The Aztecs, who originally believed in one supreme1 invisible creator, Taotl, adopted the gods of conquered races, like the Romans of old, and became polytheists. The Toltecs, one of the vanquished2 people, were nature worshippers, and made offerings of fruits and flowers to their deities3. After their defeat, the peaceful gods of the Toltecs, who took pleasure in the offerings of the fruits of the soil, soon took a place by the side of the terrible god of war of the Aztecs, Huitzilopoxtli, and shared with him the offerings of human sacrifices. This repulsive4 deity5 is portrayed6 as a hideous7 idol8 with broad face, wide mouth and terrible eyes, but was covered with jewels of gold and pearls and girt with golden serpents. At the altars hung censers of incense9 and braziers filled with the hearts of the victims offered in sacrifice. It is said that this god was ministered to by more than five thousand priests.
[309]
When the Spanish conquerors10 came, the policy of Cortez left the Mexicans no alternative but the adoption11 of the Christian12 religion. “Conversion13” and “Baptism” became interchangeable terms and the baptized pagan was immediately considered a good Christian even though the conversion only followed the judicious14 use of the fire and rack. One of the priests boasted that his “ordinary day’s work was from ten to twenty thousand souls.” Within a few years after the conquest baptism had been administered to more than four million Indians. Dreams of avarice15 swayed the minds of the conquering legions, for it was believed that from the unknown, western world was to come the gold that was to make every man a Cr?sus. But first these ungodly people must be converted to Romanism. As the unlettered Indians could not understand the real spirit and meaning of this new religion, visible symbols and pictures were substituted for the former idols16. Humboldt, the traveller so often quoted because of his careful research, says: “The introduction of the Romish religion had no other effect upon the Mexicans than to substitute new ceremonies and symbols for the rites17 of a sanguinary worship. Dogma has not succeeded dogma, but only ceremony to ceremony.[310] I have seen them marked and adorned18 with tinkling20 bells, perform savage21 dances around the altar while a monk22 of St. Francis elevated the Host.” It soon became a religious duty for the Spaniard returning from Europe to bring paintings and statues of saints to adorn19 the newly-erected23 churches, and holy relics25 of the saints to place therein. In this way these cruel invaders26 no doubt sought to satisfy their consciences for their outrages27 upon a mild and unresisting people. It is little wonder that the Indians could not fully28 appreciate the humanity of the lowly Nazarene when represented by such ferocious29 invaders.
A few of the Aztec gods blossomed out as Christian saints soon after the Conquest, through the ingenious schemes of the early priests who adopted this method to make the new religion accepted. They brought with them into the Roman Church the particular characteristics and powers which they were credited with as gods. As for example, the goddess of the rains who was much worshipped in the regions of little rain can be recognized in Our Lady of the Mists, or Our Lady of the Rains of the Mexican church. These saints are appealed to for the much-needed rain and are believed to have the same power to bring it which[311] they, as Aztec or Toltec gods, were supposed to have had. In many places there are shrines30 erected to these saints of the Church who are supposed to have power over the rain. It has been proven that, in most instances, in Aztec times, a temple existed on the same spot dedicated32 to the goddess of the rains or mists, as the case might be.
These schemes of miraculous33 appearances upon scenes already sacred made the transition from the native ceremonies to the ritual of the Catholic Church easy to a people who were accustomed to outward show and symbolism. The striking ceremonies of the Catholic Church, as practised in Mexico, and its impressive services in an unknown tongue, seemed in harmony with the rites of the Aztecs, and it was not hard for Cortez to force his religion upon the simple and superstitious34 mind of the poor, conquered Indian, who was more interested in form than sentiment. The religion of the Roman Church in Mexico is not free from pagan features even to this day. As one writer expresses it “paganism was baptized, Christianity paganized.” Outward display means more than spirituality and piety35 with the ignorant who constitute a very large proportion of the population.
[312]
One can still recognize in the rites of the Catholic Church, as practised to-day in Mexico, a tinge36 of the Aztec worship. A noted37 French Catholic prelate, Abbe Domenech, in 1867 wrote of that church as follows: “Mexican faith is a dead faith. The abuse of external ceremonies, the facility of reconciling the devil with God, the absence of internal exercise of piety, have killed the faith in Mexico. The idolatrous character of Mexican Catholicism is a fact well known to all travellers. The worship of saints and madonnas so absorbs the devotion of the people that little time is left to think about God. The Indians go to hear mass with their poultry39 and vegetables, which they are carrying to market. The gobble of the turkeys, the crowing of the cocks, the mewing of the cats, the chirping40 of the birds in their nests in the ceiling, and the flea-bites rendered meditation41 impossible to me, unaccustomed to live in such a menagerie.”
