From Apes to Antelopes8 is a far cry, but contrasts are always helpful. Antelopes and Deer, Zebras and Elephants, Rhinoceroses9 and Swine, are types, taken at random11, of that great and important group of animals known as the “Ungulates,” or “Hoofed13” animals. These illustrate14 in a very striking manner what is meant by the term “Secondary Sexual Characters.” They demonstrate no less forcibly what is meant by the term “Sexual Selection.” They are valuable in this connection, because of the often formidable weapons, in the shape of horns and tusks, which so many species have developed during the struggle for mates.
But “Sexual Selection” will not explain their origin, and it is difficult, in the present state of our knowledge, to discover any clues which will reveal this. In seeking these there are certain broad aspects of the problem which 50are not to be lost sight of. In the first place, horns, at any rate, are confined to the hoofed animals. That the various types of hoofed animals, living and extinct, have had a common ancestry15, no one at the present day will probably call in question. The relationship, however, of the various living types, one to another, is by no means always apparent: the missing links are to be sought in the records of the rocks.
When the whole of the evidence comes to be surveyed, and not till then, it becomes apparent that this wonderful diversity is the result of complex factors. That the conditions of existence have controlled the results is beyond question; but it is equally certain that these conditions have been merely controlling and not causative. In other words, we must regard each of these different groups or types—Deer, Antelopes, Horses, Elephants, Swine, and so on—as witnesses of what we call “Heredity.” They are so many “Diathetic types.” That is to say, the forms, or individuals, belonging to each type have inherited certain peculiarities17 in common; they display a “Diathesis” as the doctors call it: an inherent, inborn18 tendency, or habit of growth, in a definite direction: a tendency which, ever and anon, develops new qualities, takes new directions. And thus it is that we get Oxen—using this term in its widest sense and not in its special sense—Antelopes, Goats and Sheep, for example. These have, among other things, a “diathesis” in the direction of horn production, and each, too, of a different type. What is meant by this apparently19 mystifying term “diathesis” will perhaps be made clear by taking the case of the Ox and the Sheep. While very different in appearance, these live on precisely20 similar food; yet no one has any difficulty in 51discriminating between the taste of beef and mutton. In the marvellous chemical laboratory of the body the grass gathered in the same field is converted into flesh which even in its uncooked state is easily distinguishable. Though for the purposes of this illustration domesticated21 animals have been used, the same is true of their wild relations. Sportsmen tell us that the various types of Antelopes and the Zebra, which may be seen feeding together, have yet flesh of very different qualities. These qualities are to be attributed neither to “Natural” nor to “Sexual” selection; they are “accidents.” Similarly, their horns are the witness of a horn-producing “diathesis”: the various divergencies in curvature, and in the form of their spirals, or the number of their encircling rings—as in the horns of Antelopes—are to be interpreted in like fashion. These twists and turns vary in the same way that the taste of the flesh varies, and for the same reason; that is to say, they are not the outcome of “Sexual Selection,” nor have they been brought about by “Natural Selection” to serve the purpose of “Recognition marks,” as Wallace would have us believe.
But horns, as horns, apart from their “accidents” of curvature and ornament, must certainly be regarded as the product of Sexual selection, for having once started into being those individuals had the best chance of leaving descendants which were best armed. The possession of horns was not necessary to the maintenance of the species; but such armature was essential among the males in securing possession of the females. Other things being equal, the male with the biggest horns wins the prize. Since these are also used as weapons of offence, or rather of defence, in warding23 off the attacks of beasts of prey24, it might be contended that they are as much the product of Natural selection as of Sexual selection.
52It soon becomes apparent that this interpretation25 must fail. In the first place, if it were true, the females should be similarly armed. In the second, in the presence of many of their enemies they are useless. The Cape26 hunting-dog, for example, is more than a match for any antelope7. This ferocious27 animal kills his victim by running it down, persistently28 tearing at its flanks, until at last the entrails protrude29 and the horrid30 chase is ended. Furthermore, the horns are a comparatively late acquirement of the species, as is shown in the case of the Deer; for the earliest known fossil species were hornless. That the females among the Oxen and many of the Antelopes possess horns is an interesting fact, but it can only be regarded as another instance of a character first acquired by the male and later, in successive generations, transferred to the female. And it is to be noticed that this transference is never found save in the cases where the character in question has attained31 its maximum in the male. The transference of weapons to the female is the more remarkable33 because there is no evidence that they play any part in the struggle for existence, either in securing mates or in warding off the attacks of enemies. Moreover, these weapons in the female may exceed those of the male, in length, though they are never so massive. They are to be regarded solely34 in the light of ornaments35. There are few more striking instances indeed where the purely36 ornamental37 and the strictly38 utilitarian39 are so closely associated.
Plate 4.
WEAPONS OF OFFENCE.
Horns of various types furnish the most conspicuous40 of the “Secondary Sexual Characters” of the ruminants. In the Deer only are these branched. In the “hollow-horned” ruminants they are either lance-like or more or less spirally curved, or they may form more or less open loops.
1. Black-tailed Deer. 2. Hangul or Kashmir Barasingha Deer. 3. Greater Kudu. 4. Black-buck. 5. Saiga Antelope, remarkable also for its curiously41 swollen42 nose. 6. Marco-Polo’s Sheep.
[Face page 52.
Attention may now profitably be turned to the behaviour of these interesting tribes when under the alluring43 influences of love.
Tradition and the poets have contrived44 to persuade us 53that the fever of Love becomes epidemic46 in the spring. This, however, is by no means true, at any rate in so far as what we are pleased to call the “lower animals” are concerned. For with many, as for example the Deer and the Bats, this fever is not aroused till the time of autumn plenty. With regard to the deer, we can find a reason for this. It is determined47 in part by the period of gestation48, and in part by the peculiar16 character of the most conspicuous of the male secondary sexual characters—the antlers. The deer, at any rate of the northern hemisphere, carry their young about eight months. Now it is important that they should make their entry into the world just as the food supply is increasing and the temperature is rising. With the summer before them the young have time to gather strength for the encounter with their first winter. We have a striking witness to the truth of this contention49 in the fact that when the Indian Spotted50 Deer, or Chital, was first introduced into Europe, nearly all the fawns51 perished owing to having been born in winter; later, the females took to calving in spring, and from thence onwards the species has held its own among us.
As touching52 the stags. The antlers, as everybody knows, are shed annually53, and their renewal54 entails55 a very considerable strain on the system. As a consequence, it is necessary that this period of stress should fall after the trial of winter is overpast, and with the genial56 summer before them. From the end of March, when the old weapons are shed, till July, the masterful males of the community wander at large, seeking seclusion57 and avoiding all occasion of quarrel; for they are not only defenceless, but threatened with disaster should any accident 54befall the growing horns, which, during their formation, are exceedingly sensitive. Even a slight blow would not only spoil their shapely proportions, but, further, might render them useless in the warfare58 that is before them.
