CHAPTER IX. THE CLERGY AND MONKS.

 The almost total absence of documentary evidence leaves us in great doubt as to the condition of the church in England previous to the organization brought about by Theodore. It is nevertheless probable that it followed in all essential points the course which characterized other missionary³ establishments. The earliest missionaries⁴ were for the most part monks⁷; but Augustine was accompanied by clerics also[902], and in every case the conversion⁸ of a district was rapidly followed by the establishment of a cathedral or a corresponding ecclesiastical foundation. These were at first central stations, from which the assembled clergy⁹ sallied forth¹⁰ to visit the neighbouring villages and towns, and preach the tidings of salvation¹²: the necessities of daily provision, the attainment¹³ of greater security
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for their persons, the mutual¹⁴ aid and consolation¹⁵ in the perils¹⁶ and difficulties of their task, all supplied motives¹⁷ in favour of a cœnobitical mode of life: monks and clerics were confounded together through the circumstances of the adventure in which they shared; nay¹⁸ the very administration of those rites²⁰ by which the imagination of the heathen Saxons was so strongly worked upon, could only be conducted on a sufficiently²¹ imposing²² scale by an assemblage of ecclesiastics²⁴. To this must be added the protection to be derived²⁵ from settling on one spot, in the immediate²⁶ neighbourhood of a royal vill, and under the safeguard of the royal power: for though the residences of kings were rarely in cities, yet their proximity²⁷ offered much more secure guarantees than the outlying villages and clearings in the mark; even as the general tendencies of courtly life were likely to present fewer points of opposition²⁸ than the characteristic bigotry²⁹ of heathen, i. e. rural populations. This combination of circumstances probably led at an early period to that approximation between the modes of life of monks and clerks, which at the close of the eighth century Chrodogang succeeded in enforcing in his archbishopric of Metz, but which had been attempted four centuries earlier by Eusebius of Vercelli[903]. Both the Roman and Scottish missionaries
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followed the same plan, which indeed appears to be the natural one, and to have been generally adopted on all similar occasions, whether in ancient Germany, in Peru or in the most modern missions of Australia or New Zealand. In Beda’s Ecclesiastical History, which in these respects no doubt was founded upon ancient and contemporary records, we frequently read of prelates leaving their monasteries³² (by which general name churches as well as collections of monks are designated) to preach the Gospel and administer the rite¹⁹ of baptism in distant villages[904]. But this system had also
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inconveniences of no slight character; the distance of the converts from the church, the necessity for daily superintendence and continual exhortation³³ on the part of the preacher, the very danger and fatigue³⁴ of repeated journeys into rude, uncultivated parts of the country, must have soon forced upon
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the clergy the necessity of providing other machinery³⁵ than they as yet possessed³⁶. The multiplication³⁷ of centres of instruction was the first and greatest point to be ensured; whereby a more constant intercourse³⁹ between the neophyte⁴⁰ and the missionary might be attained⁴¹. This had long been secured in other countries by the appointment of single presbyters to reside in single districts, under the general direction of the bishop³⁰; or, where circumstances required it, by the settlement of several presbyters under an archipresbyter or archpriest, who was responsible for the conduct of his companions. And as the district of the bishop himself commonly went by the name of a diocese or parish, both these terms were applied⁴² to denote the smaller circuit within which the presbyter was expected to exert himself for the propagation of the faith, and the due performance of the established rites, and to perform such functions as had been entrusted⁴³ to the ministers of the faithful, for the better management of the ecclesiastical affairs of the congregation. The custom of the neighbouring countries of Gaul offered sufficient evidence of the practicability of such an arrangement, which had long been in use in older established churches: we may therefore readily suppose that so beneficial a system would be adopted with all convenient speed in England. As long as the possessions of the clergy were confined to a small plot whereon their church was built, and while they depended for support upon the contributions in kind which the rude piety⁴⁴ of their new converts bestowed⁴⁵, the
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bishops⁴⁶ could naturally not proceed to plant these clerical colonies of their own authority: though, as soon as they became masters of vills and manors⁴⁷ and estates of their own, they probably adopted the plan of sending single presbyters into them, partly to discharge the clerical duties of their station, partly to act as stewards⁴⁸, administrators⁴⁹ or bailiffs of the property, the proceeds of which were paid over to the episcopal church, and laid out at the discretion⁵⁰ of the bishop[905]. But the zeal³¹ of the people could here assist the benevolent⁵¹ objects of the clergy. The inconvenience of having a distance to traverse in order to attend the ministrations of religion, the desire to aid in the meritorious⁵² work of the conversion, the earnest hope to establish a peculiar⁵³ claim upon the favour of Heaven, nay perhaps even the less worthy⁵⁴ motives of vanity and ambition, disposed the landowner to raise a church upon his own estate for the use of himself and his surrounding tenants⁵⁵ or friends. From a very early period this disposition⁵⁶ was cultivated and encouraged;
