We are none of us given to boasting of our poor relations, and most of us indignantly repudiate5 our kinship with the Apes. But facts are stubborn things: the relationship is there, whether we admit it or not: and those who love truth for truth’s sake will not shirk the comparison between themselves and their remote cousins. Unhappily, from our present point of view, this cannot be carried very far, for the “Love idylls” of the Apes have yet to be written. Such facts, however, as have been gleaned6 are interesting. Of the higher, man-like, or “Anthropoid” species only the most meagre information is to be obtained; but this nevertheless is interesting. For the most part we have to be satisfied with inferences drawn7 from a study of the external differences between the sexes—from the “Secondary Sexual Characters,” in short, and from the records of travellers who have encountered these creatures in their native wilds.
The species which throw most light on this theme are 41the Gorilla, the Chimpanzee and the Orang-utan. Of these the Chimpanzee has most in common with the human race. But it may satisfy the qualms8 of many to know that between the Ape and the Man there is a great gulf9 fixed10. The brain of the largest Ape is less than half the size of that even of the lowest of mankind. Man is a reasoning, and for the most part a reasonable, creature; he is a tool-making animal. This is more than can be said of any of the apes, even the most intelligent. Their teeth and immensely powerful arms must serve their every need. No ape ever fashioned for himself either a knife, a vessel12 to carry water, or any means of transport; and herein we have a measure of his brain capacity. The huge jaws13 and great canine15 teeth are no less conspicuous16 “marks of the beast.”
These, however, man himself has but recently lost, as was proved by the sensational17 discovery of the skull18 of an ape-like man at Piltdown, in Sussex, during 1912. Herein the jaw14 was essentially19 that of an ape, while the base of the skull was as markedly human. The cheek teeth, or molars, were of the human type; but the canine was ape-like, though much inferior in point of size. That the men of this remote age—which was possibly that of Pliocene times and certainly not later than early Pleistocene—had begun to use rudely-fashioned tools, is proved by the roughly-chipped flints found with the remains20. With the invention of tools the decline in the size of his “eye” teeth began.
In all the large apes these “eye” teeth are of great size. Their purpose, it would seem, is primarily to serve as weapons in conflicts between rivals. Such conflicts are apparently22 unintentionally, and unavoidably, provoked 42by the loud cries uttered by the males in their endeavours to discover the whereabouts of females desiring mates. Of necessity roaming far in search of food, the unmated have no means of making their whereabouts known, save by thus giving tongue to desire. Evidently the normal methods of voice production do not suffice for their urgent needs, for the carrying power of the voice is immensely fortified23 by means of great air sacs, or chambers24, formed in part by an enlargement of the body of the hyoid, or the bone which supports the tongue, and in part by dilatations of the inner walls of the larynx. The females, it is to be noted25, are by no means so well equipped in this matter. It is not necessary that they should be. All that those desiring mates have to do is to follow up the cries of avid26 males, a by no means difficult task, especially when under the spell of the emotions which possess them. But the mechanism27 which serves the Chimpanzee and the Gorilla by no means fulfils the needs of the Orang-utan. In this uncouth28 creature the system of resonating chambers is immensely increased by great, thin-walled, membranous29 pouches30 extending round the neck and under the armpits, so that when inflated31 these areas have a most extraordinarily32 swollen33 appearance. When the Orang chooses to lift his voice even the deaf must hear.
Where fighting instead of fondling is the sequel to these impassioned cries the conflict is probably not of long duration, for it is certainly severe. This is attested35 by the fact that captured specimens36, if adult, are commonly found to be minus one or more fingers, which have been bitten or torn off in these love affairs.
Plate 2.
From a drawing by I. Thornton.
THE GORILLA PREPARING FOR HOSTILITIES37.
Note the “beetling” brows, the large size of the canine teeth, and the great development of the arms in these arboreal38 creatures, which play an even more important part in locomotion39 than the legs. The latter in this illustration are, however, relatively40 too small.
[Face page 42.
