§ 1. The Early Stage of Activity
1. The baby's problem determines his thinking
The sight of a baby often calls out the question: "What do you suppose he is thinking about?" By the nature of the case, the question is unanswerable in detail; but, also by the nature of the case, we may be sure about a baby's chief interest. His primary problem is mastery of his body as a tool of securing comfortable and effective adjustments to his surroundings, physical and social. The child has to learn to do almost everything: to see, to hear, to reach, to handle, to balance the body, to creep, to walk, and so on. Even if it be true that human beings have even more instinctive2 reactions than lower animals, it is also true that instinctive tendencies are much less perfect in men, and that most of them are[Pg 158] of little use till they are intelligently combined and directed. A little chick just out of the shell will after a few trials peck at and grasp grains of food with its beak3 as well as at any later time. This involves a complicated co?rdination of the eye and the head. An infant does not even begin to reach definitely for things that the eye sees till he is several months old, and even then several weeks' practice is required before he learns the adjustment so as neither to overreach nor to underreach. It may not be literally4 true that the child will grasp for the moon, but it is true that he needs much practice before he can tell whether an object is within reach or not. The arm is thrust out instinctively5 in response to a stimulus6 from the eye, and this tendency is the origin of the ability to reach and grasp exactly and quickly; but nevertheless final mastery requires observing and selecting the successful movements, and arranging them in view of an end. These operations of conscious selection and arrangement constitute thinking, though of a rudimentary type.
Mastery of the body is an intellectual problem
Since mastery of the bodily organs is necessary for all later developments, such problems are both interesting and important, and solving them supplies a very genuine training of thinking power. The joy the child shows in learning to use his limbs, to translate what he sees into what he handles, to connect sounds with sights, sights with taste and touch, and the rapidity with which intelligence grows in the first year and a half of life (the time during which the more fundamental problems of the use of the organism are mastered), are sufficient evidence that the development of physical control is not a physical but an intellectual achievement.
2. The problem of social adjustment and intercourse7
Although in the early months the child is mainly oc[Pg 159]cupied in learning to use his body to accommodate himself to physical conditions in a comfortable way and to use things skillfully and effectively, yet social adjustments are very important. In connection with parents, nurse, brother, and sister, the child learns the signs of satisfaction of hunger, of removal of discomfort8, of the approach of agreeable light, color, sound, and so on. His contact with physical things is regulated by persons, and he soon distinguishes persons as the most important and interesting of all the objects with which he has to do. Speech, the accurate adaptation of sounds heard to the movements of tongue and lips, is, however, the great instrument of social adaptation; and with the development of speech (usually in the second year) adaptation of the baby's activities to and with those of other persons gives the keynote of mental life. His range of possible activities is indefinitely widened as he watches what other persons do, and as he tries to understand and to do what they encourage him to attempt. The outline pattern of mental life is thus set in the first four or five years. Years, centuries, generations of invention and planning, may have gone to the development of the performances and occupations of the adults surrounding the child. Yet for him their activities are direct stimuli9; they are part of his natural environment; they are carried on in physical terms that appeal to his eye, ear, and touch. He cannot, of course, appropriate their meaning directly through his senses; but they furnish stimuli to which he responds, so that his attention is focussed upon a higher order of materials and of problems. Were it not for this process by which the achievements of one generation form the stimuli that direct the activities of the next, the story of civilization[Pg 160] would be writ10 in water, and each generation would have laboriously11 to make for itself, if it could, its way out of savagery13.
Social adjustment results in imitation but is not caused by it
Imitation is one (though only one, see p. 47) of the means by which the activities of adults supply stimuli which are so interesting, so varied14, so complex, and so novel, as to occasion a rapid progress of thought. Mere15 imitation, however, would not give rise to thinking; if we could learn like parrots by simply copying the outward acts of others, we should never have to think; nor should we know, after we had mastered the copied act, what was the meaning of the thing we had done. Educators (and psychologists) have often assumed that acts which reproduce the behavior of others are acquired merely by imitation. But a child rarely learns by conscious imitation; and to say that his imitation is unconscious is to say that it is not from his standpoint imitation at all. The word, the gesture, the act, the occupation of another, falls in line with some impulse already active and suggests some satisfactory mode of expression, some end in which it may find fulfillment. Having this end of his own, the child then notes other persons, as he notes natural events, to get further suggestions as to means of its realization16. He selects some of the means he observes, tries them on, finds them successful or unsuccessful, is confirmed or weakened in his belief in their value, and so continues selecting, arranging, adapting, testing, till he can accomplish what he wishes. The onlooker17 may then observe the resemblance of this act to some act of an adult, and conclude that it was acquired by imitation, while as a matter of fact it was acquired by attention, observation, selection, experimentation18, and confirmation19 by results. Only[Pg 161] because this method is employed is there intellectual discipline and an educative result. The presence of adult activities plays an enormous r?le in the intellectual growth of the child because they add to the natural stimuli of the world new stimuli which are more exactly adapted to the needs of a human being, which are richer, better organized, more complex in range, permitting more flexible adaptations, and calling out novel reactions. But in utilizing20 these stimuli the child follows the same methods that he uses when he is forced to think in order to master his body.
