No thinking without acquaintance with facts
Thinking is an ordering of subject-matter with reference to discovering what it signifies or indicates. Thinking no more exists apart from this arranging of subject-matter than digestion1 occurs apart from the assimilating of food. The way in which the subject-matter is furnished marks, therefore, a fundamental point. If the subject-matter is provided in too scanty2 or too profuse3 fashion, if it comes in disordered array or in isolated4 scraps5, the effect upon habits of thought is detrimental6. If personal observation and communication of information by others (whether in books or speech) are rightly conducted, half the logical battle is won, for they are the channels of obtaining subject-matter.
§ 1. The Nature and Value of Observation
Fallacy of making "facts" an end in themselves
The protest, mentioned in the last chapter, of educational reformers against the exaggerated and false use of language, insisted upon personal and direct observation as the proper alternative course. The reformers felt that the current emphasis upon the linguistic7 factor eliminated all opportunity for first-hand acquaintance with real things; hence they appealed to sense-perception to fill the gap. It is not surprising that this enthusiastic zeal8 failed frequently to ask how and why[Pg 189] observation is educative, and hence fell into the error of making observation an end in itself and was satisfied with any kind of material under any kind of conditions. Such isolation9 of observation is still manifested in the statement that this faculty10 develops first, then that of memory and imagination, and finally the faculty of thought. From this point of view, observation is regarded as furnishing crude masses of raw material, to which, later on, reflective processes may be applied11. Our previous pages should have made obvious the fallacy of this point of view by bringing out the fact that simple concrete thinking attends all our intercourse12 with things which is not on a purely13 physical level.
I. All persons have a natural desire—akin to curiosity—for a widening of their range of acquaintance with persons and things. The sign in art galleries that forbids the carrying of canes15 and umbrellas is obvious testimony16 to the fact that simply to see is not enough for many people; there is a feeling of lack of acquaintance until some direct contact is made. This demand for fuller and closer knowledge is quite different from any conscious interest in observation for its own sake. Desire for expansion, for "self-realization," is its motive. The interest is sympathetic, socially and ?sthetically sympathetic, rather than cognitive17. While the interest is especially keen in children (because their actual experience is so small and their possible experience so large), it still characterizes adults when routine has not blunted its edge. This sympathetic interest provides the medium for carrying and binding18 together what would otherwise be a multitude of items, diverse, disconnected, and of no intellectual use. These systems are indeed social and ?sthetic rather than consciously intel[Pg 190]lectual; but they provide the natural medium for more conscious intellectual explorations. Some educators have recommended that nature study in the elementary schools be conducted with a love of nature and a cultivation19 of ?sthetic appreciation20 in view rather than in a purely analytic21 spirit. Others have urged making much of the care of animals and plants. Both of these important recommendations have grown out of experience, not out of theory, but they afford excellent exemplifications of the theoretic point just made.
Analytic inspection22 for the sake of doingDirect and indirect sense training
II. In normal development, specific analytic observations are originally connected almost exclusively with the imperative23 need for noting means and ends in carrying on activities. When one is doing something, one is compelled, if the work is to succeed (unless it is purely routine), to use eyes, ears, and sense of touch as guides to action. Without a constant and alert exercise of the senses, not even plays and games can go on; in any form of work, materials, obstacles, appliances, failures, and successes, must be intently watched. Sense-perception does not occur for its own sake or for purposes of training, but because it is an indispensable factor of success in doing what one is interested in doing. Although not designed for sense-training, this method effects sense-training in the most economical and thoroughgoing way. Various schemes have been designed by teachers for cultivating sharp and prompt observation of forms, as by writing words,—even in an unknown language,—making arrangements of figures and geometrical forms, and having pupils reproduce them after a momentary24 glance. Children often attain25 great skill in quick seeing and full reproducing of even complicated meaningless combinations. But such methods of training[Pg 191]—however valuable as occasional games and diversions—compare very unfavorably with the training of eye and hand that comes as an incident of work with tools in wood or metals, or of gardening, cooking, or the care of animals. Training by isolated exercises leaves no deposit, leads nowhere; and even the technical skill acquired has little radiating power, or transferable value. Criticisms made upon the training of observation on the ground that many persons cannot correctly reproduce the forms and arrangement of the figures on the face of their watches misses the point because persons do not look at a watch to find out whether four o'clock is indicated by IIII or by IV, but to find out what time it is, and, if observation decides this matter, noting other details is irrelevant26 and a waste of time. In the training of observation the question of end and motive is all-important.