An added ferocity of expression is given to the male Gorilla by the development of enormous brow ridges41 and the huge canines42. The former are regarded by some 43authorities as adaptations to afford increased powers of mastication43. But if this were so, then such ridges should be equally developed in both sexes, and this is far from being true. Hideousness44, rather than ferocity, has been given to the Orang-utan by the out-growth of enormous ridges on each side of the face, and these, when the great wind-bags encircling the neck are inflated, impart a repulsiveness46 of expression attained47 by no other animal living.
Of the normal every-day life of the great Apes but little is known. It would seem, however, that they live in family parties—an adult male accompanied by a female and one or more young of different ages, of which one is commonly an infant in arms. It is difficult to procure48 positive evidence on the point, but it is commonly believed that the young remain with their parents till they are several years old, when they are gradually driven off to fend49 for themselves. This is a common procedure with all animals. The dominant50 impulse in this is something akin11 to greediness, an indefinable perception that too large a family party will entail51 too great a strain on the food supply, hence the now no longer helpless young are regarded as a danger to the safety of the family, and are turned adrift. Incidentally this procedure is of immense benefit to the race, for it ensures its distribution, enlarges its chances of survival, and lessens52 the danger of in-breeding.
Attention must now be turned to the lower Apes. In these it is to be remarked the secondary sexual characters differ conspicuously53 from those of the man-like species. Manes and beards and brightly-coloured areas of bare skin are now the dominant feature. But canine teeth, 44in proportion rivalling those of the Gorilla, are found in the Baboons54, while in some of the New-world monkeys voice production of quite remarkable55 power takes the place of ornament.
The precise part played by ornament among these animals can only be inferred from Darwin’s observations on captive animals, and then only in so far as they refer to colour. Manes, beards and moustaches, such as are shown in the adjoining illustrations, are borne only by the males, and sometimes take extravagant56 forms.
Darwin suggested that the mane of the Baboons, for example, served as a shield when fighting with rivals, protecting the great blood-vessels from injury. Incidentally this end may be attained, but from what we know of similar developments in other animals, this cannot be regarded as the primary function of the mane. One is tempted57 to look upon it as a protective device because of its position, but it is probably no more so than is the long flowing hair which adorns58 the flanks of the Guereza. This is of a purely59 ornamental60 character, although, according to some, it is to be reckoned as an instance of protective coloration, the long white hair matching the long pendant masses of lichen61 which hang from the boughs62 of the trees in the damp forests where these creatures live, and so concealing63 them from their enemies. Of beards and moustaches many examples might be cited, but the most striking must suffice. These are furnished by the Satan Monkey or Black Saki (Pithecia satanas), and the little Tamarin Monkey (Midas imperator)—one of the Marmosets. In the first-named the beard is thick and full, but in the latter scanty64. This, however, is atoned65 for by the enormous upwardly curled moustache giving the face a most comically human appearance.
Plate 3.
From drawings by I. Thornton.
All the Man-like Apes possess great canine teeth and powerful voices. In the Orangutan the Compass of the voice is enormously heightened by means of a huge wind-bag which encircles the neck. The wind-bag is seen in fig34. 1, which also shows the great folds of skin developed by adult males on each side of the face. In other species, as in the Tamarin Marmoset (Midas imperator) (fig. 2), and the Satan monkey (Pithecia satanus) (fig. 3), “ornaments” in the shape of beards and moustaches are developed, while in the Mandrill (fig. 4) the face is vividly67 coloured.
[Face page 44.