With some species this desire to go into retreat is more marked than in others. The Red-deer, and the Wapiti, on the one hand, and the Moose on the other, well illustrate this. The two first-named pass the winter in herds59, in the case of the Wapiti numbering many thousand individuals; no other species, indeed, is so markedly gregarious61. With the advance of the spring, however, all is changed, for the males withdraw from their companions to suffer humiliation62 in seclusion. As chill October arrives, a striking alteration63 in their demeanour becomes apparent, at any rate in the case of the older males. The new antlers are now hardened, and the blood supply, which has hitherto been building up the new weapons, is cut off. As a consequence, the “velvet64,” which till now has been directly concerned with the growth of the antlers, dies, and peels off the underlying65 bone. To facilitate this work of cleaning, the animal rubs them, first against the stems of saplings, and, later, against larger trees, and even rocks, till at last they are ready for “battle, murder and sudden death.” The “rutting” season, in short, has commenced. And with the final completion of the antlers other signs of that approaching frenzy66, which is soon to establish itself, become apparent. The most striking of these are the swelling67 of the neck, and a marked increase in the mane thereof; while the voice enlarges its compass enormously, whereby the females, so long neglected, are now feverishly68 sought for.
Plate 5.
Photo by G. IF. Wilson Co. Ltd., from “The Living Animals of the World.”
MANCHURIAN WAPITI “CALLING.”
The “stags” do not begin to call for mate’s until the horns have more or less completely shed their velvet.
[Face page 54.
The Red-deer, maddened with desire, scours69 the country, calling as he travels with a loud musical roar, ever and anon impatiently listening for the tremulous response of 55females hardly less anxious to mate than himself. One after another is speedily added to his harem, but not without conflict. For sooner or later he catches the call of another stag in like case. A jealous fury at once takes possession of him, and the call, intended as a message to mateless hinds70, becomes translated into a challenge to fight for the mates possessed72. Each of the now infuriated challengers makes all haste to come to blows, and speedily they are rushing headlong on one another to meet in a crash of antlers. Then follows a test of strength, a sort of tug73-of-war reversed, for each strives to push the other to his knees, and succeeding, to deal a deadly sideways thrust at the kneeling adversary’s heart with the spike-shaped brow-tines. This attempt, however, is rarely achieved. Yet not seldom such encounters become a duel74 to the death, and one in which both die, for in the remorseless tilt75 at one another the antlers of one may spring apart, and then close in on those of the other. Once this happens, it seems to be rare indeed that they can be extricated76 from this close embrace. With heads thus locked, they sway, and twist, and tug, not now for the mastery, but for life itself. But as the hours run they become more and more exhausted77 by their efforts, weaker and weaker from loss of food and rest, till finally death releases both.
A male having once succeeded in forming a harem, will commonly contrive45 to repeat his success year after year, withstanding all comers. But sooner or later his vigour79 wanes80 and he is ousted81 by another and younger male. Not else would the stamina83 of the race be preserved. It is considered a moot84 point, however, whether physical strength and sexual potency85 run at the same pace; 56for it is believed by some that a stag will often contrive to hold a harem against all rivals after his fertility has declined. This, however, is extremely improbable. A lowering of fertility means a decline in the potency of the hormones, and in the development of the secondary sexual characters, among which are the antlers, which are by no means negligible factors. That they are not all-important, however, seems to be shown by the fact that, occasionally, stags appear in a herd60 which are congenitally unable to produce antlers—a reversion to the ancestral condition—and such are said, occasionally at any rate, to be able to oust82 their formidably armed rivals. This may be so, but the fact that “hummel” stags, as they are called, are so rare is surely to be regarded as eloquent86 testimony87 of the disadvantages of their unarmoured state. They become speedily eliminated, in short, by “Sexual Selection.”
After this outburst of sexual activity has spent itself, the various harems, with their lords, amalgamate88; all living in peace through the winter. The stags retain their antlers at this season, partly as a protection against predatory enemies, such as wolves, and other large carnivores, which would otherwise play havoc89 in their ranks, and partly because the cold of winter and scanty90 fodder91 would inhibit92 the growth of new antlers or reduce their size. With the return of spring the dangers of attack are lessened93, temperature rises, and food becomes once more plentiful94. Then the inevitable95 disarmament takes place.
The Red-deer, though mature at six, does not reach his prime till his eleventh year, and from thence till his fifteenth or sixteenth year is at his best. The hinds mature earlier, and appear to be fertile for a much longer 57period. At any rate, a wild hind71 in Jura, known by certain peculiarities of its ears, during twenty-one years produced twenty calves96. She was killed at last with a calf97 at her side, but was thin and haggard-looking. She was, therefore, not less than six-and-twenty at her death. The calves, it may be mentioned, are born in May and June.
Old stags shed their antlers, it is remarked, earlier than young ones. And this is an advantage to the species, since it prevents premature98 breeding on the part of sexually precocious99 but immature100 males, and limits competition to the adults.
What obtains in the case of the Red-deer obtains also with minor101 variations due to environment, climate, and so on, in the case of all other deer. The life-history of the Wapiti, as might be supposed, differs only in detail from that of the Red-deer. But during the winter they form vast herds, numbering thousands. It may be that in primitive102 times the Red-deer was no less numerous. But in this country, at any rate, conditions favourable103 to the maximum development, either in bodily size, or in the massiveness of the antlers, have long since passed away. Even in the Highlands of Scotland the conditions of existence have entirely104 changed owing to disafforestation. Deer are essentially105 forest dwellers106. But the “deer forests” are such only in name, and for the most part the wild stags of to-day must get what shelter they can from rocks and inequalities of the ground. From this cause, and from the very natural desire of the owners of such “forests” to secure the finest heads in each year, the whole race has deteriorated107. How great a change has come over it may be seen by comparing the heads of British Stags with those from German forests, where the 58conditions of existence are more favourable. If we turn to the records of the past we find that the antlers found in the fens108, turbaries, and caverns109 of our islands are vastly larger, heavier, and carry a greater number of points on the sur-royals, than do those of the existing Scotch110 stags.
Having regard to the fact that hundreds, and in the distant past thousands, of antlers were shed annually, the comparative rarity of these weapons in the haunts of deer excites comment. This is accounted for by the fact that they are greedily eaten by their late owners, apparently, though unconsciously, for the sake of their bone-producing qualities.
By way of contrast with the Red-deer and Wapiti, we may take the Moose (Alces machlis), which at no time, and nowhere, attains111 to large herds. This is explained by the relatively112 restricted food supply which obtains in the haunts of these creatures. For they frequent the margins113 of streams, feeding largely on willows114 and birch. From the shortness of their necks, and the great length of their legs, they cannot crop grass and other short herbage, for unless they kneel they cannot reach the ground. Hence it is obvious that though their geographical115 range may be wide, their numbers are kept rigidly116 in check. They would be fewer still but for the fact that, unlike other deer, they glean117 no small amount of food from the water, wading118 out to feed upon aquatic119 vegetation. The roots of water-lilies are especially sought for, and to obtain these the animal will often disappear entirely under water.
As a consequence of the limited food supply the Moose lead solitary120 lives. On the Eastern side of America, where the winter is severe, a few individuals, generally a family party, will “yard up,” or make a fortress121 for their mutual122 59protection by trampling123 down the snow over a restricted area. But in the Yukon district, my friend Mr. F. C. Selous tells me this is never done.