Play indicates the domination of activity by meanings or ideasOrganization of ideas involved in play
When things become signs, when they gain a representative capacity as standing22 for other things, play is transformed from mere physical exuberance23 into an activity involving a mental factor. A little girl who had broken her doll was seen to perform with the leg of the doll all the operations of washing, putting to bed, and fondling, that she had been accustomed to perform with the entire doll. The part stood for the whole; she reacted not to the stimulus sensibly present, but to the meaning suggested by the sense object. So children use a stone for a table, leaves for plates, acorns24 for cups. So they use their dolls, their trains, their blocks, their other toys. In manipulating them, they are living not with the physical things, but in the large world of meanings, natural and social, evoked25 by these things. So when children play horse, play store, play house or making calls, they are subordinating the physically26 present to the ideally signified. In this way, a world of meanings, a store of concepts (so fundamental to all intellectual achievement), is defined and built up.[Pg 162] Moreover, not only do meanings thus become familiar acquaintances, but they are organized, arranged in groups, made to cohere27 in connected ways. A play and a story blend insensibly into each other. The most fanciful plays of children rarely lose all touch with the mutual28 fitness and pertinency29 of various meanings to one another; the "freest" plays observe some principles of coherence30 and unification. They have a beginning, middle, and end. In games, rules of order run through various minor31 acts and bind32 them into a connected whole. The rhythm, the competition, and co?peration involved in most plays and games also introduce organization. There is, then, nothing mysterious or mystical in the discovery made by Plato and remade by Froebel that play is the chief, almost the only, mode of education for the child in the years of later infancy33.
The playful attitude
Playfulness is a more important consideration than play. The former is an attitude of mind; the latter is a passing outward manifestation34 of this attitude. When things are treated simply as vehicles of suggestion, what is suggested overrides35 the thing. Hence the playful attitude is one of freedom. The person is not bound to the physical traits of things, nor does he care whether a thing really means (as we say) what he takes it to represent. When the child plays horse with a broom and cars with chairs, the fact that the broom does not really represent a horse, or a chair a locomotive, is of no account. In order, then, that playfulness may not terminate in arbitrary fancifulness and in building up an imaginary world alongside the world of actual things, it is necessary that the play attitude should gradually pass into a work attitude.
The work attitude is interested in means and ends
What is work—work not as mere external perform[Pg 163]ance, but as attitude of mind? It signifies that the person is not content longer to accept and to act upon the meanings that things suggest, but demands congruity36 of meaning with the things themselves. In the natural course of growth, children come to find irresponsible make-believe plays inadequate37. A fiction is too easy a way out to afford content. There is not enough stimulus to call forth38 satisfactory mental response. When this point is reached, the ideas that things suggest must be applied39 to the things with some regard to fitness. A small cart, resembling a "real" cart, with "real" wheels, tongue, and body, meets the mental demand better than merely making believe that anything which comes to hand is a cart. Occasionally to take part in setting a "real" table with "real" dishes brings more reward than forever to make believe a flat stone is a table and that leaves are dishes. The interest may still center in the meanings, the things may be of importance only as amplifying40 a certain meaning. So far the attitude is one of play. But the meaning is now of such a character that it must find appropriate embodiment in actual things.