In the development of brilliantly-coloured areas of 45bare skin the monkeys stand alone among the Mammalia. The hues68 displayed are remarkable for their brilliancy, and this varies in intensity69, waxing and waning70 with the varying moods of their possessors, and attaining71 their maximum during periods of sexual excitement. Blue, green, red, and violet are the dominant colours, and these are confined to the face, buttocks, and genital organs. The same hues are commonly present in both sexes, though in the female they are less brilliant. Normally the male appears to be unconscious of the conspicuous patches of colour, but when under the irrepressible stimulus72 of sexual excitement he seems to endeavour to make the utmost possible capital out of such adornments, more especially presenting his buttocks to his mate in an apparent endeavour to stimulate73 her desire. In some species, as with the Baboons for example, the naked area of this hinder part of the body is a much more conspicuous feature in the female than in the male, becoming enormously swollen and carunculated, and from its vivid red colour presents a positively74 revolting appearance, according to our standard of what is beautiful. The most vividly coloured species of all is the Mandrill, which, in this matter exceeds all other living Mammals. The face, in the male, is produced forward to give the head a dog-like shape, while the whole of the upper surface of the muzzle75 has been transformed into a swollen, deeply fluted76 mass by the excessive inflation of the underlying77 bone. The bare skin covering this is of a brilliant cobalt blue, with lines of violet in the furrows78, while the nose is of a bright scarlet79. The naked skin of the buttocks, and the genital organs, are suffused80 with brilliant tints81 of scarlet and blue. In spite of the purity and brilliance82 of the 46coloration the effect is to make the creature really hideous45.
Of the display Cuvier writes: “La partie postérieure du corps83 n’est ni moins extraordinaire ni moins révoltante. Sous une courte queue sans cesse relevée est un anus entouré d’un gros bourrelet d’écarlate; de larges fesses nues, que l’animal semble montrer sans cesse avec autant de lascivité que d’impudence, sont colorées d’un rose vif nuancé sur les c?tés de lilas et de bleu. Les parties genitales enfin sont d’un rouge84 de feu d’autant plus tranché qu’elles sont absolument nues, et qu’elles viennent a la suite85 d’un abdomen86 revêtu de poils blancs.”
While we cannot suppose these animals to possess any standard of beauty or ugliness, it must not be forgotten that they are more or less conscious, not only of the existence of these brightly-coloured areas, but of the effect they produce, as Darwin showed long since in the cases of a captive Mandrill, and some other smaller species of Monkeys, among them a Rhesus Monkey. These, when shown a looking-glass, at once presented their hinder ends to what they supposed to be the new arrival. A similar mark of friendliness87 was shown towards their keeper, and visitors introduced by him. Periodically, under the sexual stimulus, this desire becomes intensified88 and becomes an invitation to mating.
In this connection it is interesting to note that in some of the Macaque Monkeys we have signs of a reversal of the usual sequence of coloration. For in the Pigtailed Macaque the young of both sexes are more brilliantly coloured than the adults, in regard to the bare skin areas, while in the Hairy-eared Macaque (M. lasiotis) and the Rhesus Monkey (M. rhesus) the face of the female is brighter than that of the male. This surely means that this coloration is in process of suppression, for according 47to the rule the male is the first to develop new characters, then the female, and finally they are transmitted to the young. The extra brightness in the young, then, is to be regarded not as an incipient89, but as an ancestral character in process of elimination90.
As a rule, among the Mammals at any rate, brilliant coloration and weapons of offence are not associated in the same animal. The Baboons, and the Mandrill in particular, are exceptions, for these animals are provided with most formidable “tusks,” the canines of both upper and lower jaws being of great size, and opposed one to another in such a way that they wear away to form sharp, angular cutting-edges, more murderous than the fangs91 of the Tiger.
Reference has been made already to the existence of large sound resonators for the purpose of increasing the volume of the voice in the Orang, Gorilla and Chimpanzee. Some of the Gibbons are also well provided in this direction. But the most striking instances of the kind are furnished by the Orang, and the monkeys known as Howlers. In these last the base of the hyoid, as the skeleton for the support of the tongue is called, is fashioned into a deep bony cup, which has the effect of intensifying92 the volume of the voice to a most surprising extent. But more than this, apparently for the protection of this bony voice-bowl the upright branches of the lower jaw have become remarkably93 deepened, and widened, a correlation94 of growth between unrelated parts which is fraught95 with deep significance. “Terrific,” “terrible” and “harrowing” are terms which have been used by travellers like Bates, Belt and Wallace in describing the cavernous roar of these animals, a roar which will easily carry two miles. 48It would seem that these vocal96 efforts are not merely confined to what we may call the “Courting” season, as is the roar of the stag, but that they are heard nightly at dusk. They may be resumed again at dawn, and re-awakened when thunder-clouds gather. They have become the normal method of giving vent21 to excitement, and probably are intensified when isolated97 males are desirous of discovering the whereabouts of females equally anxious to find a mate.