The rutting season of the bulls begins as soon as the antlers begin to “peel.” What follows is practically a repetition of what has already been related in regard to the Red-deer and Wapiti. And in this connection it is interesting to note that the natives take advantage of the period of desire in the bull to entice125 him to his death. Generally this is done by imitating the call of the cow in response to the bull’s anxious bellowing126. But in Southern Alaska the opposite side of his nature is played upon. This is done by scraping or beating the bushes with the shoulder-blade of a Moose in such a way as to reproduce the sound of a bull cleaning his horns. The very suspicion of a rival enrages127 him, and, rushing in a blind fury in the direction of the tell-tale sounds, he speedily falls a victim to the trick which has been played him.
That the mating period is the most critical, and most searching in the whole life-history there can be no doubt. Every faculty128 during this time is put to the test, and from the time of sexual maturity129 until old age is at last attained it is an annual test. Alertness is all important. Other things being equal, success falls most certainly to those individuals with the keenest perception, and quickest interpretation of sight, sound and smell.
One is puzzled at what seems a concession130 of Darwin’s to the Lamarckian theory of the inherited effects of use in this connection. For in discussing the bellowing of the stag in “The Descent of Man,” he remarks that it “does not seem to be of any special service to him, either during courtship or battles, or in any other way. But may we not believe that the frequent use of the voice, under the 60strong excitement of love, jealousy132 and rage, continued during many generations, may at last have produced an inherited effect on the vocal133 organs of the stag, as well as of other male animals?” All the evidence goes to show that the production of sound, and the instant interpretation of its significance, is a matter of the highest importance. In the case of the Moose, for example, the noise occasioned by the cleaning of antlers provokes the same frenzy as at another time is aroused by the voice. Dullness of perception not only in these matters, but at all times, is fatal.
As touching the less conspicuous secondary sexual characters of Deer more must be said presently. For the moment the antlers must retain our attention. Time was when the Deer lacked these appendages134. When they first appeared, in the now extinct species of the Middle Miocene period, they were no more than short prongs. Later, one of the prongs became elongated135, and developed short branches or “tines,” which, in succeeding species, became more numerous, while at the same time, with the gradual evolution of more and more species, these antlers assumed new features both in the matter of size and in the character and number of the “tines,” a development which has reached its maximum to-day. But apart from these specific variations, which have given us such types as those of the Roe-deer, Red-deer, Wapiti, Caribou136, Moose, Fallow-deer, Sambar, Schombergk’s deer, the strange Milou-deer, Elds-deer and Mule-deer, each species displays a quite remarkable range of variation in regard to its particular type of antler. Nowhere, perhaps, is this more strikingly marked than in the case of the Caribou and Moose. No doubt this feature is due largely to the fact that the horns are shed annually, and that the variations are due, in part at any rate, to temporary environmental conditions, such as food and weather. But these apart, individual peculiarities are constant, reappearing with more or less exactness each year.
Plate 6.
Photo by Lord Delamere, from “The Living Animals of the World.”
GROUP OF BEISA ORYX.
The lance-like horns of these animals can be used with deadly effect, even against lions.
[Face page 60.
61
In contemplating137 these facts one asks: What are the underlying factors of this variability? What is the significance of the branching? What end is attained by the annual shedding? That the antlers constitute very effective weapons of offence there can be no doubt, and one is inclined to regard the branching as the outcome of natural selection, on the assumption that branched antlers would be less deadly than lance-like weapons. It would perhaps be tempting138 to accept this interpretation as all sufficient were it not for the evidence afforded by the hollow-horned ruminants. The Oryx and the Kudu, for example, are lance-bearers, and therefore show conclusively139 that stags similarly armed might well have continued to survive in spite of the foils which the “tines” provide. Darwin, long since, guardedly suggested that while these weapons primarily served for offensive purposes, their elaborate systems of branching might have been brought about by sexual selection. That is to say, the extreme beauty of the weapons may excite the admiration140 of the females as well as our own. Granting this, he inferred they might have played an important part in elaborating the branching by constantly displaying a preference to mate with those males possessed of the largest and most branched antlers. But there are many and serious objections to this suggestion, and the most important of all is the fact that the female is allowed no choice in the selection of her lord and master. We can, then, only regard the antlers of deer as another instance of the survival of a “fortuitous” but inherent variation, which survived because, whatever the defects thereof, they 62proved advantageous141 in the struggle for existence.
Having regard to the fact that so many of the females among the hollow-horned ruminants have acquired horns, it is somewhat remarkable that in the Reindeer142 alone among the deer are these weapons normally possessed by the female. The gradual transference to the female of features which were originally secondary sexual characters in the male is an occurrence which is met with in every group of animals. In writing “The Infancy143 of Animals” I gave a number of instances of this kind. But the case of the Reindeer affords a more than usually striking illustration of this curious sequence; and this because rudiments144 of antlers are to be met with among the females in several different species of Deer to-day. They have been found in the females of both Roe- and Red-deer, though such cases are rarely met with. As a rule this assumption of the male secondary sexual characters by the female occurs only in very aged145 animals, or as one of the sequel? of diseased ovaries and consequent sterility146. But at least one instance is on record of a doe Roe-deer which possessed small antlers while pregnant. Thus, then, we gain a further insight into the process by which the female slowly assumes the outward attributes of the male; that is to say, the secondary sexual characters appear first in the male, and as seasonal147 characters. Sooner or later they become permanently148 established. By the time they have become firmly fixed149 in the male, and apparently not till then, they appear in a dilute150 form during senility, or in consequence of ovarian disease, in the female. Having once started, however, they appear earlier and earlier in the life-history of succeeding generations of females, and at last in the juvenile151 stages of both sexes.
63The hollow-horned ruminants, which must now be considered, afford some very striking facts in regard to these “secondary sexual characters,” more especially in so far as horns are concerned. In the first place these weapons are permanent structures, taking the form of a bony core ensheathed in horn, with which we may compare the temporary covering of velvet in the deer: in the second, they are unbranched. The only exception to this rule is furnished by the Prong-horned Antelope, wherein the sheath is both annually shed, and branched. The branching, however, is very slight, taking the form of a short forwardly directed prong about half-way up the sheath, which is borne on a long bony pedicle recalling that of the Muntjac. The shedding is due to the formation of new horn material at the base of the old sheath, which is gradually forced off by the growth of the new tissue. Structurally152 the horn of this remarkable Antelope differs somewhat from that of its relatives.
As may be seen in Plate 4, in the form of the horns the typical hollow-horned ruminants present an exceedingly varied153 range, and one often of great beauty in the matter of curvature. That they serve as formidable weapons of offence was demonstrated during 1912, when, according to the Annual Report of the Government Game Reserves, published by the Pretoria Government, the game warden154, Major Stevenson Hamilton, reported of the Antelopes that “many carcases of males of almost all species, killed in single combat with rivals, were found during the mating season, untouched by anything except vultures.” As a rule, however, these animals, like the Sheep and Goats, and their larger relatives the Cattle, seem to avoid a duel to the death. One or two instances as to the general 64character of these combats for the possession of mates must suffice. Thus the late A. H. Neumann, a hunter of experience, remarks that he once or twice saw conflicts between the Topi (Damaliscus jimela), an ally of the Hartebeestes. The two rivals would stand a little apart, affecting, apparently, to be unaware155 of one another’s presence. Suddenly they would rush headlong at one another, bringing their heads together with a clash, each, at the same moment, falling on his knees.