Scientific observations are linked to problems"Object-lessons" rarely supply problems
III. The further, more intellectual or scientific, development of observation follows the line of the growth of practical into theoretical reflection already traced (ante, Chapter Ten). As problems emerge and are dwelt upon, observation is directed less to the facts that bear upon a practical aim and more upon what bears upon a problem as such. What makes observations in schools often intellectually ineffective is (more than anything else) that they are carried on independently of a sense of a problem that they serve to define or help to solve. The evil of this isolation is seen through the entire educational system, from the kindergarten, through the elementary and high schools, to the college. Almost everywhere may be found, at some time, recourse to observations as if they were of complete and final value in themselves, instead of the means[Pg 192] of getting material that bears upon some difficulty and its solution. In the kindergarten are heaped up observations regarding geometrical forms, lines, surfaces, cubes, colors, and so on. In the elementary school, under the name of "object-lessons," the form and properties of objects,—apple, orange, chalk,—selected almost at random27, are minutely noted28, while under the name of "nature study" similar observations are directed upon leaves, stones, insects, selected in almost equally arbitrary fashion. In high school and college, laboratory and microscopic30 observations are carried on as if the accumulation of observed facts and the acquisition of skill in manipulation were educational ends in themselves.
Compare with these methods of isolated observations the statement of Jevons that observation as conducted by scientific men is effective "only when excited and guided by hope of verifying a theory"; and again, "the number of things which can be observed and experimented upon are infinite, and if we merely set to work to record facts without any distinct purpose, our records will have no value." Strictly32 speaking, the first statement of Jevons is too narrow. Scientific men institute observations not merely to test an idea (or suggested explanatory meaning), but also to locate the nature of a problem and thereby33 guide the formation of a hypothesis. But the principle of his remark, namely, that scientific men never make the accumulation of observations an end in itself, but always a means to a general intellectual conclusion, is absolutely sound. Until the force of this principle is adequately recognized in education, observation will be largely a matter of uninteresting dead work or of acquiring forms of technical skill that are not available as intellectual resources.[Pg 193]
§ 2. Methods and Materials of Observation in the Schools The best methods in use in our schools furnish many suggestions for giving observation its right place in mental training.
Observation should involve discovery
I. They rest upon the sound assumption that observation is an active process. Observation is exploration, inquiry34 for the sake of discovering something previously35 hidden and unknown, this something being needed in order to reach some end, practical or theoretical. Observation is to be discriminated36 from recognition, or perception of what is familiar. The identification of something already understood is, indeed, an indispensable function of further investigation37 (ante, p. 119); but it is relatively38 automatic and passive, while observation proper is searching and deliberate. Recognition refers to the already mastered; observation is concerned with mastering the unknown. The common notions that perception is like writing on a blank piece of paper, or like impressing an image on the mind as a seal is imprinted39 on wax or as a picture is formed on a photographic plate (notions that have played a disastrous40 r?le in educational methods), arise from a failure to distinguish between automatic recognition and the searching attitude of genuine observation.
II. Much assistance in the selection of appropriate material for observation may be derived42 from considering the eagerness and closeness of observation that attend the following of a story or drama. Alertness of observation is at its height wherever there is "plot interest." Why? Because of the balanced combination of the old and the new, of the familiar and the unexpected. We hang on the lips of the story-teller because of the element of mental suspense. Alternatives are suggested,[Pg 194] but are left ambiguous, so that our whole being questions: What befell next? Which way did things turn out? Contrast the ease and fullness with which a child notes all the salient traits of a story, with the labor29 and inadequacy43 of his observation of some dead and static thing where nothing raises a question or suggests alternative outcomes.