The dictionary does not permit us to call such activities work. Nevertheless, they represent a genuine passage of play into work. For work (as a mental attitude, not as mere external performance) means interest in the adequate embodiment of a meaning (a suggestion, purpose, aim) in objective form through the use of appropriate materials and appliances. Such an attitude takes advantage of the meanings aroused and built up in free play, but controls their development by seeing to it that they are applied to things in ways consistent with the observable structure of the things themselves.[Pg 164]
and in processes on account of their results
The point of this distinction between play and work may be cleared up by comparing it with a more usual way of stating the difference. In play activity, it is said, the interest is in the activity for its own sake; in work, it is in the product or result in which the activity terminates. Hence the former is purely41 free, while the latter is tied down by the end to be achieved. When the difference is stated in this sharp fashion, there is almost always introduced a false, unnatural42 separation between process and product, between activity and its achieved outcome. The true distinction is not between an interest in activity for its own sake and interest in the external result of that activity, but between an interest in an activity just as it flows on from moment to moment, and an interest in an activity as tending to a culmination43, to an outcome, and therefore possessing a thread of continuity binding44 together its successive stages. Both may equally exemplify interest in an activity "for its own sake"; but in one case the activity in which the interest resides is more or less casual, following the accident of circumstance and whim45, or of dictation; in the other, the activity is enriched by the sense that it leads somewhere, that it amounts to something.
Consequences of the sharp separation of play and work
Were it not that the false theory of the relation of the play and the work attitudes has been connected with unfortunate modes of school practice, insistence46 upon a truer view might seem an unnecessary refinement47. But the sharp break that unfortunately prevails between the kindergarten and the grades is evidence that the theoretical distinction has practical implications. Under the title of play, the former is rendered unduly48 symbolic49, fanciful, sentimental50, and arbitrary; while under the antithetical caption51 of work the latter con[Pg 165]tains many tasks externally assigned. The former has no end and the latter an end so remote that only the educator, not the child, is aware that it is an end.
There comes a time when children must extend and make more exact their acquaintance with existing things; must conceive ends and consequences with sufficient definiteness to guide their actions by them, and must acquire some technical skill in selecting and arranging means to realize these ends. Unless these factors are gradually introduced in the earlier play period, they must be introduced later abruptly52 and arbitrarily, to the manifest disadvantage of both the earlier and the later stages.
False notions of imagination and utility
The sharp opposition53 of play and work is usually associated with false notions of utility and imagination. Activity that is directed upon matters of home and neighborhood interest is depreciated54 as merely utilitarian55. To let the child wash dishes, set the table, engage in cooking, cut and sew dolls' clothes, make boxes that will hold "real things," and construct his own playthings by using hammer and nails, excludes, so it is said, the ?sthetic and appreciative56 factor, eliminates imagination, and subjects the child's development to material and practical concerns; while (so it is said) to reproduce symbolically57 the domestic relationships of birds and other animals, of human father and mother and child, of workman and tradesman, of knight58, soldier, and magistrate59, secures a liberal exercise of mind, of great moral as well as intellectual value. It has been even stated that it is over-physical and utilitarian if a child plants seeds and takes care of growing plants in the kindergarten; while reproducing dramatically operations of planting, cultivating, reaping, and so on, either[Pg 166] with no physical materials or with symbolic representatives, is highly educative to the imagination and to spiritual appreciation60. Toy dolls, trains of cars, boats, and engines are rigidly61 excluded, and the employ of cubes, balls, and other symbols for representing these social activities is recommended on the same ground. The more unfitted the physical object for its imagined purpose, such as a cube for a boat, the greater is the supposed appeal to the imagination.
Imagination a medium of realizing the absent and significant
There are several fallacies in this way of thinking. (a) The healthy imagination deals not with the unreal, but with the mental realization of what is suggested. Its exercise is not a flight into the purely fanciful and ideal, but a method of expanding and filling in what is real. To the child the homely62 activities going on about him are not utilitarian devices for accomplishing physical ends; they exemplify a wonderful world the depths of which he has not sounded, a world full of the mystery and promise that attend all the doings of the grown-ups whom he admires. However prosaic63 this world may be to the adults who find its duties routine affairs, to the child it is fraught64 with social meaning. To engage in it is to exercise the imagination in constructing an experience of wider value than any the child has yet mastered.
Only the already experienced can be symbolized65
(b) Educators sometimes think children are reacting to a great moral or spiritual truth when the children's reactions are largely physical and sensational67. Children have great powers of dramatic simulation, and their physical bearing may seem (to adults prepossessed with a philosophic68 theory) to indicate they have been impressed with some lesson of chivalry69, devotion, or nobility, when the children themselves are occupied only[Pg 167] with transitory physical excitations. To symbolize66 great truths far beyond the child's range of actual experience is an impossibility, and to attempt it is to invite love of momentary70 stimulation71.