Major Powell Cotton, again, once witnessed an affray between two Beisa Oryx. Here the master bull of the herd was infuriated by the advent156 of an intruder in his harem. Time after time they dashed at each other, their foreheads meeting with a thud; then, with horns interlocked, they wrestled157 fiercely; then, separating, they charged again. Yet neither, he remarks, tried to use his lance-points, as they do when cornered by man or beasts of prey. Nevertheless, encounters of a more sanguinary character appear to be by no means rare, for it is no uncommon158 experience of hunters to kill bulls of this species in which one eye has been burst by a horn-thrust. Another peculiarity159 of these animals is the extreme thickness of the hide of the neck and withers160, which seems to afford a shield against such spear-thrusts during these battles. How powerful is the thrust of these weapons, and how efficiently161 they can be used, is shown by the fact that lions in making an attack on an old bull are often severely162 wounded, or even killed. And there are many instances on record of cases where both the lion and his intended victim have died together, the Antelope having been unable to withdraw his horns from his adversary’s body. The beautiful Pala Antelope fights furiously with rival rams163, and the vanquished164, as with so many of the Antelopes, form herds by themselves, till one by one they gather strength and skill enough to establish their right to mate.
Plate 7.
Photo by courtesy of the Duchess of Bedford, Woburn Abbey.
ELAND COWS.
Among antelopes the females commonly bear horns, which may be even longer than in the males, though less massive.
[Face page 64.
Plate 8.
Photo by courtesy of the Duchess of Bedford, Woburn Abbey.
AMERICAN BISON
The “Secondary Sexual Characters” of the male are here conspicuously165 developed, and are seen in the massive fore-quarters and enormous head.
65
The Elands present some puzzling features, for both sexes bear large horns, and they are very massive in the bulls. Yet these animals are generally described as the most inoffensive of all the horned ruminants. That the horns are used to any extent in conflicts between rival males seems doubtful, inasmuch as this species is remarkable for the development of an enormous “dewlap,” a thin pendulous166 fold of skin which runs from the throat to the chest. Such a form of “ornament”—for in this light we must regard it—would be dangerous, indeed, when much fighting was to be done. Nevertheless, it would be contrary to all our experience to conclude that weapons so well developed as are the horns of the bull Eland were entirely useless. This is a matter which decidedly calls for further investigation167.
That our knowledge of that most important period of life of the larger mammals, the period of sexual exaltation, is lamentably168 incomplete will be realized by anyone who seeks enlightenment on this subject. Most of the meagre information we possess has been collected by travellers and sportsmen, neither of whom have the time to devote to the long and laborious169 watches that a fuller history demands. Every now and then a glimpse is afforded of this period of the life-history which brings home in a very convincing fashion, how little is really known. It seems certain that the fighting hitherto described is to be regarded as but a phase of a cycle of events which takes place at this time. Thus, for example, the old naturalist170 and traveller Schweinfurth tells how he once encountered a herd of Hartebeest which were apparently effervescing171 with animal spirits, for they kept running around in 66couples, like horses in a circus, using a clump172 of trees as a pivot173. Others, in groups of three or four, stood by, interested spectators. After a time these, in turn, took their places and ran round, two at a time, in their own circuit, and in the same fashion. Their evolutions, he says, were so regular as to suggest the guidance of some invisible ring-master. These gyrations may be regarded as an erotic dance. The Sambar, under like excitement, will stalk about with erected174 tail, outstretched muzzle175 and everted face glands177, and the Black-buck, among the antelopes, behaves in like fashion.
It cannot be supposed that these quaint178 performances are peculiar to the species in which they have been observed, but rather it may be inferred that similar antics, besides others yet to be discovered, are performed by all. Their purpose seems plain enough, for they must be regarded surely as aphrodisiacs, excitants to pairing. They recall the erotic dances of savages179, or the ceremonial orgies of ancient civilizations. Such performances, on an even more elaborate scale, are to be met with among the birds.
So far, in describing the horned ruminants, the horns only have been considered; but these animals display yet other secondary sexual characters, which, while less conspicuous, are yet no less important during this critical period of life. Some, as for instance the canine180 teeth possessed by some of the deer, are decidedly puzzling. While absent, or vestigial, in most, in a few they are greatly developed, and this, too, in species which possess relatively large horns, as in the Muntjac. It seems difficult to believe that the co-existence of these very different kinds of weapons can be of 67vital importance to their possessors; yet unless this be so, one or other would surely have degenerated181. It is significant that in the hornless Musk182-deer these teeth attain32 to a very considerable length, at their maximum as much as three inches. That they are used by rival males, and with effect, is shown by the fact that the hides of these animals are often found scored by deep lines cut by these tusks. In those aberrant183 ruminants, the Camels, quite formidable tusks are present both in the upper and lower jaws184, and these are used with effect whenever occasion demands, and often when it does not.
The armoury necessary for successful love-making contains yet other weapons, evolved to supplement physical force, and more subtle in their effect. Such are certain skin glands which, at the rutting season, secrete186 a copious187 flow of a creamy, or semi-fluid matter, and pungent188 odour. In the deer the more important of these are found in the deep pit, or “larmier,” which opens in front of the eye. In the Musk-deer, however, this secretion189 has a most powerful odour of musk, and is formed in a pouch190, or “pod,” of about the size of a small orange, under the skin of the abdomen191. The secretion, which is formed by the male only, is of a chocolate colour, and of about the consistence of moist gingerbread. It has a most pungent scent131, and when diluted192 forms the basis of many of our most powerful and most highly-prized perfumes, on which account, it may be mentioned, this animal has for generations been submitted to a most unrelenting persecution193. But that is another story.
In most of the antelopes the principal scent gland176 is seated in a pit in front of the eye, as in the deer. In some, as in the Gnu, it forms instead a swollen, tumid area, oblong in shape, instead of lying in a pit. In the Reedbuck it is placed around the bases of the horns; and in 68the Rocky-Mountain Goat it forms a great bare cushion behind the horns. All have more or less well-developed glands seated in the skin between the toes. But, wherever placed, the secretions194 thereof are more or less completely suspended save during the breeding season, when they are poured forth195 abundantly. The precise r?le they play is by no means certainly known. It seems reasonable to suppose that, in the first place, the odour they disperse196 enables the males to announce their whereabouts to the females seeking mates, should they fail to hear their bellowing. But the antelopes, for the most part, unlike deer, do not, the year round, lose touch with one another; so that it must be concluded that these odours serve as excitants to the act of pairing, and we know that the sense of smell plays a very important part at this time, which, so far as these animals are concerned, is the only period which comes more or less exactly within the meaning of the term “courtship.”
That scent among the antelopes holds a really important place is shown by the fact that the bull of the common Eland intensifies197 his natural odours by micturating upon the mass of long hair which grows upon the forehead. To do this the head is bent198 down and turned tailwards, in order that the tuft should receive its due urinary spray! And goats in captivity199 exhibit the same curious habit. In them, indeed, it is often pushed to such an excess that blindness results, so that the animal has to be slaughtered200.