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and the bishops relinquished⁵⁷ the patronage⁵⁸ of the church to the founder⁵⁹, reserving of course to themselves the canonical⁶⁰ subjection and consecration⁶¹ of the presbyter who was ordained⁶² to the title. During the seventh century this had become common in the Frankish empire, and Theodore followed, or introduced, the same rule in this country[906]. Whether under this influence or not, we find churches to have so arisen during his government of the English sees, whose sole archbishop he was. Beda incidentally mentions the dedication⁶³ by John of Beverley of churches, for Puch and Addi, two Northumbrian noblemen, and these were no doubt
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private foundations[907]. We still possess various regulations of Theodore, and of nearly contemporary prelates, which refer to such separate churches, proving how very general they had become, and how strictly⁶⁴ they required to be guarded against the avarice⁶⁵ or other unworthy motives of the founders⁶⁶, and the simoniacal practices both of priest and layman⁶⁷. In the thirty-eighth chapter of his Capitula[908] we find the following directions:—“Any presbyter who shall have obtained a parish by means of a price, is absolutely to be deposed⁶⁸, seeing that he is known to hold it contrary to the discipline of ecclesiastical rule. And likewise, he who shall by means of money have expelled a presbyter lawfully⁷¹ ordained to a church, and so have obtained it entirely⁷² for himself; which vice⁷³, so widely diffused⁷⁴, is to be remedied with the utmost zeal. Also it is to be forbidden both to clerks and laics, that no one shall presume to give any church whatever to
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a presbyter, without the licence and consent of the bishop.” These churches frequently were granted to abbeys or to the bishops themselves; and in the latter case they were served by priests especially appointed thereunto from the cathedral[909]. At this early period when tithes⁷⁵ were not demandable as matter of right, and when the founders of these churches were already betraying a tendency to speculate in church-building, by claiming for themselves the altare or produce of the voluntary oblations of the faithful, the bishops found it necessary to insist that every church should be endowed with a sufficient glebe or estate in land: the amount fixed⁷⁷ was one hide, equivalent to the estate of a single family, which, properly managed, would support the presbyter and his attendant clerks. Archbishop Ecgberht rules[910]: “Ut unicuique aecclesiae vel una mansa integra absque alio servitio attribuatur, et presbyteri in eis constituti non de decimis neque de oblationibus fidelium nec de domibus, neque de atriis vel hortis iuxta aecclesiam positis, neque de praescripta mansa, aliquod servitium faciant, praeter aecclesiasticum: et si aliquod amplius habuerint, inde senioribus suis, secundum patriae morem, debitum servitium impendant.” And this regulation, though probably already established
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by custom, obtained the force of law in the Frankish empire, by a constitution of Hludwich in 816[911]. This glebe-land the bishop seems not to have been able to interfere⁷⁸ with, so as to alienate⁷⁹ it from the particular church, in favour of another, even when both churches were within his own subjection[912].
But although many churches may have arisen in this manner, a large proportion of which gradually found their way into the hands of bishops and abbots, and although these last may have erected⁸⁰ churches, as the necessities of the case demanded, in the various districts over which they exercised rights of property, the greater number of parish-churches (plebes, aecclesiae baptismales, tituli maiores) had probably a very different origin. It
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had been shown that in all likelihood every Mark had its religious establishment, its fanum, delubrum, or sacellum, as the Latin authors call them, its hearh, as the Anglosaxon no doubt designated them[913]; and further, that the priest or priests attached to these heathen churches had lands—perhaps freewill offerings too—for their support. It has also been shown that a well-grounded plan of turning the religio loci to account was acted upon by all the missionaries, and that wherever a substantial building was found in existence, it was taken possession of for the behoof of the new religion. Under such circumstances it would seem that nothing could be more natural than the establishment of a baptismal church in every independent mark that adopted Christianity, and that the substitution of one creed⁸² for the other not only did not require the abolition⁸³ of the old machinery, but would be much facilitated by retaining it. It is in this manner then that I understand the assertions of Beda and others, that certain missionary prelates established churches per loca, such churches being certainly not cathedrals[914] or abbey-churches.