(c) Just as the opponents of play in education always conceive of play as mere amusement, so the opponents of direct and useful activities confuse occupation with labor. The adult is acquainted with responsible labor upon which serious financial results depend. Consequently he seeks relief, relaxation72, amusement. Unless children have prematurely73 worked for hire, unless they have come under the blight74 of child labor, no such division exists for them. Whatever appeals to them at all, appeals directly on its own account. There is no contrast between doing things for utility and for fun. Their life is more united and more wholesome75. To suppose that activities customarily performed by adults only under the pressure of utility may not be done perfectly76 freely and joyously77 by children indicates a lack of imagination. Not the thing done but the quality of mind that goes into the doing settles what is utilitarian and what is unconstrained and educative.
§ 3. Constructive78 Occupations
The historic growth of sciences out of occupations
The history of culture shows that mankind's scientific knowledge and technical abilities have developed, especially in all their earlier stages, out of the fundamental problems of life. Anatomy79 and physiology80 grew out of the practical needs of keeping healthy and active; geometry and mechanics out of demands for measuring land, for building, and for making labor-saving machines; astronomy has been closely connected with navigation, keeping record of the passage of time; botany grew out[Pg 168] of the requirements of medicine and of agronomy81; chemistry has been associated with dyeing, metallurgy, and other industrial pursuits. In turn, modern industry is almost wholly a matter of applied science; year by year the domain82 of routine and crude empiricism is narrowed by the translation of scientific discovery into industrial invention. The trolley83, the telephone, the electric light, the steam engine, with all their revolutionary consequences for social intercourse and control, are the fruits of science.
The intellectual possibilities of school occupations
These facts are full of educational significance. Most children are pre?minently active in their tendencies. The schools have also taken on—largely from utilitarian, rather than from strictly84 educative reasons—a large number of active pursuits commonly grouped under the head of manual training, including also school gardens, excursions, and various graphic85 arts. Perhaps the most pressing problem of education at the present moment is to organize and relate these subjects so that they will become instruments for forming alert, persistent86, and fruitful intellectual habits. That they take hold of the more primary and native equipment of children (appealing to their desire to do) is generally recognized; that they afford great opportunity for training in self-reliant and efficient social service is gaining acknowledgment. But they may also be used for presenting typical problems to be solved by personal reflection and experimentation, and by acquiring definite bodies of knowledge leading later to more specialized87 scientific knowledge. There is indeed no magic by which mere physical activity or deft88 manipulation will secure intellectual results. (See p. 43.) Manual subjects may be taught by routine, by dictation, or by convention as readily[Pg 169] as bookish subjects. But intelligent consecutive89 work in gardening, cooking, or weaving, or in elementary wood and iron, may be planned which will inevitably90 result in students not only amassing91 information of practical and scientific importance in botany, zo?logy, chemistry, physics, and other sciences, but (what is more significant) in their becoming versed92 in methods of experimental inquiry93 and proof.
Reorganization of the course of study
That the elementary curriculum is overloaded94 is a common complaint. The only alternative to a reactionary95 return to the educational traditions of the past lies in working out the intellectual possibilities resident in the various arts, crafts, and occupations, and reorganizing the curriculum accordingly. Here, more than elsewhere, are found the means by which the blind and routine experience of the race may be transformed into illuminated96 and emancipated97 experiment.
