CHAPTER IX. The Fundamental Qualities of an Organism.

 In order to illustrate¹ the fundamental characteristics of an organic structure in general, we will begin with comparing it with what it most resembles, namely, a complicated mechanism². The likeness³ is so striking that the very dissimilarities become instructive.

First of all we notice the parts of which the machine is composed. What these parts are to the machine the members and organs are to the organism. Every part, like every organ, has a certain duty to perform which it incessantly⁴ repeats. The work of the machine is divided among the parts as that of the organism among the organs. As the organ, so the part of the machine[139] can do its share only when in right position and in right order.

The most obvious similarities are now exhausted⁵. The parts of the machine are actuated by external, but the organs by internal, forces. The organism is a living machine. No organism, whether organic or mechanic, labors⁷ for its own sake. Every such apparatus⁸ exists for somebody’s use. But while those that employ a machine stand in outer relation to the same, those who utilize⁹ an organism are beings that themselves constitute the organic machine-parts. These are not composed of dead atoms, but of living individuals. The organism is a society which puts the organic machinery¹⁰ into service. It is the social tie that connects the individuals which otherwise would be a multitude of isolated¹¹ beings.

In all organisms there are as many organs as actual wants among the individuals that compose it. Because these individuals are kindred, they have common needs and are therefore able[140] to use the same organ. Every particular individual requires the assistance of all the organs and must therefore stand in such relation to them all that he can utilize the work of any one. But he himself enters as a working member only in one organ, whose work is the only one he can immediately press into his service, and even this only in certain cases. All other organs stand in more or less distant relation to him. How, then, will he be able to utilize them? Only so that the organs make themselves present in his own organ, and, so to speak, reach him their different products. Like every citizen in a community, each organ ought to have a system of circulation throughout all the other organs to transfer the results of its work where it is needed. If, however, each organ were provided with such a distribution agency this would be an extravagance inconsistent with the concentration of forces that the very idea of an organism implies. Instead of many such systems we find[141] therefore in every organism but one, whose sole purpose is to circulate the products of the various organs, and thus, so to speak, make each organ represented in every part of the whole community. We find that every organic building is constructed in this way to suit the individuals that form its building-material, and so of course it must be, since it was built for that purpose by the same individuals.

The consequence is that the degree of development an organism possesses is closely related to the state of evolution reached by the individuals which constitute it. The more perfected the organism, the higher and more developed also are the necessities it is able to satisfy.

The way in which independent living beings build such an organic machine may be defined as “division of labor⁶.” Every organism is a union, founded on the division of labor, between a multitude of kindred individuals which thus combine their isolated[142] forces. But a large mass of individuals cannot merge¹³ at once into an all-embracing entity¹⁴. This result can only be reached by a series of higher and lower intermediary units, each defined by its particular share of the total labor.

A closer study of the organisms will show that they all without exception are composed in this way.

The cells in any organism in nature combine into higher and higher units as follows:

The primary unions of the cells are the tissues, where all the cells perform the same function in the same way. Of these tissues is formed the nearest higher unit, the organ. As the tissue was a union of cells, the organ is a union of tissues. Then we have a system of organs. To each such higher system a more comprehensive function is assigned. By distributing the total labor among the different systems these merge into the organism which unites the whole cell-mass into one[143] well-organized community of working cell-individuals.

Human society is similarly composed. The difference is only that in one case the citizens are cells, and in the other they are men. Of an organism in nature we only see the members and organs, but not the cells; in human society, on the other hand, we only observe the cells or the human individual, but not the body of society. The cells combine into a solid body; humanity is spread over a surface. Human individuals, because of their greater perfection, move in space more freely and independently of each other than do the cells in their realm. These and other differences do not, however, disturb the general organic structure. This has everywhere the same fundamental qualities. Society is essentially¹⁵ only a vastly enlarged copy of the same model that man traces in his own bodily organism.

