and he bids men seek her: At the first she will bring fear and dread60 upon a man and torment61 him with her discipline, until she can trust his soul and has tested him by her judgements (E. 417; cp. E. 619-25). Nevertheless, he says, Come unto her with all thy soul, and keep her ways with thy whole power. Search and seek, and she shall be made known unto thee, and when thou hast hold of her, let her not go. For in the end thou shalt find her to be rest, and she shall be changed for thee into gladness. Her fetters62 shall be to thee a covering of strength, and her chains a robe of glory (E. 626-29).
Wisdom is the source of all right and noble conduct, the principle that in all things ought to regulate men’s lives. Casting behind him the grim facts of Hellenistic courts, and{172} perhaps of high society in Jerusalem also, one wise man, seeing in vision the world as it should be, put these glowing, optimistic words into the mouth of Wisdom: By me kings reign63, and princes decree justice. By me princes rule, and nobles, even all the judges of the earth (Pr. 815, 16).
But all these praises are slight compared with the thoughts inspired by the supreme64 conviction that Wisdom itself is derived65 from God and dwells in His Presence: “The Wisdom that illumines the lives of the good is a reflection of the full-orbed wisdom of God.”[75] It is the ineffable66 counsel of the Almighty67, the power by which He created heaven and earth (Pr. 319f), the principle through which the universe is still sustained. In face of this belief praise rose into exultation68, and Wisdom was reverently70 but enthusiastically conceived as that which had been ordained71 of God from eternity72 to be His counsellor in the work of Creation and His daily delight:
Jehovah formed me first of His creation,
Before all his works of old.
In the earliest ages was I fashioned,
Even from the beginning, before the earth.
When there were no depths was I brought forth,
When there were no fountains brimming with water.
Before the mountains were sunk in their bases,
Before the hills was I brought forth;
Or ever He had made the earth and the fields,
Or the first clods of the world.
When He established the heavens I was there,
When he drew the circle over the abyss;
When He made firm the skies above,
And set fast the fountains of the deep;
When He gave the sea its bounds,
Then was I with Him as a foster-child,
And daily was I His delight,
As I played continually before His eyes,
Played o’er all the habitable world.
So now, my children, hearken unto me,
Receive my instruction and be wise;
For happy is the man that heareth me,
Happy are those that keep my ways,
Watching daily at my gates,
And waiting at my gate-posts.
For he that findeth me findeth life,
And winneth favour from Jehovah;
But he that misseth me wrongeth himself:
All that hate me love death.
(Pr. 822-36).[76]
In similar language Ben Sirach imagines Wisdom proclaiming her glory in the very presence of God Himself:
I came forth from the mouth of the Most High,
And like a cloud I covered the earth;
And my throne was in the pillar of cloud;
I alone compassed the circuit of heaven
And walked in the depth of the abysses,
In the waves of the sea and through all the earth;
And in every people I got me a possession.
With all these I sought for a resting-place—
Then the Creator of all commanded me,
Even he that formed me, pitched my tent
And said, “In Jacob be thy dwelling,
And in Israel thine inheritance.”
In the beginning, before the world, He fashioned me,
And to all eternity shall I fail not.{174}
In the holy tabernacle I ministered before Him,
And thus was I established in Zion;
Yea, in the beloved city He gave me resting-place,
(E. 243-11)[77].