While in many cases these odours are imperceptible to human nostrils201, in others this is far from being the case. Among the ruminants the goat is particularly odorous. So also are the giraffe and the water-buck, 69both of which may be detected by their smell at considerable distances. And these emanations are most noticeable in the males and at the breeding season. The bull elephant, both in the Indian and African species, during the breeding season produces a copious flow of aromatic202 matter from a gland which opens above the eye in the form of a tubular aperture203 large enough to admit a pencil. This aperture in the African elephant is remarkable for the fact that it is invariably found to be “plugged” with numerous spines204 of the acacia, which have from time to time found their way in as the animal was forcing its way through the dense205 undergrowth. This extraordinary fact was first noticed by Mr. F. C. Selous, and has since been confirmed by Dr. Einar Lonnberg.
It is probable that the “bloody sweat,” which at times covers the hide of the Hippopotamus just after leaving the water, is associated with the period of rut. This mysterious exudation206 is accompanied by small crystals; but though red in colour, it contains no blood. So far no reasonable explanation for this remarkable phenomenon has ever been given, but probably it will be found to be associated with the sexual activities and is possibly odoriferous. A precisely similar exudation occurs in the neck of the male of the Red Kangaroo.
That these secretions play an important and perhaps variable part in the selection of mates seems demonstrated in the case of an incident related to me by my friend Mr. John Cooke, who some time ago was watching a flock of some three hundred sheep while it was being driven by the shepherd and his dogs into a field. As soon as they were securely shut in, and the shepherd had gone, three rams who were included in the flock at once began a three-cornered 70fight. One, presumably the youngest, was soon vanquished. The other two soon settled their differences, and the clashing of horns was at once followed by a very different performance. The master ram124 began to run in and out among the ewes, sniffing207 at each, and driving out those whose odour most pleased him. Having at last satisfied himself with a harem of about one hundred, the second ram was allowed to make a like choice, and behaved in a like manner, leaving the remainder to the ram which was first vanquished. May we take it that the strongest and oldest rams selected the youngest ewes, and the oldest were left to the youngest, and first conquered ram? By some such rough and ready method of selection Nature may contrive that the immature male shall do as little harm to the race as possible by mating with the oldest, and in many cases barren females.
Our survey of the “hoofed” animals has so far been confined to the ruminants. Space must now be found for a brief review of what obtains under like circumstances in the case of the great pachyderms—the Elephant, Rhinoceros10 and Hippopotamus; the Pig and the Camel.
Plate 9.
Photo by Lord Delamere, from “The Living Animals of the World”
ELEPHANTS.
The sexes differ but little in general appearance: and chiefly in the superior size of the male and his more massive tusks.
[Face page 70.
As to actual “courtship” among these animals practically nothing is known; but the varied and formidable weapons which they possess are enough to show that the secondary sexual characters play a very important part in the preliminary capture of mates. That they may also be used for the more prosaic208 purpose of securing food is nothing to the point. In the Elephant, for example, the tusks are sometimes of enormous size and weight, specimens209 of eleven feet in length and weighing as much as two hundred and fifty pounds are on record. They are used for cutting through the bark of machabel trees, which is then seized by the trunk and torn off, for elephants are extremely fond of this bark; and they are 71also turned to account in breaking up roots which have been exposed by digging with the fore-feet. But this is certainly not the main purpose of such weapons. On the contrary, their use is primarily as weapons of offence between rival bulls. As one would expect, they never attain to a very large size in the female, but that they are large enough to serve her at need is shown by the fact that a portion of a tusk6, evidently of a cow-elephant, was once found embedded210 in the jaw185 of a bull. There can be little doubt but that this was broken off in an endeavour to repel211 the advances of a too amorous212 male, for, as with all animals, pairing is impossible without the consent of the female, and this is never accorded until she is desirous that it should take place. As a preliminary to this, an amorous dalliance is perhaps the invariable rule among animals, and this takes many and often strange forms. The Elephant affords a case in point. For the late A. H. Neumann once came upon a pair which were evidently, as he says, “love-making.” Creeping upon them noiselessly, he found the male fondling his mate with his trunk, and then, standing78 side by side, they crossed their trunks, and put the tips thereof into each other’s mouths, the elephantine form of kissing. Deer, cattle and horses, cats and dogs, constantly lick one another under like circumstances.
Superficial secondary sexual characters are wanting both in the Hippopotamus and the Camel. Both, however, possess a formidable armature of teeth which are capable of inflicting214 very severe wounds. In the Hippopotamus the canines215 are of enormous size, and their punishing power is further strengthened by the fact that they work in opposition216 to a pair of similar teeth in the lower 72jaw; they cut like a pair of shears217, the upper closing upon the lower pair with the precision of scissors-blades. In addition, the lower jaw develops two long, blunt-pointed218, ivory spikes219, which are scarcely less to be dreaded220. With these weapons the bulls fight furiously, and it is no uncommon thing to find vanquished males frightfully mauled, the hide being lacerated from head to tail. Protection, in a measure, is afforded by its enormous thickness, but the great folds and pleats of skin seen in the Rhinoceros are never developed. The females, however, are similarly armed, and the teeth are nearly as large as in the males, which is a rather unusual occurrence.
The Swine, which are near relations of the Hippopotamus, in like manner develop huge pointed canines, and these reach their maximum in the great Wart-hogs of Africa. But in the swine the mechanism221 differs, for although the canines are closely opposed, the shaft222 of the upper teeth curves upwards223, and the lower teeth are much smaller than the upper. In fighting, these animals do not bite, like the Hippopotamus, but use the upper canines to rip up their antagonist224 with a sudden, swift upward and sideways movement of the head. How dangerous is the wound thus inflicted225 those who have hunted the wild-boar know well. A curious exaggeration of this arrangement of the teeth is seen in the Babiroussa. Herein the upper canines grow directly upwards, actually piercing the upper lip as in the case of the downwardly growing tusks of the elephant. That these teeth, however, are of any service in fighting is doubtful, for the upper tooth curves upwards and backwards226 in a semicircle so that the points are harmless. The tusks of the lower jaw, however, are extremely long and pointed, though their wounding power is limited by reason of the upper teeth. This may account for the fact that 73the head, the part mostly attacked by enraged227 boars, presents no sort of armature designed for defence; while in the Wart-hog, on the other hand, great solid bucklers of hide stand out on either side of the head below the eyes, giving the animal a most repulsive228 appearance, but affording him a very present help in time of trouble. In the wild-boar, where the tusks are shorter, no such protective armature is needed.
Plate 10.
HEAD OF MALE WART-HOG.
In the “Swine” family the canine teeth are always greatly developed, but they attain to their maximum, relatively, in the Wart-hog.
Photos by Scholastic229 Photo Co., from “The Living Animals of the World.”
MALE AND FEMALE BABIRUSA.
A characteristic of this pig is the peculiar development of the tusks in the male, the upper pair of which grow through the lips and curve upwards.
[Face page 72.
Plate 11.
Photo by Lord Delamere, from “The Living Animals of the World.”
SOMALI ZEBRAS.
The Zebras, unlike their cloven-hoofed relations, have no weapons, save for inter-tribal conflicts. Yet they have been as successful in holding their own against lions and other predatory animals as species provided with horns.
[Face page 72
Plate 12.
GIRAFFE.
The horns of this animal can prove formidable weapons of offence on occasion, though they are useless against predatory animals.