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1
amplify
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| vt.放大，增强；详述，详加解说 | |
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instinctive
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| adj.(出于)本能的；直觉的；(出于)天性的 | |
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beak
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| n.鸟嘴，茶壶嘴，钩形鼻 | |
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literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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instinctively
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| adv.本能地 | |
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stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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discomfort
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| n.不舒服，不安，难过，困难，不方便 | |
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stimuli
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| n.刺激（物） | |
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writ
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| n.命令状，书面命令 | |
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laboriously
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| adv.艰苦地；费力地；辛勤地；（文体等）佶屈聱牙地 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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savagery
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| n.野性 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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realization
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| n.实现；认识到，深刻了解 | |
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onlooker
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| n.旁观者，观众 | |
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experimentation
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| n.实验，试验，实验法 | |
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confirmation
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| n.证实，确认，批准 | |
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utilizing
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| v.利用，使用( utilize的现在分词 ) | |
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allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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exuberance
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| n.丰富；繁荣 | |
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acorns
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| n.橡子，栎实( acorn的名词复数 ) | |
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evoked
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| [医]诱发的 | |
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physically
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| adj.物质上，体格上，身体上，按自然规律 | |
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cohere
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| vt.附着，连贯，一致 | |
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mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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pertinency
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| 有关性，相关性，针对性； 切合性 | |
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coherence
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| n.紧凑；连贯；一致性 | |
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minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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bind
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| vt.捆，包扎；装订；约束；使凝固；vi.变硬 | |
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infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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manifestation
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| n.表现形式；表明；现象 | |
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overrides
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| 越控( override的第三人称单数 )； （以权力）否决； 优先于； 比…更重要 | |
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congruity
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| n.全等，一致 | |
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inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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amplifying
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| 放大，扩大( amplify的现在分词 )； 增强； 详述 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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unnatural
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| adj.不自然的；反常的 | |
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culmination
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| n.顶点；最高潮 | |
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binding
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| 有约束力的，有效的，应遵守的 | |
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whim
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| n.一时的兴致，突然的念头；奇想，幻想 | |
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insistence
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| n.坚持；强调；坚决主张 | |
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refinement
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| n.文雅；高尚；精美；精制；精炼 | |
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unduly
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| adv.过度地，不适当地 | |
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symbolic
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| adj.象征性的，符号的，象征主义的 | |
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sentimental
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| adj.多愁善感的，感伤的 | |
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caption
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| n.说明，字幕，标题；v.加上标题，加上说明 | |
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abruptly
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| adv.突然地，出其不意地 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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depreciated
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| v.贬值，跌价，减价( depreciate的过去式和过去分词 )；贬低，蔑视，轻视 | |
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utilitarian
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| adj.实用的，功利的 | |
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appreciative
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| adj.有鉴赏力的，有眼力的；感激的 | |
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symbolically
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| ad.象征地，象征性地 | |
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knight
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| n.骑士，武士；爵士 | |
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magistrate
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| n.地方行政官，地方法官，治安官 | |
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appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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rigidly
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| adv.刻板地，僵化地 | |
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homely
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| adj.家常的，简朴的；不漂亮的 | |
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prosaic
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| adj.单调的，无趣的 | |
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fraught
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| adj.充满…的，伴有(危险等)的；忧虑的 | |
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symbolized
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| v.象征，作为…的象征( symbolize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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symbolize
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| vt.作为...的象征，用符号代表 | |
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sensational
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| adj.使人感动的，非常好的，轰动的，耸人听闻的 | |
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philosophic
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| adj.哲学的，贤明的 | |
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chivalry
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| n.骑士气概，侠义；（男人）对女人彬彬有礼，献殷勤 | |
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momentary
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| adj.片刻的，瞬息的；短暂的 | |
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stimulation
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| n.刺激，激励，鼓舞 | |
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relaxation
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| n.松弛，放松；休息；消遣；娱乐 | |
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prematurely
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| adv.过早地，贸然地 | |
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blight
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| n.枯萎病；造成破坏的因素；vt.破坏，摧残 | |
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wholesome
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| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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joyously
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| ad.快乐地, 高兴地 | |
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constructive
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| adj.建设的，建设性的 | |
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anatomy
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| n.解剖学，解剖；功能，结构，组织 | |
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physiology
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| n.生理学，生理机能 | |
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agronomy
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| n.农业经济学 | |
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domain
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| n.(活动等)领域，范围；领地，势力范围 | |
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trolley
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| n.手推车，台车；无轨电车；有轨电车 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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graphic
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| adj.生动的，形象的，绘画的，文字的，图表的 | |
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persistent
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| adj.坚持不懈的，执意的；持续的 | |
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specialized
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| adj.专门的，专业化的 | |
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deft
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| adj.灵巧的，熟练的（a deft hand 能手） | |
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consecutive
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| adj.连续的，联贯的，始终一贯的 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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amassing
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| v.积累，积聚( amass的现在分词 ) | |
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versed
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| adj. 精通，熟练 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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overloaded
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| a.超载的，超负荷的 | |
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reactionary
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| n.反动者，反动主义者；adj.反动的，反动主义的，反对改革的 | |
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illuminated
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| adj.被照明的；受启迪的 | |
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emancipated
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| adj.被解放的，不受约束的v.解放某人（尤指摆脱政治、法律或社会的束缚）( emancipate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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