Among the Apes we meet, as with the human species, with both monogamy and polygamy. But it would be dangerous to assume that the reasons for polygamy are the same in both. Polygamy, indeed, has by no means always the same significance. In the most primitive98, half-human races of the past, as with the man-like Apes to-day, polygamy is determined99 by accident rather than choice. These extinct peoples, like the great anthropoids, were normally monogamous, but on the death of a male in conflict with his neighbour, or from other causes, his mate would probably of her own free will seek out the nearest male and even if he were already mated would be at once adopted into the family circle. This certainly happens in the case of the Gorilla and Chimpanzee to-day. But among living races of mankind, both savage100 and civilized101, multiplicity of wives is a matter of choice on the part of the male, and in many cases to achieve this females from other tribes have to be secured—either by purchase or conquest. With the lower apes, or “monkeys,” polygamy only obtains among gregarious102 species; and either because the birth-rate of the females exceeds that of the males, or because a considerable number of young males are killed annually103 by exciting the jealousy104 of the older males, who are exceedingly pugnacious105.
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1
likeness
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| n.相像，相似（之处） | |
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truculent
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| adj.野蛮的，粗野的 | |
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gorilla
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| n.大猩猩，暴徒，打手 | |
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ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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repudiate
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| v.拒绝，拒付，拒绝履行 | |
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gleaned
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| v.一点点地收集（资料、事实）( glean的过去式和过去分词 )；（收割后）拾穗 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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8
qualms
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| n.不安；内疚 | |
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gulf
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| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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akin
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| adj.同族的，类似的 | |
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vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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13
jaws
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| n.口部；嘴 | |
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jaw
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| n.颚，颌，说教，流言蜚语；v.喋喋不休，教训 | |
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15
canine
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| adj.犬的，犬科的 | |
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conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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sensational
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| adj.使人感动的，非常好的，轰动的，耸人听闻的 | |
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skull
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| n.头骨；颅骨 | |
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essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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vent
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| n.通风口，排放口；开衩；vt.表达，发泄 | |
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apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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fortified
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| adj. 加强的 | |
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chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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avid
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| adj.热心的；贪婪的；渴望的；劲头十足的 | |
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mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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uncouth
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| adj.无教养的，粗鲁的 | |
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membranous
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| adj.膜的，膜状的 | |
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pouches
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| n.（放在衣袋里或连在腰带上的）小袋( pouch的名词复数 )；（袋鼠等的）育儿袋；邮袋；（某些动物贮存食物的）颊袋 | |
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inflated
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| adj.（价格）飞涨的；（通货）膨胀的；言过其实的；充了气的v.使充气（于轮胎、气球等）( inflate的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）膨胀；（使）通货膨胀；物价上涨 | |
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extraordinarily
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| adv.格外地；极端地 | |
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swollen
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| adj.肿大的，水涨的；v.使变大，肿胀 | |
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fig
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| n.无花果(树) | |
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attested
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| adj.经检验证明无病的，经检验证明无菌的v.证明( attest的过去式和过去分词 )；证实；声称…属实；使宣誓 | |
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specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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hostilities
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| n.战争；敌意(hostility的复数)；敌对状态；战事 | |
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arboreal
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| adj.树栖的；树的 | |
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locomotion
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| n.运动，移动 | |
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relatively
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| adv.比较...地，相对地 | |
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ridges
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| n.脊( ridge的名词复数 )；山脊；脊状突起；大气层的)高压脊 | |
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canines
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| n.犬齿( canine的名词复数 )；犬牙；犬科动物 | |
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mastication
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| n.咀嚼 | |
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44
hideousness
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hideous
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| adj.丑陋的，可憎的，可怕的，恐怖的 | |
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repulsiveness
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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49
fend
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| v.照料（自己），（自己）谋生，挡开，避开 | |
