In the early part of July, 1914, a collection of Frenchmen in Paris, or Germans in Berlin, was not a crowd in a psychological sense. Each individual had his own special interests and needs, and there was no powerful common idea to unify2 them. A group then represented only a collection of individuals. A month later, any collection of Frenchmen or Germans formed a crowd: Patriotism3, hate, a common fear, a pervasive4 grief, had unified5 the individuals.
The psychology6 of the crowd is far different from the psychology of the personal members that compose it. The crowd is a distinct entity7. Individuals restrain and subdue8 many of their impulses at the dictates9 of reason. The crowd never reasons. It only feels. As persons there is a sense of responsibility attached to our actions which checks many of our incitements, but the sense of responsibility is lost in the crowd because of its numbers. The crowd is exceedingly suggestible and will act upon the wildest and most extreme ideas. The crowd-mind is primitive10 and will cheer plans and perform actions which its members would utterly11 repudiate12.
A mob is only a highly-wrought crowd. Ruskin's description is fitting: "You can talk a mob into anything; its feelings may be—usually are—on the whole, generous and right, but it has no foundation for them, no hold of them. You may tease or tickle13 it into anything at your pleasure. It thinks by infection, for the most part, catching14 an opinion like a cold, and there is nothing so little that it will not roar itself wild about, when the fit is on, nothing so great but it will forget in an hour when the fit is past."[28]
History will show us how the crowd-mind works. The medieval mind was not given to reasoning; the medieval man attached great weight to the utterance15 of authority; his religion touched chiefly the emotions. These conditions provided a rich soil for the propagation of the crowd-mind when, in the eleventh century, flagellation, a voluntary self-scourging, was preached by the monks16. Substituting flagellation for reciting penitential psalms17 was advocated by the reformers. A scale was drawn18 up, making one thousand strokes equivalent to ten psalms, or fifteen thousand to the entire psalter. This craze spread by leaps—and crowds. Flagellant fraternities sprang up. Priests carrying banners led through the streets great processions reciting prayers and whipping their bloody19 bodies with leathern thongs20 fitted with four iron points. Pope Clement21 denounced this practise and several of the leaders of these processions had to be burned at the stake before the frenzy22 could be uprooted23.
All western and central Europe was turned into a crowd by the preaching of the crusaders, and millions of the followers24 of the Prince of Peace rushed to the Holy Land to kill the heathen. Even the children started on a crusade against the Saracens. The mob-spirit was so strong that home affections and persuasion25 could not prevail against it and thousands of mere26 babes died in their attempts to reach and redeem27 the Sacred Sepulchre.
In the early part of the eighteenth century the South Sea Company was formed in England. Britain became a speculative28 crowd. Stock in the South Sea Company rose from 128-1/2 points in January to 550 in May, and scored 1,000 in July. Five million shares were sold at this premium29. Speculation30 ran riot. Hundreds of companies were organized. One was formed "for a wheel of perpetual motion." Another never troubled to give any reason at all for taking the cash of its subscribers—it merely announced that it was organized "for a design which will hereafter be promulgated31." Owners began to sell, the mob caught the suggestion, a panic ensued, the South Sea Company stock fell 800 points in a few days, and more than a billion dollars evaporated in this era of frenzied32 speculation.
The burning of the witches at Salem, the Klondike gold craze, and the forty-eight people who were killed by mobs in the United States in 1913, are examples familiar to us in America.
The Crowd Must Have a Leader
The leader of the crowd or mob is its determining factor. He becomes self-hynoptized with the idea that unifies33 its members, his enthusiasm is contagious—and so is theirs. The crowd acts as he suggests. The great mass of people do not have any very sharply-drawn conclusions on any subject outside of their own little spheres, but when they become a crowd they are perfectly34 willing to accept ready-made, hand-me-down opinions. They will follow a leader at all costs—in labor35 troubles they often follow a leader in preference to obeying their government, in war they will throw self-preservation to the bushes and follow a leader in the face of guns that fire fourteen times a second. The mob becomes shorn of will-power and blindly obedient to its dictator. The Russian Government, recognizing the menace of the crowd-mind to its autocracy36, formerly37 prohibited public gatherings38. History is full of similar instances.
How the Crowd is Created
Today the crowd is as real a factor in our socialized life as are magnates and monopolies. It is too complex a problem merely to damn or praise it—it must be reckoned with, and mastered. The present problem is how to get the most and the best out of the crowd-spirit, and the public speaker finds this to be peculiarly his own question. His influence is multiplied if he can only transmute39 his audience into a crowd. His affirmations must be their conclusions.