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There cannot be the least reason to doubt that parish-churches were generally established in the time of Beda, less than half a century after the period to which most of the instances in the notes refer[915]: and it is not very probable that they were all owing to private liberality. In a similar manner probably arose the numerous parish-churches which before the close of the eighth century were founded, especially by the English missionaries, on the continent of Europe[916]. Thus in the seventh
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century in England the ecclesiastical machinery consisted of episcopal churches served by a body of clerks or monks,—sometimes united under the same rule, and a sufficient number of whom had the necessary orders of priests, deacons and the like; probably also churches served by a number of presbyters under the guidance of an archipresbyter or archpriest[917], bearing some resemblance to our later collegiate foundations; and numerous parish-churches established on the sites of the ancient fanes in the marks, or erected by the liberality of kings, bishops and other landowners on
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their own manorial⁸⁴ estates. The wealthy and powerful had also their own private chaplains, who performed the rites of religion in their oratories[918], and who even at this early period probably bore the name of handpreostas, by which in much later times they were distinguished⁸⁵ from the túnpreostas, village or parochial priests[919].
As early as the fifth century the fourth general council (Chalcedon, an. 451) had laid down the rule that the ecclesiastical and political establishments should be assimilated as much as possible[920]; and as the central power was represented by the
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metropolitans⁸⁷ and the bishops, so the subsidiary authorities had their corresponding functionaries⁸⁹ in the parish priests, priests of collegiate churches and their dependents. We possess a curious parallel drawn⁹⁰ by Walafrid Strabo in the earliest years of the ninth century, on this subject. In his book De Exordiis Rerum Aecclesiasticarum (cap. 31), he thus compares the civil and ecclesiastical polities: “Porro sicut comites quidam Missos suos praeponunt popularibus, qui minores causas determinent, ipsis maiora reservent, ita quidam episcopi chorepiscopos habent. Centenarii qui et centuriones et Vicarii, qui per pagos statuti sunt, Presbyteris Plebei, qui baptismales aecclesias tenent, et minoribus praesunt Presbyteris, conferri queunt. Decuriones et Decani, qui sub ipsis vicariis quaedam minora exercent, Presbyteris titulorum possunt comparari. Sub ipsis ministris centenariorum sunt adhuc minores qui Collectarii, Quaterniones, et Duumviri possunt appellari, qui colligunt populum, et ipso numero ostendunt se decanis esse minores. Sunt autem ista vocabula ab antiquitate mutuata,” etc[921].
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Both in spiritual and in temporal matters, the clergymen thus dispersed⁹³ over the face of the country were accountable to the bishop, whose vicars they were taken to be, that is to say, in whose place (“quorum⁹⁴ vice”) they performed their functions. The “presbyteri plebei” or parish priests had the administration of all the sacraments and rites, except those reserved to the bishop,—such for instance as confirmation⁹⁵, ordination⁹⁶, the consecration of churches, the chrism, and the like: these were denied them, but they could baptize, marry, bury, and administer the communion. And gradually, as matter of convenience, they were invested with the internal jurisdiction⁹⁷, as it was called,—the “iurisdictio fori interni,”—that is to say confession⁹⁸, penance⁹⁹ and absolution, but solely¹⁰⁰ as representatives and vicars of the bishop[922].
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It was this gradual extension of the powers of the presbyter that destroyed the distinction between the collegiate churches served by the archpriest and his clergy, and the church in which a single presbyter administered the daily rites of religion. The word parochia which at first had been properly confined to the former churches, became generally applied to the latter, when the difference between their spiritual privileges entirely vanished.