This "plot interest" manifested in activity,
When an individual is engaged in doing or making something (the activity not being of such a mechanical and habitual44 character that its outcome is assured), there is an analogous45 situation. Something is going to come of what is present to the sense, but just what is doubtful. The plot is unfolding toward success or failure, but just when or how is uncertain. Hence the keen and tense observation of conditions and results that attends constructive46 manual operations. Where the subject-matter is of a more impersonal47 sort, the same principle of movement toward a dénouement may apply. It is a commonplace that what is moving attracts notice when that which is at rest escapes it. Yet too often it would almost seem as if pains had been taken to deprive the material of school observations of all life and dramatic quality, to reduce it to a dead and inert48 form. Mere31 change is not enough, however. Vicissitude49, alteration50, motion, excite observation; but if they merely excite it, there is no thought. The changes must (like the incidents of a well-arranged story or plot) take place in a certain cumulative51 order; each successive change must at once remind us of its predecessor52 and arouse interest in its successor if observations of change are to be logically fruitful.
and in cycles of growth
Living beings, plants, and animals, fulfill53 the twofold requirement to an extraordinary degree. Where there[Pg 195] is growth, there is motion, change, process; and there is also arrangement of the changes in a cycle. The first arouses, the second organizes, observation. Much of the extraordinary interest that children take in planting seeds and watching the stages of their growth is due to the fact that a drama is enacting54 before their eyes; there is something doing, each step of which is important in the destiny of the plant. The great practical improvements that have occurred of late years in the teaching of botany and zo?logy will be found, upon inspection, to involve treating plants and animals as beings that act, that do something, instead of as mere inert specimens55 having static properties to be inventoried56, named, and registered. Treated in the latter fashion, observation is inevitably57 reduced to the falsely "analytic" (ante, p. 112),—to mere dissection58 and enumeration59.
Observation of structure grows out of noting function
There is, of course, a place, and an important place, for observation of the mere static qualities of objects. When, however, the primary interest is in function, in what the object does, there is a motive for more minute analytic study, for the observation of structure. Interest in noting an activity passes insensibly into noting how the activity is carried on; the interest in what is accomplished60 passes over into an interest in the organs of its accomplishing. But when the beginning is made with the morphological, the anatomical, the noting of peculiarities62 of form, size, color, and distribution of parts, the material is so cut off from significance as to be dead and dull. It is as natural for children to look intently for the stomata of a plant after they have become interested in its function of breathing, as it is repulsive63 to attend minutely to them when they are considered as isolated peculiarities of structure.[Pg 196]
Scientific observation
III. As the center of interest of observations becomes less personal, less a matter of means for effecting one's own ends, and less ?sthetic, less a matter of contribution of parts to a total emotional effect, observation becomes more consciously intellectual in quality. Pupils learn to observe for the sake (i) of finding out what sort of perplexity confronts them; (ii) of inferring hypothetical explanations for the puzzling features that observation reveals; and (iii) of testing the ideas thus suggested.
should be extensiveand intensive
In short, observation becomes scientific in nature. Of such observations it may be said that they should follow a rhythm between the extensive and the intensive. Problems become definite, and suggested explanations significant by a certain alternation between a wide and somewhat loose soaking in of relevant facts and a minutely accurate study of a few selected facts. The wider, less exact observation is necessary to give the student a feeling for the reality of the field of inquiry, a sense of its bearings and possibilities, and to store his mind with materials that imagination may transform into suggestions. The intensive study is necessary for limiting the problem, and for securing the conditions of experimental testing. As the latter by itself is too specialized64 and technical to arouse intellectual growth, the former by itself is too superficial and scattering65 for control of intellectual development. In the sciences of life, field study, excursions, acquaintance with living things in their natural habitats, may alternate with microscopic and laboratory observation. In the physical sciences, phenomena66 of light, of heat, of electricity, of moisture, of gravity, in their broad setting in nature—their physiographic setting—should prepare for an exact study of selected facts under conditions of laboratory[Pg 197] control. In this way, the student gets the benefit of technical scientific methods of discovery and testing, while he retains his sense of the identity of the laboratory modes of energy with large out-of-door realities, thereby avoiding the impression (that so often accrues) that the facts studied are peculiar61 to the laboratory.