This can be accomplished40 by unifying41 the minds and needs of the audience and arousing their emotions. Their feelings, not their reason, must be played upon—it is "up to" him to do this nobly. Argument has its place on the platform, but even its potencies42 must subserve the speaker's plan of attack to win possession of his audience.
Reread the chapter on "Feeling and Enthusiasm." It is impossible to make an audience a crowd without appealing to their emotions. Can you imagine the average group becoming a crowd while hearing a lecture on Dry Fly Fishing, or on Egyptian Art? On the other hand, it would not have required world-famous eloquence43 to have turned any audience in Ulster, in 1914, into a crowd by discussing the Home Rule Act. The crowd-spirit depends largely on the subject used to fuse their individualities into one glowing whole.
Note how Antony played upon the feelings of his hearers in the famous funeral oration44 given by Shakespeare in "Julius C?sar." From murmuring units the men became a unit—a mob.
ANTONY'S ORATION OVER C?SAR'S BODY
Friends, Romans, countrymen! Lend me your ears;
I come to bury C?sar, not to praise him.
The evil that men do lives after them;
So let it be with C?sar! The Noble Brutus
Hath told you C?sar was ambitious.
If it were so, it was a grievous fault,
And grievously hath C?sar answered it.
Here, under leave of Brutus, and the rest—
For Brutus is an honorable man,
So are they all, all honorable men—
Come I to speak in C?sar's funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me:
But Brutus says he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honorable man.
He hath brought many captives home to Rome,
Did this in C?sar seem ambitious?
When that the poor have cried, C?sar hath wept;
Ambition should be made of sterner stuff:
Yet Brutus says, he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honorable man.
You all did see, that, on the Lupercal,
I thrice presented him a kingly crown,
Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition?
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;
And sure, he is an honorable man.
But here I am to speak what I do know.
You all did love him once, not without cause;
And men have lost their reason!—Bear with me;
And I must pause till it come back to me. [Weeps.
2 Ple. If thou consider rightly of the matter,
C?sar has had great wrong.
3 Ple. Has he, masters?
I fear there will a worse come in his place.
4 Ple. Mark'd ye his words? He would not take the crown;
Therefore, 'tis certain, he was not ambitious.
2 Ple. Poor soul, his eyes are red as fire with weeping.
3 Ple. There's not a nobler man in Rome than Antony.
4 Ple. Now mark him, he begins again to speak.
Ant. But yesterday, the word of C?sar might
Have stood against the world: now lies he there,
Oh, masters! if I were dispos'd to stir
Your hearts and minds to mutiny and rage,
I should do Brutus wrong, and Cassius wrong,
Who, you all know, are honorable men.
I will not do them wrong; I rather choose
To wrong the dead, to wrong myself, and you,
Than I will wrong such honorable men.
But here's a parchment, with the seal of C?sar;
I found it in his closet; 'tis his will:
Which, pardon me, I do not mean to read—
And they would go and kiss dead C?sar's wounds,
And dip their napkins in his sacred blood;
Yea, beg a hair of him for memory,
And, dying, mention it within their wills,
Unto their issue.
4 Ple. We'll hear the will: Read it, Mark Antony.
All. The will! the will! we will hear C?sar's will.
Ant. Have patience, gentle friends: I must not read it;
It is not meet you know how C?sar lov'd you.
You are not wood, you are not stones, but men;
And, being men, hearing the will of C?sar,
'Tis good you know not that you are his heirs;
For if you should, oh, what would come of it!
4 Ple. Read the will; we'll hear it, Antony!
You shall read us the will! C?sar's will!
Ant. Will you be patient? Will you stay awhile?
I have o'ershot myself, to tell you of it.
I fear I wrong the honorable men
All. The will! the testament!
Ant. You will compel me then to read the will?
And let me shew you him that made the will.
All. Come down.
2 Ple. Descend. [He comes down from the Rostrum.
3 Ple. You shall have leave.
4 Ple. A ring; stand round.
1 Ple. Stand from the hearse, stand from the body.
2 Ple. Room for Antony!—most noble Antony!
All. Stand back! room! bear back!
Ant. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now;
The first time ever C?sar put it on;
'Twas on a summer's evening, in his tent,
That day he overcame the Nervii.
Through this, the well-beloved Brutus stab'd;
And as he pluck'd his cursed steel away,
Mark how the blood of C?sar follow'd it!—
As rushing out of doors, to be resolv'd
If Brutus so unkindly knock'd, or no;
For Brutus, as you know, was C?sar's angel:
Judge, O you Gods, how C?sar lov'd him!
This was the most unkindest cut of all!