In remote caves of mountain regions it is claimed, and, I believe, truthfully, that the ancient deities are still worshipped. It is no infrequent occurrence to see a bouquet42 of flowers before the image of the virgin43 in the churches or wayside shrines. Sometimes even offerings of wheat or fruits are found, the gift of some[313] poor peon in whose mind the conception of the Saviour44 and his mission on earth is very vague. Several writers assert that they have personally seen Indians on their way to the mountains to sacrifice lambs, chickens and flowers to their gods, thus proving that the grosser forms of paganism have not been stamped out entirely45. The priests, of course, do not approve of this, and try in every way to stop these practices, but without success.
The Catholic Church used to be all-powerful in Mexico. It held the wealth and the learning, and the priests preyed46 upon the people as well as prayed for them. They were taxed to the utmost, and “Pay or pray” was the motto affixed47 to the cross by the priests. Rich men gave freely of their substance. Poor peons—and they are vastly in the majority—went clothed in rags that the Church might be benefited. The favourite method was by the sale of indulgences. General Thompson, United States Minister to Mexico in 1845, wrote as follows: “As a means of raising money, I would not give the single institution of the Catholic religion (in Mexico) of masses and indulgences for the benefit of the souls of the dead for the power of taxation49 possessed50 by any government. I remember that my washerwoman once asked me to lend her two[314] dollars. I asked her what she wanted with it. She told me that there was a particular mass to be said on that day which relieved the souls in purgatory51 from ten thousand years’ torture and that she wished to secure the benefit for her mother.” It is like the harangue52 that so aroused Martin Luther: “The very moment the money clicks on the bottom of this chest the soul escapes from purgatory and flies to Heaven! Bring your money, bring money, bring money!”
Shrines and chapels53 were so numerous that the true believer passed through the streets with head uncovered and hat in hand, for fear that he might pass one unobserved and not remove his head covering as piety demanded. During the latter years of Spanish rule in Mexico, the Church became so enormously rich that it was reported to have in its possession one-third of all the wealth in Mexico. In addition to the power the Church naturally held, this immense wealth gave its leaders great prestige in governmental affairs, for wealth everywhere commands power and respect among those in authority. At one time the clergy54 held property to the value of about $180,000,000, yielding an annual income of $12,000,000, according to reliable[315] authorities. Some have estimated the wealth at more than $600,000,000.
It had secured control not only of the wealth, but also much of the best agricultural land within the republic, owning eight hundred haciendas and more than twenty-two thousand city lots. All this was tied up and became useless and non-productive. The Church used its great influence to oppose all progress. The opposition55 finally broke forth56, and the immense wealth of convents, shrines and monasteries57 was poured forth with lavish58 hand in what the Church considered a holy war against heretical ideas and persons. Reformers set envious59 eyes upon this property, and numerous attempts were made to dispossess the Church of it. An edict aimed at the power of the Church was issued by Commonfort in 1857, but the Indian reformer and president, Juarez, was the first to actually accomplish the separation of church and state several years later. The establishment of the empire with Maximilian as Emperor was simply a reaction, and an attempt to establish a government in which the interests of the Church would again be paramount60. It is not much wonder that the native population yielded so readily to the overthrow61 of the priestly power. In accomplishing the complete[316] overthrow of church and state, Mexico only did what Italy did a few years later, and what France is endeavouring to do at the present time. Even in Spain, the handwriting on the walls seems to point to the same ultimate result. And yet it is strange to see a nation so rigidly62 and even unmercifully regulating a church to which ninety-five per cent. of the people belong.
The reactionary63 movement on the part of the Church under the guise64 of French intervention65 failed. The reform anti-clerical movement prevailed once more, even though opposed by the enormous wealth of the Church. The greater portion of the property once owned by the Church has been lost. The country abounds67 in ruined churches and convents. The law went so far as to prohibit the Church from holding the title to property, and if it wished to own property, it must be in the names of individuals. Priests were forbidden, under penalty of fine and imprisonment68, to appear in the streets in their clerical dress. Religious processions outside the walls of the church, or churchyard, were prohibited. Civil ceremonies were made obligatory69 to render a marriage valid70. Sisters of Charity and the Jesuits were sent out of the country, and even the ringing of bells was regulated[317] by law. It has now lost not only its property but its prestige as well.