While the ungulates, or hoofed animals, are peculiar in the development of horns as weapons of offence, they are by no means singular in the use of teeth for this purpose. In some cases, as in the Muntjac, both forms of armature are present. The only other instances where teeth in this group of animals are used for offensive purposes are those furnished by the Camel and the Horse. But here they do not exhibit that excessive size which is met with in the Elephant, and some of the Swine. In both the Camel and the Horse it is the canine which is used, and both jaws are similarly armed. Since the camel has no upper incisors, the part played by the teeth is beyond dispute; but it has been contended that the horse uses his incisor or “front-teeth” alone when fighting. But this is not so; the canines can, and do, inflict213 ugly wounds, as is shown by the necks of zebras.
A further method of defence among the larger Ungulates, at any rate, is resorted to when hard pressed: and this is the use of the hoof12 in kicking. Giraffes kick both after the usual fashion and in striking downwards231 with the fore-foot. And an interesting demonstration232 of this has been furnished by Mr. F. C. Selous in his delightful233 “African Nature Notes.” He relates that on one occasion he came across a calf only a day or two old, with its back broken. 74 From scratches on the calf, and the footprints on the ground in its vicinity, he was at once enabled to gather the cause of its terrible plight234. In a word, it had been attacked by two leopards235, and the mother, in an endeavour to beat off the assailants with a blow of her fore-foot had accidentally struck her offspring. Horses, Cattle, Antelopes, Camels and Elephants can all kick with precision and effect. So far as the evidence goes, however, this is a method of defence used against beasts of prey, and is rarely, if ever, employed in conflicts between rival males. Females persecuted236 by the undesired attentions of amorous males, however, do, as we know from the case of domesticated animals, use this device to defend themselves.
It is not difficult to account for the origin of such secondary sexual characters as manes, beards, tusks, and brightly-coloured areas of skin, though whether our interpretations237 are really correct is another matter. But no attempt to explain the origin of horns has yet achieved a like degree of persuasiveness238. These weapons appear only in the Ungulates, a group which has, in past times, given birth to some very extraordinary types of head armature of this kind. These must be excluded from the present discussion; suffice it to say that, as usual, they were the adjuncts of the males. According to current theories it is supposed that these weapons arose as the result of the action of sexual selection. It is assumed that the hornless ancestors of now horned ruminants fought for their mates by “butting” with the forehead. Naturally, other things being equal, the thickest skulled240 combatants obtained the mastery. Any tendency to develop frontal “bosses” of bone would further enhance the chances of success, and would, indeed, 75soon become necessary for survival. And from such “bosses” the passage to horns and antlers forms an easy transition. Just such incipient241 horns or “bosses” actually make their appearance in the domesticated horse: but these animals never butt239 at one another. If, however, we regard horn-production as an inherent diathesis of the ungulate somatoplasm, we have an intelligible242 basis for the explanation of horn development.
The formidable horns of the Rhinoceros are of a totally different character, being solid structures formed by hairlike agglomerations243, firmly fixed upon a roughened area of the nasal region. These weapons play a very important part in settling disputes between rival males, but on other occasions demanding offensive tactics the Indian Rhinoceros at any rate seems to depend rather on his power of wounding by means of the chisel-shaped lower incisors. These, by means of a swift lateral244 movement of the head can be made to inflict most terrible gashes245, as those who hunt with elephants well know. It is quite possible, however, that the teeth are also thus used during struggles for supremacy246. And this may perhaps account for the enormous bucklers of skin developed by the Indian Rhinoceros, but only indicated in the case of the African species.
All the larger Ungulates, and many of the smaller species, are polygamous. The Rhinoceros, and all of the swine-group save the Hippopotamus, among the larger species are exceptions to the rule. The preponderance of females which this implies is generally supposed to be due to the losses sustained among the males by fighting during the struggle for mates. The case of horses, however, seems to militate against this view, for though they undoubtedly247 fight furiously, no evidence is forthcoming 76to show that such conflicts terminate fatally.
Were it possible to secure the necessary data it would probably be found that polygamy, and polyandry, are determined solely by the numerical proportions of the sexes: the excess of males or females being due neither to “Natural” nor “Sexual” Selection, but to inherent peculiarities of the germ-plasm tending to produce an excess of males, or females, as the case may be.
Finally, all the evidence goes to show that it is a mistake to suppose that polygamy is due to the excessive sexual avidness of the males, which impels248 them to first essay the overthrow249 of all possible rivals, and then to appropriate every female within their sphere of influence, holding them by force. On the contrary, this plurality of mates is thrust upon them. And this because the females, impelled250 by “mate-hunger,” attach themselves to the nearest male within call: the size of the harem depending on the number of available males. The battles which are fought between rival males are no more sanguinary than in the case of monogamous species. This contention is well illustrated251 by the African Wydah-birds (Vidua), which are markedly polygamous, though they have no special weapons of offence. In districts where males are numerous the harem will not exceed eight, or ten, females; where males are scarce this number may be increased to fifty. In like manner the varying number of hinds accompanying a stag are to be regarded, not as an index of his prowess, but of the scarcity252 or abundance of males in the neighbourhood.
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1
ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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hormones
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| n. 荷尔蒙，激素 名词hormone的复数形式 | |
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3
bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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4
hippopotamus
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| n.河马 | |
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tusks
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| n.（象等动物的）长牙( tusk的名词复数 )；獠牙；尖形物；尖头 | |
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tusk
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| n.獠牙，长牙，象牙 | |
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antelope
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| n.羚羊；羚羊皮 | |
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antelopes
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| 羚羊( antelope的名词复数 )； 羚羊皮革 | |
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9
rhinoceroses
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| n.钱，钞票( rhino的名词复数 )；犀牛(=rhinoceros)；犀牛( rhinoceros的名词复数 )；脸皮和犀牛皮一样厚 | |
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10
rhinoceros
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| n.犀牛 | |
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11
random
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| adj.随机的；任意的；n.偶然的(或随便的)行动 | |
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12
hoof
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| n.(马，牛等的)蹄 | |
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13
hoofed
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| adj.有蹄的，蹄形状的，装蹄的v.（兽的）蹄，马蹄( hoof的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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14
illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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15
ancestry
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| n.祖先，家世 | |
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16
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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17
peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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18
inborn
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| adj.天生的，生来的，先天的 | |
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19
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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20
precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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21
domesticated
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| adj.喜欢家庭生活的；（指动物）被驯养了的v.驯化( domesticate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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22
ward
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| n.守卫，监护，病房，行政区，由监护人或法院保护的人（尤指儿童）；vt.守护，躲开 | |
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23
warding
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| 监护，守护（ward的现在分词形式） | |
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24
prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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25
interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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26
cape
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| n.海角，岬；披肩，短披风 | |
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27
ferocious
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| adj.凶猛的，残暴的，极度的，十分强烈的 | |
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persistently
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| ad.坚持地；固执地 | |
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29
protrude
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| v.使突出，伸出，突出 | |
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30
horrid
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| adj.可怕的；令人惊恐的；恐怖的；极讨厌的 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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32
attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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34
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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35
ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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38
strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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utilitarian
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| adj.实用的，功利的 | |
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40
conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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41
curiously
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| adv.有求知欲地；好问地；奇特地 | |
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42
swollen
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| adj.肿大的，水涨的；v.使变大，肿胀 | |
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43
alluring
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| adj.吸引人的，迷人的 | |
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44
contrived
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| adj.不自然的，做作的；虚构的 | |
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45
contrive
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| vt.谋划，策划；设法做到；设计，想出 | |
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46
epidemic
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| n.流行病；盛行；adj.流行性的，流传极广的 | |
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47
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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48
gestation
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| n.怀孕；酝酿 | |
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49
contention
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| n.争论，争辩，论战；论点，主张 | |
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50
spotted
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| adj.有斑点的，斑纹的，弄污了的 | |
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51
fawns
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| n.（未满一岁的）幼鹿( fawn的名词复数 )；浅黄褐色；乞怜者；奉承者v.（尤指狗等）跳过来往人身上蹭以示亲热( fawn的第三人称单数 )；巴结；讨好 | |
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52
touching
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| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
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53
annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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54
renewal
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| adj.(契约)延期，续订，更新，复活，重来 | |
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55
entails
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| 使…成为必要( entail的第三人称单数 )； 需要； 限定继承； 使必需 | |
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56
genial
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| adj.亲切的，和蔼的，愉快的，脾气好的 | |
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57
seclusion