§ 3. Communication of Information
When all is said and done the field of fact open to any one observer by himself is narrow. Into every one of our beliefs, even those that we have worked out under the conditions of utmost personal, first-hand acquaintance, much has insensibly entered from what we have heard or read of the observations and conclusions of others. In spite of the great extension of direct observation in our schools, the vast bulk of educational subject-matter is derived from other sources—from text-book, lecture, and viva-voce interchange. No educational question is of greater import than how to get the most logical good out of learning through transmission from others.
Logically, this ranks only as evidence or testimony
Doubtless the chief meaning associated with the word instruction is this conveying and instilling68 of the results of the observations and inferences of others. Doubtless the undue69 prominence70 in education of the ideal of amassing71 information (ante, p. 52) has its source in the prominence of the learning of other persons. The problem then is how to convert it into an intellectual asset. In logical terms, the material supplied from the experience of others is testimony: that is to say, evidence submitted by others to be employed by one's own judgment72 in reaching a conclusion. How shall we treat the subject-matter supplied by text-book and teacher so that it shall rank as material for reflec[Pg 198]tive inquiry, not as ready-made intellectual pabulum to be accepted and swallowed just as supplied by the store?
Communication by others should not encroach on observation,
In reply to this question, we may say (i) that the communication of material should be needed. That is to say, it should be such as cannot readily be attained73 by personal observation. For teacher or book to cram74 pupils with facts which, with little more trouble, they could discover by direct inquiry is to violate their intellectual integrity by cultivating mental servility. This does not mean that the material supplied through communication of others should be meager75 or scanty. With the utmost range of the senses, the world of nature and history stretches out almost infinitely76 beyond. But the fields within which direct observation is feasible should be carefully chosen and sacredly protected.
should not be dogmatic in tone,
(ii) Material should be supplied by way of stimulus77, not with dogmatic finality and rigidity78. When pupils get the notion that any field of study has been definitely surveyed, that knowledge about it is exhaustive and final, they may continue docile79 pupils, but they cease to be students. All thinking whatsoever—so be it is thinking—contains a phase of originality80. This originality does not imply that the student's conclusion varies from the conclusions of others, much less that it is a radically81 novel conclusion. His originality is not incompatible82 with large use of materials and suggestions contributed by others. Originality means personal interest in the question, personal initiative in turning over the suggestions furnished by others, and sincerity83 in following them out to a tested conclusion. Literally84, the phrase "Think for yourself" is tautological85; any thinking is thinking for one's self.[Pg 199]
should have relation to a personal problem,
(iii) The material furnished by way of information should be relevant to a question that is vital in the student's own experience. What has been said about the evil of observations that begin and end in themselves may be transferred without change to communicated learning. Instruction in subject-matter that does not fit into any problem already stirring in the student's own experience, or that is not presented in such a way as to arouse a problem, is worse than useless for intellectual purposes. In that it fails to enter into any process of reflection, it is useless; in that it remains86 in the mind as so much lumber87 and débris, it is a barrier, an obstruction88 in the way of effective thinking when a problem arises.
and to prior systems of experience
Another way of stating the same principle is that material furnished by communication must be such as to enter into some existing system or organization of experience. All students of psychology89 are familiar with the principle of apperception—that we assimilate new material with what we have digested and retained from prior experiences. Now the "apperceptive basis" of material furnished by teacher and text-book should be found, as far as possible, in what the learner has derived from more direct forms of his own experience. There is a tendency to connect material of the schoolroom simply with the material of prior school lessons, instead of linking it to what the pupil has acquired in his out-of-school experience. The teacher says, "Do you not remember what we learned from the book last week?"—instead of saying, "Do you not recall such and such a thing that you have seen or heard?" As a result, there are built up detached and independent systems of school knowledge that inertly90 overlay the[Pg 200] ordinary systems of experience instead of reacting to enlarge and refine them. Pupils are taught to live in two separate worlds, one the world of out-of-school experience, the other the world of books and lessons.