For when the noble C?sar saw him stab,
Ingratitude68, more strong than traitors' arms,
Even at the base of Pompey's statue,
Which all the while ran blood, great C?sar fell.
Oh what a fall was there, my countrymen!
Then I and you, and all of us, fell down,
Whilst bloody treason flourish'd over us.
Oh! now you weep; and I perceive you feel
Our C?sar's vesture wounded? Look you here!
Here is himself, mar'd, as you see, by traitors.
1 Ple. Oh, piteous spectacle!
2 Ple. Oh, noble C?sar!
3 Ple. Oh, woful day!
4 Ple. Oh, traitors, villains!
1 Ple. Oh, most bloody sight!
2 Ple. We will be reveng'd!
All. Revenge; about—seek—burn—fire—kill—day!—Let not
Ant. Stay, countrymen.
1 Ple. Peace there! Hear the noble Antony.
2 Ple. We'll hear him, we'll follow him, we'll die with him.
Ant. Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up
To such a sudden flood of mutiny:
They that have done this deed are honorable:
That made them do it; they are wise, and honorable,
And will, no doubt, with reasons answer you.
I come not, friends, to steal away your hearts;
But as you know me all, a plain blunt man,
That love my friend, and that they know full well
That gave me public leave to speak of him:
For I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth,
Action, nor utterance, nor the power of speech,
To stir men's blood. I only speak right on:
I tell you that which you yourselves do know;
Show your sweet C?sar's wounds, poor, poor, dumb mouths,
And bid them speak for me. But were I Brutus,
And Brutus Antony, there were an Antony
In every wound of C?sar, that should move
The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny.
All. We'll mutiny!
1 Ple. We'll burn the house of Brutus.
3 Ple. Away, then! Come, seek the conspirators76.
Ant. Yet hear me, countrymen; yet hear me speak.
All. Peace, ho! Hear Antony, most noble Antony.
Ant. Why, friends, you go to do you know not what.
Wherein hath C?sar thus deserv'd your loves?
Alas! you know not!—I must tell you then.
You have forgot the will I told you of.
Ple. Most true;—the will!—let's stay, and hear the will.
Ant. Here is the will, and under C?sar's seal.
To every Roman citizen he gives,
To every several man, seventy-five drachmas.
2 Ple. Most noble C?sar!—we'll revenge his death.
3 Ple. O royal C?sar!
Ant. Hear me with patience.
All. Peace, ho!
Ant. Moreover, he hath left you all his walks,
On this side Tiber; he hath left them you,
And to your heirs forever, common pleasures,
To walk abroad, and recreate yourselves.
Here was a C?sar! When comes such another?
1 Ple. Never, never!—Come, away, away!
We'll burn his body in the holy place,
And with the brands fire the traitors' houses.
Take up the body.
2 Ple. Go, fetch fire.
3 Ple. Pluck down benches.
4 Ple. Pluck down forms, windows, anything.[Exeunt Citizens, with the body.
To unify single, auditors80 into a crowd, express their common needs, aspirations82, dangers, and emotions, deliver your message so that the interests of one shall appear to be the interests of all. The conviction of one man is intensified83 in proportion as he finds others sharing his belief—and feeling. Antony does not stop with telling the Roman populace that C?sar fell—he makes the tragedy universal:
Then I, and you, and all of us fell down,
Whilst bloody treason flourished over us.
Applause, generally a sign of feeling, helps to unify an audience. The nature of the crowd is illustrated84 by the contagion85 of applause. Recently a throng86 in a New York moving-picture and vaudeville87 house had been applauding several songs, and when an advertisement for tailored skirts was thrown on the screen some one started the applause, and the crowd, like sheep, blindly imitated—until someone saw the joke and laughed; then the crowd again followed a leader and laughed at and applauded its own stupidity.
Actors sometimes start applause for their lines by snapping their fingers. Some one in the first few rows will mistake it for faint applause, and the whole theatre will chime in.
An observant auditor81 will be interested in noticing the various devices a monologist88 will use to get the first round of laughter and applause. He works so hard because he knows an audience of units is an audience of indifferent critics, but once get them to laughing together and each single laugher sweeps a number of others with him, until the whole theatre is aroar and the entertainer has scored. These are meretricious89 schemes, to be sure, and do not savor90 in the least of inspiration, but crowds have not changed in their nature in a thousand years and the one law holds for the greatest preacher and the pettiest stump-speaker—you must fuse your audience or they will not warm to your message. The devices of the great orator may not be so obvious as those of the vaudeville monologist, but the principle is the same: he tries to strike some universal note that will have all his hearers feeling alike at the same time.