Such words would have set the Greeks, as they set us, asking questions: “Is it implied that Wisdom is an entity77 distinct from God?”; “How far is it fair to see Greek influence in this apparent ascription of personality to Wisdom?” Both questions may be considered together. Too much stress cannot be laid on the firm hold which Monotheism had obtained in post-exilic Judaism; to the Jews of the Hellenic age the unity78 of God was a fundamental tenet. But the Jewish mind was as yet unphilosophical, not from lack of intelligence but from lack of inclination80 or initial suggestion. Hebrew thought started from the existence of God as an axiom, and was content to use the fact of conscience as the key to the interpretation81 of life, whereas Greek thought had naturally inclined towards making intellectual speculation82 the basis of its endeavour to attain56 through truth, morality, and beauty to the secret of life and the knowledge of God. Consequently many utterances that inevitably raise metaphysical questions in our minds, and would have philosophical79 meaning if spoken by a Greek, were put forward by the Jews most simply, without consideration of inherent intellectual problems. Of this character are the praises of Wisdom: although language is used that would fittingly be applied83 to a personal being, there was no intention to personify Wisdom as some kind of sub-divine Being other than God. The Wise{175} intended only to declare their fervent84 belief that the Wisdom they studied, loved, and trusted, was transcendently great, was God’s Wisdom, was “from above.” Wisdom in these proverbs was not consciously deemed to be more than an attribute of God, and phrases that seem to us to overstep the bounds and confer personality are to be regarded as an enthusiasm of the heart not implying metaphysical conclusions as to the ultimate nature of Deity85.[1a] This is the language not of philosophy but of affection and reverent69 esteem. From an early age there was a strong tendency in Hebrew thought towards clothing abstract and collective terms in the warm language of personal life, and the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiasticus may fairly be considered a natural development of pure Hebrew tradition.[2a] And yet there are “signs of the times” about them. The description of Wisdom we are discussing would read strangely in pre-exilic Hebrew books; and so the question of Greek influence may still be pressed. In the opinion of the present writer the influence, if any, is confined to a slight unintentional colouring. Seeing that the Wise stood out against the pressure and menace of unscrupulous, secular86 Hellenism, and that they lived at a period when Greek intellectual prowess had not yet brought its full weight to bear on Palestinian, or at least on Jud?an, thought, it is a reasonable conjecture87 that any trace of new philosophy in the proverbs has been introduced unwittingly and unwillingly88. The general soundness of this opinion becomes vividly89 apparent, if the two passages quoted above are compared with the eulogy90 given in a Jewish work of considerably91 later date, the Wisdom of Solomon. There Wisdom, Artificer of all things, is described as
{176}
A spirit, quick of understanding, holy,
Only-begotten, manifold, subtle, mobile,
Pure, undefiled, clean,
Inviolable, loving the good....
For Wisdom is more mobile than any motion,
Yea, she pervadeth and penetrateth all things
By reason of her pureness;
For she is a breath of the power of God,
And a pure effulgence92 of the Almighty.
(Wisdom of Solomon, 722ff).
and in one verse (W.S. 94) Wisdom is actually called She that sitteth beside Thee on Thy throne, astonishing words from a Jew. The atmosphere of Hellenic philosophy being here unmistakable, the contrast between the language of this passage and the restrained phraseology of Proverbs and Ecclesiasticus is accordingly significant.
As the Book of Job is treated in another volume of this series, the reference to it must here be brief, but a chapter on the Exaltation of Wisdom must not close without some mention of the wonderful poem in that Book, where also confession93 is made of the sublimity94 of Wisdom, but it is insisted that Wisdom dwells far beyond the reach of mortals, unknown and unknowable, save to the inscrutable Deity who wills not to reveal its secrets unto suffering man. Each section of this great passage begins with the haunting question, But Wisdom—whence cometh it, and where is the place of understanding? We quote the last stanza95 only.
But Wisdom—whence cometh it,
And where is the place of understanding?
It is hid from the eyes of all creatures,
Abaddon and Death acknowledge:
God alone hath perceived the way to it,
He knoweth the place thereof—
Even He that made weights for the wind
When He made a law for the rain,
And a way for the flash of the thunders.
Then did He see it and mark it:
He established and searched it out (Job 2820-27).[78]
“The Humanism of the Bible”—who would ask finer acknowledgment of one aspect of life, its profound mystery; who could fail to hear in those grand but desolate100 words the pathos101 of our mortal ignorance voicing its immortal33 longing102? Happier than this poet, and more in accord with ordinary human experience, were the Wise-men of Proverbs; for theirs was the faith that, though Wisdom might dwell in the innermost light of God’s presence, the boon103 of its guidance was not wholly denied to men. They praised its exceeding great glory, acknowledging its transcendence, yet quietly rejoicing in the measure of knowledge they were conscious of receiving:
Wisdom is the principal thing,
Therefore get Wisdom:
Yea! with all that thou hast gotten
Get understanding (Pr. 47).