Through a similar division of labor the work of the community is split[144] into trades, corresponding to the tissues in the natural organism. As the cells in one tissue, so the men in one trade are incessantly occupied with the same work. Out of several trades are formed the social organs. A social organ consequently is a certain community or district performing a certain part of an industry. This has been called “territorial division of labor.” Several such communities make up an organ-system or an industry. A few such larger units merge into the single unit, the entire mass of human individuals as a whole.

The cells of the individuals in an organism are consequently at once building-material and builders, and in their latter capacity are endowed with wants and aspirations¹⁶ that with natural necessity force them to organization without conscious plan or purpose. Necessity is the teacher that tells them how to organize. Some speak of a social instinct that man does or should possess; but its existence has never been[145] shown. On the contrary, it is only by those needs that can only be satisfied by a community that men are driven to unite socially. Similarly with the cells. Only by building up an organism are they able to satisfy their common wants. What society is to human individuals, the natural organism is to the cells. No trade or industry can be found in the state that does not serve to provide for some common want of the people, and no tissue nor organ exists in the natural organism but for satisfying collective needs of the cells. These collective needs are at the same time the higher needs of the individuals. The organism provides the power that the isolated individual does not possess. Organization allows that specializing of effort which so essentially contributes to the productivity of labor. The more limited the operations each individual has to perform, the more rapidly and perfectly¹⁷ are they done.

Although the cell lives in a world[146] inaccessible¹⁸ to our immediate¹² comprehension, we still possess means to ascertain¹⁹ that it has the same fundamental qualities as man. We observe manifestations²⁰ of life in the cell corresponding to those of sensitivity, feeling and will-power in man. The cell’s comprehending faculty²¹ has been termed irritability²² and its power of action spontaneity. From certain physiological²³ phenomena²⁴ the conclusion has also been drawn²⁵ that the cell likewise possesses memory.

1 illustrate   

v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图

参考例句：

• The company's bank statements illustrate its success.这家公司的银行报表说明了它的成功。
• This diagram will illustrate what I mean.这个图表可说明我的意思。

2 mechanism   

n.机械装置；机构，结构

参考例句：

• The bones and muscles are parts of the mechanism of the body.骨骼和肌肉是人体的组成部件。
• The mechanism of the machine is very complicated.这台机器的结构是非常复杂的。

3 likeness   

n.相像，相似（之处）

参考例句：

• I think the painter has produced a very true likeness.我认为这位画家画得非常逼真。
• She treasured the painted likeness of her son.她珍藏她儿子的画像。

4 incessantly   

ad.不停地

参考例句：

• The machines roar incessantly during the hours of daylight. 机器在白天隆隆地响个不停。
• It rained incessantly for the whole two weeks. 雨不间断地下了整整两个星期。

5 exhausted   

adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的

参考例句：

• It was a long haul home and we arrived exhausted.搬运回家的这段路程特别长，到家时我们已筋疲力尽。
• Jenny was exhausted by the hustle of city life.珍妮被城市生活的忙乱弄得筋疲力尽。

6 labor   

n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦

参考例句：

• We are never late in satisfying him for his labor.我们从不延误付给他劳动报酬。
• He was completely spent after two weeks of hard labor.艰苦劳动两周后，他已经疲惫不堪了。

7 labors   

v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转

参考例句：

• He was tiresome in contending for the value of his own labors. 他老为他自己劳动的价值而争强斗胜，令人生厌。 来自辞典例句
• Farm labors used to hire themselves out for the summer. 农业劳动者夏季常去当雇工。 来自辞典例句

8 apparatus   

n.装置，器械；器具，设备

参考例句：

• The school's audio apparatus includes films and records.学校的视听设备包括放映机和录音机。
• They had a very refined apparatus.他们有一套非常精良的设备。

9 utilize   

vt.使用，利用

参考例句：

• The cook will utilize the leftover ham bone to make soup.厨师要用吃剩的猪腿骨做汤。
• You must utilize all available resources.你必须利用一切可以得到的资源。