The evangelist knows this when he has the soloist91 sing some touching song just before the address. Or he will have the entire congregation sing, and that is the psychology of "Now everybody sing!" for he knows that they who will not join in the song are as yet outside the crowd. Many a time has the popular evangelist stopped in the middle of his talk, when he felt that his hearers were units instead of a molten mass (and a sensitive speaker can feel that condition most depressingly) and suddenly demanded that everyone arise and sing, or repeat aloud a familiar passage, or read in unison92; or perhaps he has subtly left the thread of his discourse93 to tell a story that, from long experience, he knew would not fail to bring his hearers to a common feeling.
These things are important resources for the speaker, and happy is he who uses them worthily94 and not as a despicable charlatan95. The difference between a demagogue and a leader is not so much a matter of method as of principle. Even the most dignified96 speaker must recognize the eternal laws of human nature. You are by no means urged to become a trickster on the platform—far from it!—but don't kill your speech with dignity. To be icily correct is as silly as to rant97. Do neither, but appeal to those world-old elements in your audience that have been recognized by all great speakers from Demosthenes to Sam Small, and see to it that you never debase your powers by arousing your hearers unworthily.
It is as hard to kindle98 enthusiasm in a scattered99 audience as to build a fire with scattered sticks. An audience to be converted into a crowd must be made to appear as a crowd. This cannot be done when they are widely scattered over a large seating space or when many empty benches separate the speaker from his hearers. Have your audience seated compactly. How many a preacher has bemoaned100 the enormous edifice101 over which what would normally be a large congregation has scattered in chilled and chilling solitude102 Sunday after Sunday! Bishop103 Brooks104 himself could not have inspired a congregation of one thousand souls seated in the vastness of St. Peter's at Rome. In that colossal105 sanctuary106 it is only on great occasions which bring out the multitudes that the service is before the high altar—at other times the smaller side-chapels are used.
Universal ideas surcharged with feeling help to create the crowd-atmosphere. Examples: liberty, character, righteousness, courage, fraternity, altruism107, country, and national heroes. George Cohan was making psychology practical and profitable when he introduced the flag and flag-songs into his musical comedies. Cromwell's regiments108 prayed before the battle and went into the fight singing hymns109. The French corps62, singing the Marseillaise in 1914, charged the Germans as one man. Such unifying devices arouse the feelings, make soldiers fanatical mobs—and, alas, more efficient murderers.
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1
touching
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| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
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unify
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| vt.使联合，统一；使相同，使一致 | |
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patriotism
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| n.爱国精神，爱国心，爱国主义 | |
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pervasive
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| adj.普遍的；遍布的，(到处)弥漫的；渗透性的 | |
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unified
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| (unify 的过去式和过去分词)； 统一的； 统一标准的； 一元化的 | |
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psychology
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| n.心理，心理学，心理状态 | |
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entity
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| n.实体，独立存在体，实际存在物 | |
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subdue
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| vt.制服，使顺从，征服；抑制，克制 | |
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dictates
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| n.命令，规定，要求( dictate的名词复数 )v.大声讲或读( dictate的第三人称单数 )；口授；支配；摆布 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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repudiate
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| v.拒绝，拒付，拒绝履行 | |
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tickle
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| v.搔痒，胳肢；使高兴；发痒；n.搔痒，发痒 | |
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catching
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| adj.易传染的，有魅力的，迷人的，接住 | |
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utterance
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| n.用言语表达，话语，言语 | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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psalms
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| n.赞美诗( psalm的名词复数 )；圣诗；圣歌；(中的) | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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thongs
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| 的东西 | |
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clement
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| adj.仁慈的；温和的 | |
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frenzy
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| n.疯狂，狂热，极度的激动 | |
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uprooted
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| v.把（某物）连根拔起( uproot的过去式和过去分词 )；根除；赶走；把…赶出家园 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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persuasion
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| n.劝说；说服；持有某种信仰的宗派 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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redeem
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| v.买回，赎回，挽回，恢复，履行（诺言等） | |
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speculative
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| adj.思索性的，暝想性的，推理的 | |
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premium
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| n.加付款；赠品；adj.高级的；售价高的 | |
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speculation
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| n.思索，沉思；猜测；投机 | |
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promulgated
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| v.宣扬（某事物）( promulgate的过去式和过去分词 )；传播；公布；颁布（法令、新法律等） | |
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frenzied
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| a.激怒的；疯狂的 | |
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unifies
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| 使联合( unify的第三人称单数 )； 使相同； 使一致； 统一 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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autocracy
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| n.独裁政治，独裁政府 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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gatherings
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| 聚集( gathering的名词复数 )； 收集； 采集； 搜集 | |
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transmute
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| vt.使变化，使改变 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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unifying
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| 使联合( unify的现在分词 )； 使相同； 使一致； 统一 | |
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potencies
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| n.威力( potency的名词复数 )；权力；效力；（男人的）性交能力 | |
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eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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oration
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| n.演说，致辞，叙述法 | |
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interred
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| v.埋，葬( inter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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ransoms
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| 付赎金救人，赎金( ransom的名词复数 ) | |
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spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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withholds