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| n.隐遁，隔离 | |
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58
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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59
herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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60
herd
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| n.兽群，牧群；vt.使集中，把…赶在一起 | |
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61
gregarious
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| adj.群居的，喜好群居的 | |
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62
humiliation
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| n.羞辱 | |
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63
alteration
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| n.变更，改变；蚀变 | |
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64
velvet
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| n.丝绒，天鹅绒；adj.丝绒制的，柔软的 | |
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65
underlying
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| adj.在下面的，含蓄的，潜在的 | |
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66
frenzy
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| n.疯狂，狂热，极度的激动 | |
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67
swelling
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| n.肿胀 | |
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68
feverishly
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| adv. 兴奋地 | |
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69
scours
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| 走遍（某地）搜寻（人或物）( scour的第三人称单数 )； （用力）刷； 擦净； 擦亮 | |
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70
hinds
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| n.（常指动物腿）后面的( hind的名词复数 )；在后的；（通常与can或could连用）唠叨不停；滔滔不绝 | |
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71
hind
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| adj.后面的，后部的 | |
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72
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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73
tug
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| v.用力拖(或拉)；苦干；n.拖；苦干；拖船 | |
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74
duel
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| n./v.决斗；(双方的)斗争 | |
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75
tilt
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| v.(使)倾侧；(使)倾斜；n.倾侧；倾斜 | |
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76
extricated
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| v.使摆脱困难，脱身( extricate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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77
exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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78
standing
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|
| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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79
vigour
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| （=vigor）n.智力，体力，精力 | |
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80
wanes
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| v.衰落( wane的第三人称单数 )；（月）亏；变小；变暗淡 | |
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81
ousted
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| 驱逐( oust的过去式和过去分词 )； 革职； 罢黜； 剥夺 | |
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82
oust
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| vt.剥夺，取代，驱逐 | |
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83
stamina
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| n.体力；精力；耐力 | |
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84
moot
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| v.提出；adj.未决议的；n.大会；辩论会 | |
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85
potency
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| n. 效力，潜能 | |
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86
eloquent
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|
| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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87
testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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88
amalgamate
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| v.(指业务等)合并，混合 | |
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89
havoc
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| n.大破坏，浩劫，大混乱，大杂乱 | |
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90
scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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91
fodder
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| n.草料；炮灰 | |
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92
inhibit
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| vt.阻止，妨碍，抑制 | |
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93
lessened
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| 减少的，减弱的 | |
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94
plentiful
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| adj.富裕的，丰富的 | |
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95
inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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96
calves
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| n.(calf的复数)笨拙的男子，腓；腿肚子( calf的名词复数 )；牛犊；腓；小腿肚v.生小牛( calve的第三人称单数 )；（冰川）崩解；生（小牛等），产（犊）；使（冰川）崩解 | |
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97
calf
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| n.小牛，犊，幼仔，小牛皮 | |
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98
premature
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| adj.比预期时间早的；不成熟的，仓促的 | |
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99
precocious
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| adj.早熟的；较早显出的 | |
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100
immature
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| adj.未成熟的，发育未全的，未充分发展的 | |
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101
minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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102
primitive
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|
| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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103
favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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104
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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105
essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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106
dwellers
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| n.居民，居住者( dweller的名词复数 ) | |
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107
deteriorated
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| 恶化，变坏( deteriorate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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108
fens
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| n.（尤指英格兰东部的）沼泽地带( fen的名词复数 ) | |
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109
caverns
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| 大山洞，大洞穴( cavern的名词复数 ) | |
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110
scotch
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|
| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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111
attains
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的第三人称单数 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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112
relatively
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| adv.比较...地，相对地 | |
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113
margins
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| 边( margin的名词复数 )； 利润； 页边空白； 差数 | |
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114
willows
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| n.柳树( willow的名词复数 )；柳木 | |
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115
geographical
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| adj.地理的；地区(性)的 | |
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116
rigidly
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| adv.刻板地，僵化地 | |
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117
glean
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| v.收集(消息、资料、情报等) | |
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118
wading
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| （从水、泥等）蹚，走过，跋( wade的现在分词 ) | |
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119
aquatic
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| adj.水生的，水栖的 | |
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120
solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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121
fortress
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| n.堡垒，防御工事 | |
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122
mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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123
trampling
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| 踩( trample的现在分词 )； 践踏； 无视； 侵犯 | |
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124
ram
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| (random access memory)随机存取存储器 | |
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125
entice
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| v.诱骗，引诱，怂恿 | |
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126
bellowing
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| v.发出吼叫声，咆哮（尤指因痛苦）( bellow的现在分词 )；（愤怒地）说出（某事），大叫 | |
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127
enrages
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| 使暴怒( enrage的第三人称单数 ) | |
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128
faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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129
maturity
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| n.成熟；完成；(支票、债券等)到期 | |
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130
concession
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| n.让步，妥协；特许(权) | |
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131
scent
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| n.气味，香味，香水，线索，嗅觉；v.嗅，发觉 | |
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132
jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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133
vocal
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| adj.直言不讳的；嗓音的；n.[pl.]声乐节目 | |
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134
appendages
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| n.附属物( appendage的名词复数 )；依附的人；附属器官；附属肢体（如臂、腿、尾等） | |
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135
elongated
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| v.延长，加长( elongate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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136
caribou
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| n.北美驯鹿 | |
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137
contemplating
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| 深思，细想，仔细考虑( contemplate的现在分词 )； 注视，凝视； 考虑接受（发生某事的可能性）； 深思熟虑，沉思，苦思冥想 | |
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138
tempting
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| a.诱人的, 吸引人的 | |
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139
conclusively
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| adv.令人信服地，确凿地 | |
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140
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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141
advantageous
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| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
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142
reindeer
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| n.驯鹿 | |
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143
infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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144
rudiments
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| n.基础知识，入门 | |
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145
aged
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| adj.年老的，陈年的 | |
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146
sterility
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| n.不生育，不结果，贫瘠，消毒，无菌 | |
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147
seasonal
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| adj.季节的，季节性的 | |
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148
permanently
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| adv.永恒地，永久地，固定不变地 | |
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149
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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150
dilute
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| vt.稀释，冲淡；adj.稀释的，冲淡的 | |
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151
juvenile
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| n.青少年，少年读物；adj.青少年的，幼稚的 | |
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152
structurally
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| 在结构上 | |
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153
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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154
warden
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| n.监察员，监狱长，看守人，监护人 | |