10 machinery   

n.(总称)机械，机器；机构

参考例句：

• Has the machinery been put up ready for the broadcast?广播器材安装完毕了吗？
• Machinery ought to be well maintained all the time.机器应该随时注意维护。

11 isolated   

adj.与世隔绝的

参考例句：

• His bad behaviour was just an isolated incident. 他的不良行为只是个别事件。
• Patients with the disease should be isolated. 这种病的患者应予以隔离。

12 immediate   

adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的

参考例句：

• His immediate neighbours felt it their duty to call.他的近邻认为他们有责任去拜访。
• We declared ourselves for the immediate convocation of the meeting.我们主张立即召开这个会议。

13 merge   

v.(使)结合，(使)合并，(使)合为一体

参考例句：

• I can merge my two small businesses into a large one.我可以将我的两家小商店合并为一家大商行。
• The directors have decided to merge the two small firms together.董事们已决定把这两家小商号归并起来。

14 entity   

n.实体，独立存在体，实际存在物

参考例句：

• The country is no longer one political entity.这个国家不再是一个统一的政治实体了。
• As a separate legal entity,the corporation must pay taxes.作为一个独立的法律实体，公司必须纳税。

15 essentially   

adv.本质上，实质上，基本上

参考例句：

• Really great men are essentially modest.真正的伟人大都很谦虚。
• She is an essentially selfish person.她本质上是个自私自利的人。

16 aspirations   

强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音

参考例句：

• I didn't realize you had political aspirations. 我没有意识到你有政治上的抱负。
• The new treaty embodies the aspirations of most nonaligned countries. 新条约体现了大多数不结盟国家的愿望。

17 perfectly   

adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地

参考例句：

• The witnesses were each perfectly certain of what they said.证人们个个对自己所说的话十分肯定。
• Everything that we're doing is all perfectly above board.我们做的每件事情都是光明正大的。

18 inaccessible   

adj.达不到的，难接近的

参考例句：

• This novel seems to me among the most inaccessible.这本书对我来说是最难懂的小说之一。
• The top of Mount Everest is the most inaccessible place in the world.珠穆朗玛峰是世界上最难到达的地方。

19 ascertain   

vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清

参考例句：

• It's difficult to ascertain the coal deposits.煤储量很难探明。
• We must ascertain the responsibility in light of different situtations.我们必须根据不同情况判定责任。

20 manifestations   

n.表示，显示（manifestation的复数形式）

参考例句：

• These were manifestations of the darker side of his character. 这些是他性格阴暗面的表现。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• To be wordly-wise and play safe is one of the manifestations of liberalism. 明哲保身是自由主义的表现之一。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》

21 faculty   

n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员

参考例句：

• He has a great faculty for learning foreign languages.他有学习外语的天赋。
• He has the faculty of saying the right thing at the right time.他有在恰当的时候说恰当的话的才智。

22 irritability   

n.易怒

参考例句：

• It was the almost furtive restlessness and irritability that had possessed him. 那是一种一直纠缠着他的隐秘的不安和烦恼。
• All organisms have irritability while alive. 所有生物体活着时都有应激性。

23 physiological   

adj.生理学的，生理学上的

参考例句：

• He bought a physiological book.他买了一本生理学方面的书。
• Every individual has a physiological requirement for each nutrient.每个人对每种营养成分都有一种生理上的需要。

24 phenomena   

n.现象

参考例句：

• Ade couldn't relate the phenomena with any theory he knew.艾德无法用他所知道的任何理论来解释这种现象。
• The object of these experiments was to find the connection,if any,between the two phenomena.这些实验的目的就是探索这两种现象之间的联系，如果存在着任何联系的话。

25 drawn   

v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的

参考例句：

• All the characters in the story are drawn from life.故事中的所有人物都取材于生活。
• Her gaze was drawn irresistibly to the scene outside.她的目光禁不住被外面的风景所吸引。