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| v.扣留( withhold的第三人称单数 )；拒绝给予；抑制（某事物）；制止 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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coffin
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| n.棺材，灵柩 | |
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plebeian
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| adj.粗俗的；平民的；n.平民；庶民 | |
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abide
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| vi.遵守；坚持；vt.忍受 | |
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reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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54
testament
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| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
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55
legacy
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| n.遗产，遗赠；先人(或过去)留下的东西 | |
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inflame
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| v.使燃烧；使极度激动；使发炎 | |
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dagger
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| n.匕首，短剑，剑号 | |
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58
daggers
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| 匕首，短剑( dagger的名词复数 ) | |
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traitors
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| 卖国贼( traitor的名词复数 )； 叛徒； 背叛者； 背信弃义的人 | |
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traitor
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| n.叛徒，卖国贼 | |
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61
villains
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| n.恶棍( villain的名词复数 )；罪犯；（小说、戏剧等中的）反面人物；淘气鬼 | |
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corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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63
corpse
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| n.尸体，死尸 | |
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64
descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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65
nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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66
mantle
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| n.斗篷，覆罩之物，罩子；v.罩住，覆盖，脸红 | |
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envious
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| adj.嫉妒的，羡慕的 | |
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ingratitude
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| n.忘恩负义 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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muffling
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| v.压抑，捂住( muffle的现在分词 )；用厚厚的衣帽包着（自己） | |
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dint
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| n.由于，靠；凹坑 | |
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behold
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| v.看，注视，看到 | |
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alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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orator
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| n.演说者，演讲者，雄辩家 | |
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75
ruffle
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| v.弄皱，弄乱；激怒，扰乱；n.褶裥饰边 | |
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conspirators
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| n.共谋者，阴谋家( conspirator的名词复数 ) | |
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orchards
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| （通常指围起来的）果园( orchard的名词复数 ) | |
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mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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wilt
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| v.(使)植物凋谢或枯萎；(指人)疲倦，衰弱 | |
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auditors
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| n.审计员，稽核员( auditor的名词复数 )；（大学课程的）旁听生 | |
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auditor
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| n.审计员，旁听着 | |
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82
aspirations
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| 强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音 | |
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intensified
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| v.（使）增强， （使）加剧( intensify的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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illustrated
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| adj. 有插图的，列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词 | |
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85
contagion
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| n.(通过接触的疾病)传染；蔓延 | |
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86
throng
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| n.人群，群众；v.拥挤，群集 | |
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87
vaudeville
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| n.歌舞杂耍表演 | |
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monologist
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| n.独白者，自言自语者 | |
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meretricious
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| adj.华而不实的，俗艳的 | |
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savor
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| vt.品尝，欣赏；n.味道，风味；情趣，趣味 | |
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soloist
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| n.独奏者，独唱者 | |
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unison
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| n.步调一致，行动一致 | |
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discourse
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| n.论文，演说；谈话；话语；vi.讲述，著述 | |
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worthily
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| 重要地，可敬地，正当地 | |
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charlatan
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| n.骗子；江湖医生；假内行 | |
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dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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rant
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| v.咆哮；怒吼；n.大话；粗野的话 | |
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98
kindle
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| v.点燃，着火 | |
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99
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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bemoaned
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| v.为（某人或某事）抱怨( bemoan的过去式和过去分词 )；悲悼；为…恸哭；哀叹 | |
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101
edifice
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| n.宏伟的建筑物(如宫殿，教室) | |
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102
solitude
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| n. 孤独; 独居,荒僻之地,幽静的地方 | |
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103
bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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104
brooks
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| n.小溪( brook的名词复数 ) | |
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105
colossal
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| adj.异常的，庞大的 | |
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106
sanctuary
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| n.圣所，圣堂，寺庙；禁猎区，保护区 | |
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107
altruism
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| n.利他主义，不自私 | |
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108
regiments
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| （军队的）团( regiment的名词复数 )； 大量的人或物 | |
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hymns
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| n.赞美诗，圣歌，颂歌( hymn的名词复数 ) | |
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