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50
dominant
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| adj.支配的，统治的；占优势的；显性的；n.主因，要素，主要的人(或物)；显性基因 | |
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51
entail
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| vt.使承担，使成为必要，需要 | |
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52
lessens
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| 变少( lessen的第三人称单数 )； 减少（某事物） | |
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53
conspicuously
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| ad.明显地，惹人注目地 | |
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54
baboons
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| n.狒狒( baboon的名词复数 ) | |
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55
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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56
extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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57
tempted
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| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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adorns
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| 装饰，佩带( adorn的第三人称单数 ) | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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61
lichen
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| n.地衣, 青苔 | |
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boughs
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| 大树枝( bough的名词复数 ) | |
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concealing
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| v.隐藏，隐瞒，遮住( conceal的现在分词 ) | |
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scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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atoned
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| v.补偿，赎（罪）( atone的过去式和过去分词 )；补偿，弥补，赎回 | |
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66
barometer
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| n.气压表，睛雨表，反应指标 | |
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vividly
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| adv.清楚地，鲜明地，生动地 | |
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hues
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| 色彩( hue的名词复数 )； 色调； 信仰； 观点 | |
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intensity
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| n.强烈，剧烈；强度；烈度 | |
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waning
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| adj.（月亮）渐亏的，逐渐减弱或变小的n.月亏v.衰落( wane的现在分词 )；（月）亏；变小；变暗淡 | |
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attaining
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的现在分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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73
stimulate
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| vt.刺激，使兴奋；激励，使…振奋 | |
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positively
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| adv.明确地，断然，坚决地；实在，确实 | |
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muzzle
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| n.鼻口部；口套；枪(炮)口；vt.使缄默 | |
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fluted
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| a.有凹槽的 | |
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underlying
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| adj.在下面的，含蓄的，潜在的 | |
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furrows
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| n.犁沟( furrow的名词复数 )；（脸上的）皱纹v.犁田，开沟( furrow的第三人称单数 ) | |
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scarlet
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| n.深红色，绯红色，红衣；adj.绯红色的 | |
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80
suffused
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| v.（指颜色、水气等）弥漫于，布满( suffuse的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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81
tints
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| 色彩( tint的名词复数 )； 带白的颜色； （淡色）染发剂； 痕迹 | |
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82
brilliance
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| n.光辉，辉煌，壮丽，（卓越的）才华，才智 | |
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corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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84
rouge
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| n.胭脂，口红唇膏；v.(在…上)擦口红 | |
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85
suite
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| n.一套(家具)；套房；随从人员 | |
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86
abdomen
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| n.腹，下腹(胸部到腿部的部分) | |
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87
friendliness
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| n.友谊，亲切，亲密 | |
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88
intensified
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| v.（使）增强， （使）加剧( intensify的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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incipient
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| adj.起初的，发端的，初期的 | |
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90
elimination
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| n.排除，消除，消灭 | |
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91
fangs
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| n.（尤指狗和狼的）长而尖的牙( fang的名词复数 )；（蛇的）毒牙；罐座 | |
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92
intensifying
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| v.（使）增强， （使）加剧( intensify的现在分词 )；增辉 | |
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remarkably
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| ad.不同寻常地，相当地 | |
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correlation
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| n.相互关系，相关，关连 | |
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fraught
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| adj.充满…的，伴有(危险等)的；忧虑的 | |
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vocal
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| adj.直言不讳的；嗓音的；n.[pl.]声乐节目 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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100
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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101
civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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102
gregarious
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| adj.群居的，喜好群居的 | |
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103
annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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105
pugnacious
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| adj.好斗的 | |
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