The property was confiscated71, or “denounced,” and sold for beggarly sums in numerous instances. Many hotels are now located in former churches or convents, and schools and barracks innumerable occupy former homes of nuns72. Even the famous prison of Belem in the City of Mexico, where more than three thousand offenders73 (most of them justly no doubt) have been incarcerated74 at times, was the old convent of that name; and the military prison, Santiago de Tlalteloco, was one of the oldest churches in Mexico, having been founded by the first viceroy. Protestant services are held in a number of places that were former Catholic churches, the buildings having been purchased by these organizations, or the use of them granted by the authorities. The rich silver plate and the altar rails were looted from the sacred edifices75, or were sold for small sums by the officers.
For many years Mexico has thus gone along the line of reform. The ambition of the Church has been held in check but not killed. They are regaining76 some of their former power, and recovering much of their former property, so it is[318] claimed by good authority.[4] The average Mexican is superstitious. He is boastful and bold in times of peace, but craven when the time of trial comes. Consequently, when sick and about to die, he will send for the priest, no matter how he may have fought the Church when in health. The priests, or some of them at least, claiming that the Catholic Church, as the chosen of the Lord, has a lien77 on all earthly goods, refuse to administer the sacrament without some restitution78. If the dying man owns a confiscated church property, he must restore its value before he can get a clear title to a home in Heaven. With the persistence79 characteristic of the Mexican Catholic priests, they are ferreting out their former property and again accumulating wealth for their beloved Church. Their fees are utterly80 out of proportion to the earning capacity of the people. Marriage costs $14.00, baptism $2.25 and plain mass $6.00. Many of the poor peons are obliged to forego the services of the Church because of these high charges, for all services must be paid in advance.
They are also openly disregarding the established laws in some of the restrictions81 imposed. I travelled for two days on the railroad with the[319] Bishop82 of Tehuantepec who wore his purple robes of office all the time. At nearly every station priests met him, and he was given a continuous ovation83. A few months ago, according to a Mexican periodical, a well known priest, in defiance84 of the law which prohibits public religious processions, authorized85 such a procession, and blessed at the altar those who arrived with it. In many of the more remote districts the law requiring marriage ceremonies to be made by civil authorities is completely disregarded. The priests tell the people that the religious ceremony is all that is necessary. Although the Church upholds such marriages, in law they are absolutely null and void, and it is a deceit upon the contracting parties. Some priests go so far as to tell their people that the civil marriage is positively86 impious. And yet nothing is done to punish the above violations87 of the established laws. The government probably does not consider that these infractions of the strict letter of the law have reached a serious phase.
If the Roman Church of Mexico to-day, with its wealth confiscated, its public voice muzzled88, its political powers annulled89, has still power so that it can openly violate some of the fundamental laws of the country, we can have some[320] faint idea of its power when it ruled the country with an iron hand. Those who see trouble ahead because of the avariciousness90 of some of the clergy, are fond of quoting the old Spanish proverb “The devil lurks91 behind the cross.” Nevertheless, I believe that the clergy in Mexico to-day are superior to those who served prior to the change in status. Many of them are noble men striving to uplift the people and aid the government in its campaign for the enlightenment of the masses. The strife92 has purified them and they think less of the perquisites93 than the duties of their office. The well meaning priest no doubt suffers for the sins of his predecessors94 as well as those of his contemporaries who are blinded by the past glory of the Church. The Church as an institution is probably to some extent the victim of the ignorance and fanatical zeal95 of its early founders96 in Mexico. The Church will thrive far more when placed on the same footing as all churches are in the United States, and people and priest accept that condition. As one prominent American priest has recently said in commenting on the struggle in France: “Everywhere that church and state are united, the church is in bondage97. Nowhere is the church so free and untrammelled, or so progressive, as in the United States.”
[321]
The churches in all the cities are numerous and their capacity far greater than the number of those attending. Puebla, the City of the Angels, so called because of the many miraculous visits of the angels who even, on their first visit, measured off the city and fixed48 the site of some churches, is called the city of churches as it has the greatest number in proportion to the population of any city in the republic, many of them being erected in honour of the various angelic visitations. The City of Mexico contains the largest and most pretentious98 church building in the new world—the cathedral. It is also one of the largest church edifices in the world. This grand cathedral begun in 1573 was ready for service about three-quarters of a century later but the towers were not completed until 1791. It is four hundred and twenty-six feet long and almost two hundred feet wide with walls of great thickness, and reaches a height of one hundred and seventy-five feet in the dome38. The towers are a little more than two hundred feet high. Then adjoining this building is another church, the Sagrario Metropolitano, which, to all appearances, is a part of the main structure, although of an entirely different and less beautiful style of architecture.