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155
unaware
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| a.不知道的，未意识到的 | |
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156
advent
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| n.(重要事件等的)到来，来临 | |
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157
wrestled
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| v.（与某人）搏斗( wrestle的过去式和过去分词 )；扭成一团；扭打；（与…）摔跤 | |
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158
uncommon
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| adj.罕见的，非凡的，不平常的 | |
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159
peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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160
withers
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| 马肩隆 | |
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161
efficiently
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| adv.高效率地，有能力地 | |
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162
severely
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| adv.严格地；严厉地；非常恶劣地 | |
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163
rams
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| n.公羊( ram的名词复数 )；(R-)白羊（星）座；夯；攻城槌v.夯实（土等）( ram的第三人称单数 )；猛撞；猛压；反复灌输 | |
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164
vanquished
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| v.征服( vanquish的过去式和过去分词 )；战胜；克服；抑制 | |
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165
conspicuously
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| ad.明显地，惹人注目地 | |
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166
pendulous
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| adj.下垂的；摆动的 | |
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167
investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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168
lamentably
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| adv.哀伤地，拙劣地 | |
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169
laborious
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| adj.吃力的，努力的，不流畅 | |
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170
naturalist
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| n.博物学家(尤指直接观察动植物者) | |
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171
effervescing
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| v.冒气泡，起泡沫( effervesce的现在分词 ) | |
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172
clump
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| n.树丛，草丛；vi.用沉重的脚步行走 | |
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173
pivot
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| v.在枢轴上转动；装枢轴，枢轴；adj.枢轴的 | |
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174
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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175
muzzle
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| n.鼻口部；口套；枪(炮)口；vt.使缄默 | |
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176
gland
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| n.腺体，(机)密封压盖，填料盖 | |
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177
glands
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| n.腺( gland的名词复数 ) | |
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178
quaint
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| adj.古雅的，离奇有趣的，奇怪的 | |
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179
savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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180
canine
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| adj.犬的，犬科的 | |
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181
degenerated
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| 衰退，堕落，退化( degenerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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182
musk
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| n.麝香, 能发出麝香的各种各样的植物，香猫 | |
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183
aberrant
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| adj.畸变的，异常的，脱离常轨的 | |
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184
jaws
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| n.口部；嘴 | |
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185
jaw
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| n.颚，颌，说教，流言蜚语；v.喋喋不休，教训 | |
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186
secrete
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| vt.分泌；隐匿，使隐秘 | |
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187
copious
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| adj.丰富的，大量的 | |
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188
pungent
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| adj.（气味、味道）刺激性的，辛辣的；尖锐的 | |
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189
secretion
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| n.分泌 | |
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190
pouch
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| n.小袋，小包，囊状袋；vt.装...入袋中，用袋运输；vi.用袋送信件 | |
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abdomen
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| n.腹，下腹(胸部到腿部的部分) | |
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diluted
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| 无力的，冲淡的 | |
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persecution
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| n. 迫害,烦扰 | |
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194
secretions
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| n.分泌（物）( secretion的名词复数 ) | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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disperse
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| vi.使分散；使消失；vt.分散；驱散 | |
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intensifies
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| n.（使）增强， （使）加剧( intensify的名词复数 )v.（使）增强， （使）加剧( intensify的第三人称单数 ) | |
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bent
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| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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captivity
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| n.囚禁；被俘；束缚 | |
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slaughtered
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| v.屠杀，杀戮，屠宰( slaughter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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nostrils
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| 鼻孔( nostril的名词复数 ) | |
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202
aromatic
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| adj.芳香的，有香味的 | |
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aperture
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| n.孔，隙，窄的缺口 | |
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spines
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| n.脊柱( spine的名词复数 )；脊椎；（动植物的）刺；书脊 | |
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dense
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| a.密集的，稠密的，浓密的；密度大的 | |
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exudation
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| n.渗出，渗出物，分泌；溢泌 | |
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sniffing
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| n.探查法v.以鼻吸气，嗅，闻( sniff的现在分词 )；抽鼻子（尤指哭泣、患感冒等时出声地用鼻子吸气）；抱怨，不以为然地说 | |
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prosaic
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| adj.单调的，无趣的 | |
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specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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embedded
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| a.扎牢的 | |
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repel
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| v.击退，抵制，拒绝，排斥 | |
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amorous
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| adj.多情的；有关爱情的 | |
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inflict
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| vt.(on)把…强加给，使遭受，使承担 | |
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inflicting
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| 把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的现在分词 ) | |
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canines
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| n.犬齿( canine的名词复数 )；犬牙；犬科动物 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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shears
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| n.大剪刀 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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spikes
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| n.穗( spike的名词复数 )；跑鞋；（防滑）鞋钉；尖状物v.加烈酒于( spike的第三人称单数 )；偷偷地给某人的饮料加入（更多）酒精（ 或药物）；把尖状物钉入；打乱某人的计划 | |
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dreaded
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| adj.令人畏惧的；害怕的v.害怕，恐惧，担心( dread的过去式和过去分词) | |
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mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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shaft
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| n.(工具的)柄，杆状物 | |
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upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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antagonist
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| n.敌人，对抗者，对手 | |
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inflicted
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| 把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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backwards
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| adv.往回地，向原处，倒，相反，前后倒置地 | |
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enraged
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| 使暴怒( enrage的过去式和过去分词 )； 歜； 激愤 | |
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repulsive
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| adj.排斥的，使人反感的 | |
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scholastic
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| adj.学校的，学院的，学术上的 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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downwards
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| adj./adv.向下的（地），下行的（地） | |
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demonstration
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| n.表明，示范，论证，示威 | |
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delightful
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| adj.令人高兴的，使人快乐的 | |
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plight
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| n.困境，境况，誓约，艰难；vt.宣誓，保证，约定 | |
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leopards
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| n.豹( leopard的名词复数 )；本性难移 | |
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persecuted
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| （尤指宗教或政治信仰的）迫害(~sb. for sth.)( persecute的过去式和过去分词 )； 烦扰，困扰或骚扰某人 | |
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interpretations
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| n.解释( interpretation的名词复数 )；表演；演绎；理解 | |
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persuasiveness
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| 说服力 | |
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butt
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| n.笑柄；烟蒂；枪托；臀部；v.用头撞或顶 | |
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skulled
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| 使惨败，使得零分( skunk的过去式和过去分词 )； 烂醉如泥 | |
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incipient
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| adj.起初的，发端的，初期的 | |
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intelligible
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| adj.可理解的，明白易懂的，清楚的 | |
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agglomerations
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| n.成团，结块（agglomeration的复数形式） | |
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lateral
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| adj.侧面的，旁边的 | |
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gashes
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| n.深长的切口（或伤口）( gash的名词复数 )v.划伤，割破( gash的第三人称单数 ) | |
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supremacy
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| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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impels
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| v.推动、推进或敦促某人做某事( impel的第三人称单数 ) | |
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overthrow
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| v.推翻，打倒，颠覆；n.推翻，瓦解，颠覆 | |
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impelled
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| v.推动、推进或敦促某人做某事( impel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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illustrated
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| adj. 有插图的，列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词 | |
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scarcity
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| n.缺乏，不足，萧条 | |
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