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1
ethical
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| adj.伦理的，道德的，合乎道德的 | |
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minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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aphorisms
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| 格言，警句( aphorism的名词复数 ) | |
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precepts
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| n.规诫，戒律，箴言( precept的名词复数 ) | |
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maxims
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| n.格言，座右铭( maxim的名词复数 ) | |
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sage
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| n.圣人，哲人；adj.贤明的，明智的 | |
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sages
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| n.圣人( sage的名词复数 )；智者；哲人；鼠尾草（可用作调料） | |
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truthfulness
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| n. 符合实际 | |
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folly
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| n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话 | |
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strife
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| n.争吵，冲突，倾轧，竞争 | |
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arrogance
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| n.傲慢，自大 | |
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vices
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| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
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commonsense
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| adj.有常识的；明白事理的；注重实际的 | |
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14
accusation
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| n.控告，指责，谴责 | |
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15
disquieting
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| adj.令人不安的，令人不平静的v.使不安，使忧虑，使烦恼( disquiet的现在分词 ) | |
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16
contention
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| n.争论，争辩，论战；论点，主张 | |
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17
utilitarian
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| adj.实用的，功利的 | |
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18
treasuries
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| n.（政府的）财政部( treasury的名词复数 )；国库，金库 | |
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19
humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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20
reprehensible
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| adj.该受责备的 | |
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21
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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22
judgments
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| 判断( judgment的名词复数 )； 鉴定； 评价； 审判 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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24
implicated
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| adj.密切关联的；牵涉其中的 | |
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25
secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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26
dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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27
tempted
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| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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28
enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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29
ethics
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| n.伦理学；伦理观，道德标准 | |
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30
motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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31
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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32
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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33
immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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34
immortality
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| n.不死，不朽 | |
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35
extenuation
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| n.减轻罪孽的借口；酌情减轻；细 | |
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36
deliberately
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| adv.审慎地；蓄意地；故意地 | |
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37
exonerated
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| v.使免罪，免除( exonerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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38
utterances
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| n.发声( utterance的名词复数 )；说话方式；语调；言论 | |
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39
inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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40
piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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41
swell
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| vi.膨胀，肿胀；增长，增强 | |
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42
esteem
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| n.尊敬，尊重；vt.尊重，敬重；把…看作 | |
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43
incessantly
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| ad.不停地 | |
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44
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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45
epitome
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| n.典型，梗概 | |
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46
sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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47
inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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48
reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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49
eloquent
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| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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50
testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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51
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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52
rubies
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| 红宝石( ruby的名词复数 )； 红宝石色，深红色 | |
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caustic
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| adj.刻薄的，腐蚀性的 | |
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54
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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55
maidens
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| 处女( maiden的名词复数 )； 少女； 未婚女子； （板球运动）未得分的一轮投球 | |
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56
attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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57
attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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58
outweighs
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| v.在重量上超过( outweigh的第三人称单数 )；在重要性或价值方面超过 | |
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59
toil
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| vi.辛劳工作，艰难地行动；n.苦工，难事 | |
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60
dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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61
torment
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| n.折磨；令人痛苦的东西(人)；vt.折磨；纠缠 | |
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62
fetters
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| n.脚镣( fetter的名词复数 )；束缚v.给…上脚镣，束缚( fetter的第三人称单数 ) | |
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63
reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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64
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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ineffable
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| adj.无法表达的，不可言喻的 | |
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almighty
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| adj.全能的，万能的；很大的，很强的 | |
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exultation
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| n.狂喜，得意 | |
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reverent
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| adj.恭敬的，虔诚的 | |
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reverently
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| adv.虔诚地 | |
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ordained
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| v.任命（某人）为牧师( ordain的过去式和过去分词 )；授予（某人）圣职；（上帝、法律等）命令；判定 | |
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eternity
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| n.不朽，来世；永恒，无穷 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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lodging
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| n.寄宿，住所；(大学生的)校外宿舍 | |
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dominion
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| n.统治，管辖，支配权；领土，版图 | |
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entity
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| n.实体，独立存在体，实际存在物 | |
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unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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inclination
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| n.倾斜；点头；弯腰；斜坡；倾度；倾向；爱好 | |
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interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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speculation
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| n.思索，沉思；猜测；投机 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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fervent
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| adj.热的，热烈的，热情的 | |
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deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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conjecture
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| n./v.推测，猜测 | |
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unwillingly
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| adv.不情愿地 | |
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vividly
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| adv.清楚地，鲜明地，生动地 | |
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eulogy
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| n.颂词；颂扬 | |
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considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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effulgence
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| n.光辉 | |
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confession
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| n.自白，供认，承认 | |
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sublimity
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| 崇高，庄严，气质高尚 | |
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stanza
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| n.（诗）节，段 | |
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concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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fowls
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| 鸟( fowl的名词复数 )； 禽肉； 既不是这； 非驴非马 | |
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rumour
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| n.谣言，谣传，传闻 | |
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meted
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| v.（对某人）施以，给予（处罚等）( mete的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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pathos
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| n.哀婉，悲怆 | |
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longing
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| n.（for）渴望 | |
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boon
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| n.恩赐，恩物，恩惠 | |
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