[322]
Within these two edifices were concentrated for centuries the pomp and ceremony of the Church of Rome and within their walls much of Mexico’s history was made. It is still the headquarters of the church party while across the plaza99 is the National Palace, the official home of the government which conquered in the long struggle between the two forces. The estimated cost of the cathedral is $2,000,000, but that represents only a fraction of the actual cost if the labour is figured at a fair rate and the material had all been purchased at market value. There are some paintings by famous artists on the walls and dome. A balustrade surrounds the choir100 which is made of composite metal of gold, silver and copper101 and is so valuable that an offer of a speculative102 American to replace it with one of equal weight in solid silver was refused. Within the walls there are fourteen chapels dedicated to the various saints, and candles are kept constantly burning before the images, and in these chapels are kept many gruesome relics of these same saints. The remains103 of many of the former viceroys and some of the other noted men in Mexican history lie buried here. This, the greatest church in the western world, is also built on the foundations of the greatest pagan temple of the continent—the imposing[323] Teocalli of the Aztecs. From the top of the towers we can look upon the same valley that Cortez viewed when Montezuma took him by the hand after ascending104 the great altar, and pointed105 out the various places of interest. The lakes have receded106, the architecture is different, but our admiring eyes see the same majestic107 hills on every side.
Listening to the bells in the towers of this cathedral, once so powerful, one, who is a “dreamer of dreams,” can almost imagine them lamenting108 the changed times in the words of the last poem written by the poet Longfellow:
“Is then the old faith dead,”
They say, “and in its stead
Is some new faith proclaimed,
That we are forced to remain
Naked to sun and rain,
Unsheltered and ashamed?
“Oh bring us back once more
The vanished days of yore,
When the world with faith was filled;
The hearts of fire and steel,
The hands that believe and build.
“Then from our tower again
We will send over land and main
Our voices of command,
[324]
Like exiled kings who return
To their thrones, and the people learn
That the Priest is lord of the land!”
The very first movement on the part of Protestant organizations to evangelize Mexico was made by the American Bible Society when they sent out one of their representative with the American army in 1846. This man distributed several thousand copies of the scriptures110 between Vera Cruz and the capital which afterwards bore fruit. A few years later a woman, Miss Matilda Rankin, who had been engaged in missionary111 work in Texas, crossed over the border and held services in Monterey. In 1862 a Baptist missionary, Rev66. James Hickey, also began work in Monterey. However, no organized effort was made by Protestant bodies until the years from 1869 to 1880, when missionaries112 were sent by the following denominations113: Protestant Episcopal, Methodist Episcopal, Methodist Episcopal South, Presbyterian, Baptist, Christian and Congregational. Bishop H. C. Riley obtained an old church for the use of the Protestant Episcopal Church and Rev. William Butler purchased a part of the convent of San Francisco, in the heart of the city, for the Methodist Episcopal Church.
Dios y libertad had been the watchword of[325] the reform movement, but it had not been put into practice until the time of President Juarez, who encouraged mission work, and exerted himself to protect the missionaries from fanatics114. However frequent attacks upon these workers were made in provincial115 towns and one foreign missionary, Rev. J. L. Stephens, of the Congregational Church, was slain116 at Ahualuco in 1874. A number of native converts and preachers have met with serious, and even fatal injuries, but no other Americans have been killed. President Diaz has also encouraged these ministers when they were downhearted. Rev. William Butler quotes an interview which several missionaries had with him in which the President expressed himself as follows: “I have seen this land as none of you ever saw it, in degradation117, with everything in the line of toleration and freedom to learn. I have watched its rise and progress to a better condition. We are not yet all we ought to be and hope to be; but we are not what we once were; we have risen as a people, and are now rising faster than ever. My advice is, do not be discouraged. Keep on with your work, avoiding topics of irritation118 and preaching your gospel in its own spirit.” The president has no warmer supporters than the[326] Protestant missionaries and their little bands of adherents119.