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digestion
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| n.消化，吸收 | |
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scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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profuse
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| adj.很多的，大量的，极其丰富的 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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scraps
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| 油渣 | |
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detrimental
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| adj.损害的，造成伤害的 | |
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linguistic
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| adj.语言的，语言学的 | |
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zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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isolation
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| n.隔离，孤立，分解，分离 | |
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faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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canes
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| n.（某些植物，如竹或甘蔗的）茎( cane的名词复数 )；（用于制作家具等的）竹竿；竹杖 | |
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testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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cognitive
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| adj.认知的，认识的，有感知的 | |
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binding
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| 有约束力的，有效的，应遵守的 | |
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cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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analytic
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| adj.分析的，用分析方法的 | |
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inspection
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| n.检查，审查，检阅 | |
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imperative
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| n.命令，需要；规则；祈使语气；adj.强制的；紧急的 | |
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momentary
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| adj.片刻的，瞬息的；短暂的 | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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irrelevant
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| adj.不恰当的，无关系的，不相干的 | |
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random
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| adj.随机的；任意的；n.偶然的(或随便的)行动 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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microscopic
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| adj.微小的，细微的，极小的，显微的 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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discriminated
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| 分别，辨别，区分( discriminate的过去式和过去分词 )； 歧视，有差别地对待 | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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relatively
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| adv.比较...地，相对地 | |
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imprinted
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| v.盖印（imprint的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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suspense
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| n.（对可能发生的事）紧张感，担心，挂虑 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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inadequacy
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| n.无法胜任，信心不足 | |
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habitual
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| adj.习惯性的；通常的，惯常的 | |
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analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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constructive
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| adj.建设的，建设性的 | |
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impersonal
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| adj.无个人感情的，与个人无关的，非人称的 | |
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inert
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| adj.无活动能力的，惰性的；迟钝的 | |
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vicissitude
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| n.变化，变迁，荣枯，盛衰 | |
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alteration
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| n.变更，改变；蚀变 | |
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cumulative
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| adj.累积的，渐增的 | |
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predecessor
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| n.前辈，前任 | |
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fulfill
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| vt.履行，实现，完成；满足，使满意 | |
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enacting
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| 制定（法律），通过（法案）( enact的现在分词 ) | |
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specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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inventoried
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| vt.编制…的目录（inventory的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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dissection
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| n.分析；解剖 | |
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enumeration
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| n.计数，列举；细目；详表；点查 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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repulsive
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| adj.排斥的，使人反感的 | |
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specialized
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| adj.专门的，专业化的 | |
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scattering
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| n.[物]散射；散乱，分散；在媒介质中的散播adj.散乱的；分散在不同范围的；广泛扩散的；（选票）数量分散的v.散射(scatter的ing形式)；散布；驱散 | |
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66
phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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hearsay
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| n.谣传，风闻 | |
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68
instilling
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| v.逐渐使某人获得（某种可取的品质），逐步灌输( instil的现在分词 )；逐渐使某人获得（某种可取的品质），逐步灌输( instill的现在分词 ) | |
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69
undue
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| adj.过分的；不适当的；未到期的 | |
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70
prominence
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| n.突出；显著；杰出；重要 | |
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71
amassing
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| v.积累，积聚( amass的现在分词 ) | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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74
cram
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| v.填塞，塞满，临时抱佛脚，为考试而学习 | |
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75
meager
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| adj.缺乏的，不足的，瘦的 | |
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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77
stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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rigidity
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| adj.钢性，坚硬 | |
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docile
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| adj.驯服的，易控制的，容易教的 | |
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80
originality
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| n.创造力，独创性；新颖 | |
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radically
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| ad.根本地，本质地 | |
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82
incompatible
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| adj.不相容的，不协调的，不相配的 | |
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83
sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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84
literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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85
tautological
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| adj.重复的；累赘的 | |
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86
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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87
lumber
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| n.木材，木料；v.以破旧东西堆满；伐木；笨重移动 | |
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88
obstruction
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| n.阻塞，堵塞；障碍物 | |
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89
psychology
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| n.心理，心理学，心理状态 | |
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90
inertly
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| adv.不活泼地，无生气地 | |
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