Their numbers to-day after thirty years of aggressive work seem small, as the ten Protestant denominations who maintain missions in Mexico only claim about twenty-five thousand members, or about one hundred thousand adherents including those who attend the Sunday-school and other services. The Presbyterians are working in fourteen different states. They have fifty organized churches and two hundred and twenty-two outstations which are served by twenty-one foreign missionaries and one hundred and one native workers. The Methodist Episcopal Church has twenty-nine missionaries in the field and one hundred and twenty-two native workers, and is holding services at more than a hundred different places. The various denominations have divided up the field and are working together in harmony. The Methodists, for instance, are working in Guanajuato, Leon, Pachuca, Puebla, Silao, and Oaxaca. The Presbyterians have centred their efforts in Aguas Calientes, Zacatecas, Saltillo, San Luis Potosi and Jalapa. All denominations have missions in the City of Mexico. The Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists have their own publishing houses and[327] issue periodicals and a great deal of printed matter in Spanish. There are in all about two hundred and fifty foreign missionaries in Mexico serving about seven hundred congregations. Many of these workers are medical missionaries who are doing a vast amount of good, and others are teachers who are instructing the youth. The Protestant bodies own property in Mexico valued at nearly two million dollars.
An era of at least tolerance120 toward Protestants is dawning in this land, and religious liberty is an actual fact. The Young Men’s Christian Association has a strong organization in the capital. A fund has recently been raised to erect24 a splendid new building for the association. The President and his cabinet have also attended some special memorial services in the Protestant churches. This may seem a small thing, but a quarter of a century ago it would have been incredible. Some of the broad-minded Catholic clergy are even displaying a kindlier feeling toward the Protestant workers. It may not be many years before Catholic clergy and Protestant ministers may unite together in working for a common cause—the betterment of the morals and conditions of the people.
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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vanquished
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| v.征服( vanquish的过去式和过去分词 )；战胜；克服；抑制 | |
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deities
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| n.神，女神( deity的名词复数 )；神祗；神灵；神明 | |
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repulsive
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| adj.排斥的，使人反感的 | |
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deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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portrayed
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| v.画像( portray的过去式和过去分词 )；描述；描绘；描画 | |
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hideous
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| adj.丑陋的，可憎的，可怕的，恐怖的 | |
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idol
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| n.偶像，红人，宠儿 | |
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incense
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| v.激怒；n.香，焚香时的烟，香气 | |
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conquerors
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| 征服者，占领者( conqueror的名词复数 ) | |
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adoption
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| n.采用，采纳，通过；收养 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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judicious
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| adj.明智的，明断的，能作出明智决定的 | |
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avarice
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| n.贪婪；贪心 | |
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idols
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| 偶像( idol的名词复数 )； 受崇拜的人或物； 受到热爱和崇拜的人或物； 神像 | |
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rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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adorned
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| [计]被修饰的 | |
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adorn
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| vt.使美化，装饰 | |
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tinkling
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| n.丁当作响声 | |
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savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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invaders
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| 入侵者，侵略者，侵入物( invader的名词复数 ) | |
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outrages
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| 引起…的义愤，激怒( outrage的第三人称单数 ) | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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ferocious
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| adj.凶猛的，残暴的，极度的，十分强烈的 | |
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30
shrines
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| 圣地，圣坛，神圣场所( shrine的名词复数 ) | |
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shrine
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| n.圣地，神龛，庙；v.将...置于神龛内，把...奉为神圣 | |
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dedicated
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| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
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miraculous
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| adj.像奇迹一样的，不可思议的 | |
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superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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tinge
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| vt.(较淡)着色于，染色；使带有…气息；n.淡淡色彩，些微的气息 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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dome
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| n.圆屋顶，拱顶 | |
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poultry
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| n.家禽，禽肉 | |
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chirping
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| 鸟叫，虫鸣( chirp的现在分词 ) | |
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meditation
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| n.熟虑，（尤指宗教的）默想，沉思，（pl.）冥想录 | |
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bouquet
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| n.花束，酒香 | |
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virgin
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| n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的 | |
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saviour
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| n.拯救者，救星 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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preyed
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| v.掠食( prey的过去式和过去分词 )；掠食；折磨；（人）靠欺诈为生 | |
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affixed
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| adj.[医]附着的，附着的v.附加( affix的过去式和过去分词 )；粘贴；加以；盖（印章） | |
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48
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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49
taxation
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| n.征税，税收，税金 | |
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50
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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51
purgatory
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| n.炼狱；苦难；adj.净化的，清洗的 | |
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52
harangue
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| n.慷慨冗长的训话，言辞激烈的讲话 | |
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53
chapels
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| n.小教堂， （医院、监狱等的）附属礼拜堂( chapel的名词复数 )；（在小教堂和附属礼拜堂举行的）礼拜仪式 | |
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54
clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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55
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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56
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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57
monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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58
lavish
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| adj.无节制的；浪费的；vt.慷慨地给予，挥霍 | |
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59
envious
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| adj.嫉妒的，羡慕的 | |
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60
paramount
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| a.最重要的，最高权力的 | |
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61
overthrow
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| v.推翻，打倒，颠覆；n.推翻，瓦解，颠覆 | |
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rigidly
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| adv.刻板地，僵化地 | |
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63
reactionary
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| n.反动者，反动主义者；adj.反动的，反动主义的，反对改革的 | |
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64
guise
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| n.外表，伪装的姿态 | |
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65
intervention
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| n.介入，干涉，干预 | |
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66
rev
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| v.发动机旋转，加快速度 | |
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67
abounds
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| v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的第三人称单数 ) | |
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imprisonment
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| n.关押，监禁，坐牢 | |
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obligatory
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| adj.强制性的，义务的，必须的 | |
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valid
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| adj.有确实根据的；有效的；正当的，合法的 | |
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71
confiscated
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| 没收，充公( confiscate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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72
nuns
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| n.（通常指基督教的）修女， （佛教的）尼姑( nun的名词复数 ) | |
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73
offenders
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| n.冒犯者( offender的名词复数 )；犯规者；罪犯；妨害…的人（或事物） | |
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74
incarcerated
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| 钳闭的 | |
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75
edifices
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| n.大建筑物( edifice的名词复数 ) | |
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76
regaining
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| 复得( regain的现在分词 )； 赢回； 重回； 复至某地 | |
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77
lien
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| n.扣押权，留置权 | |
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78
restitution
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| n.赔偿；恢复原状 | |
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persistence
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| n.坚持，持续，存留 | |
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utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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81
restrictions
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| 约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则） | |
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82
bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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ovation
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| n.欢呼，热烈欢迎，热烈鼓掌 | |
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defiance
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| n.挑战，挑衅，蔑视，违抗 | |
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authorized
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| a.委任的，许可的 | |
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86
positively
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| adv.明确地，断然，坚决地；实在，确实 | |
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violations
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| 违反( violation的名词复数 )； 冒犯； 违反（行为、事例）； 强奸 | |
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88
muzzled
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| 给（狗等）戴口套( muzzle的过去式和过去分词 )； 使缄默，钳制…言论 | |
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annulled
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| v.宣告无效( annul的过去式和过去分词 )；取消；使消失；抹去 | |
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avariciousness
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91
lurks
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| n.潜在，潜伏；（lurk的复数形式）vi.潜伏，埋伏（lurk的第三人称单数形式） | |
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92
strife
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| n.争吵，冲突，倾轧，竞争 | |
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93
perquisites
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| n.（工资以外的）财务补贴( perquisite的名词复数 )；额外收入；（随职位而得到的）好处；利益 | |
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predecessors
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| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
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95
zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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96
founders
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| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
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97
bondage
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| n.奴役，束缚 | |
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98
pretentious
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| adj.自命不凡的，自负的，炫耀的 | |
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99
plaza
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| n.广场，市场 | |
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100
choir
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| n.唱诗班，唱诗班的席位，合唱团，舞蹈团；v.合唱 | |
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101
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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102
speculative
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| adj.思索性的，暝想性的，推理的 | |
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103
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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104
ascending
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| adj.上升的，向上的 | |
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105
pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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106
receded
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| v.逐渐远离( recede的过去式和过去分词 )；向后倾斜；自原处后退或避开别人的注视；尤指问题 | |
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107
majestic
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| adj.雄伟的，壮丽的，庄严的，威严的，崇高的 | |
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108
lamenting
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| adj.悲伤的，悲哀的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的现在分词 ) | |
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109
fervid
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| adj.热情的；炽热的 | |
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110
scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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111
missionary
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| adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士 | |
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112
missionaries
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| n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 ) | |
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113
denominations
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| n.宗派( denomination的名词复数 )；教派；面额；名称 | |
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114
fanatics
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| 狂热者，入迷者( fanatic的名词复数 ) | |
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115
provincial
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| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
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116
slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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117
degradation
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| n.降级；低落；退化；陵削；降解；衰变 | |
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118
irritation
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| n.激怒，恼怒，生气 | |
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119
adherents
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| n.支持者，拥护者( adherent的名词复数 )；党羽；徒子徒孙 | |
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120
tolerance
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| n.宽容；容忍，忍受；耐药力；公差 | |
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