In the theory of the early church, the whole district subject to the rule of the bishop formed but one integral mass: the parochial clergy even in spirituals were but the bishop’s ministers or vicars, and in temporals they were accountable to him for every gain which accrued¹⁰¹ to the church. This he was to distribute at his own discretion; it is true that there were canons of the church which in some degree regulated his conduct, and probably the presbyters of his cathedral, his witan or council, did not neglect to offer their advice on so interesting a subject. To him it belonged to assign the funds for the support of the parochial clergy, out of the
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share which was commanded to be set apart for the sustenance¹⁰² of the ministers of the altar: to him also it belonged to apportion¹⁰³ the share which was directed to be applied to the repairs of the fabric¹⁰⁴ of the churches in his diocese; and he also had the immediate distribution of that portion which was devoted¹⁰⁵ to the charitable purposes of relieving the poor and ransoming¹⁰⁶ the enslaved,—a noble privilege, more valuable in rude days like those than in our civilized¹⁰⁷ age it could be, even had the sacrilegious hand of time not removed it from among the jewels of the mitre.
Occasionally, no doubt, the parochial clergy, though supported by their glebe-lands, had reason to complain that the hospitality or charity of the bishop, exceeding the bounds of the canonical division, left them but an insufficient¹⁰⁸ remuneration for their services: and more than one council found it useful to impress upon the prelate the claims of his less fortunate or deserving brethren[923]: but on the whole there can be little question that piety on the one hand and superstition¹⁰⁹ on the other combined to supply an ample fund for the support of the clerical body; and that what with free-will offerings, grants of lands, fines, rents, tithes, compulsory¹¹⁰
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contributions, and the sums paid in commutation of penance, the clergy in England were at all times provided not only with the means of comfort, but even with wealth and splendour. The sources and nature of ecclesiastical income will form the subject of a separate chapter.
As a body the clergy in England were placed very high in the social scale: the valuable services which they rendered to their fellow-creatures,—their dignity as ministers and stewards of the mysteries of the faith,—lastly the ascetical course of life which many of them adopted, struck the imagination and secured the admiration¹¹² of their rude contemporaries. At first too, they were honourably¹¹³ distinguished by the possession of arts and learning, which could be found in no other class; and although the most celebrated¹¹⁴ of their commentaries upon the Biblical books or the works of the Fathers, do not now excite in us any very great feelings of respect, they must have had a very different effect upon our simple progenitors¹¹⁵. Whatever state of ignorance the body generally may have fallen into in the ninth and tenth centuries, the seventh and eighth had produced men famous in every part of Europe for the soundness and extent of their learning. To them England owed the more accurate calculations which enabled the divisions of times and seasons to be duly settled; the decency¹¹⁶, nay even splendour, of the religious services were maintained by their skilful¹¹⁷ arrangement; painting, sculpture and architecture were made familiar through their efforts, and the best examples of these civilising arts were
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furnished by their churches and monasteries: it is probable that their lands in general supplied the best specimens¹¹⁸ of cultivation¹¹⁹, and that the leisure of the cloister¹²⁰ was often bestowed in acquiring the art of healing, so valuable in a rude state of society, liable to many ills which our more fortunate period could, with ordinary care, escape[924]. Their manuscripts yet attract our attention by the exquisite¹²¹ beauty of the execution; they were often skilled in music, and other pursuits which at once delight and humanise us. To them alone could resort be had for even the little instruction which the noble and wealthy coveted¹²²: they were the only schoolmasters[925]; and those who yet preserve the affectionate regard which grows up between a generous boy and him to whom he owed his earliest intellectual
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training, can judge with what force such motives acted in a state of society so different from our own. Moreover the intervention¹²³ of the clergy in many most important affairs of life was almost incessant¹²⁴. Marriage—that most solemn of all the obligations which the man and the citizen can contract—was celebrated under their superintendence: without the instruments which they prepared no secure transfer of property could be made; and as arbitrators or advisers¹²⁵, they were resorted to for the settlement of disputed right, and the avoidance of dangerous litigation. Lastly, although during the Anglosaxon period we nowhere find them putting forward that shocking claim to consideration which afterwards became so common—the being makers¹²⁶ of their Creator in the sacrament of the Eucharist,—we cannot doubt that their calling was supposed to confer a peculiar holiness upon them; or that the hád, the orders, they received, were taken to remove them from the class of common Christians¹²⁷ into a higher and more sacred sphere.
Great privileges were accordingly given to them in a social point of view. They enjoyed a high wergyld, an increased mundbyrd, and a distinguished secular¹²⁸ rank. The weofodþegn or servant of the altar who duly performed his important
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functions, was reckoned on the same footing as the secular thane, woroldþegn, who earned nobility and wealth in the service of an earthly master. The oaths of a priest or deacon were of more force than those of a free man; and it was rendered easier for them to rebut¹²⁹ accusations¹³⁰ by the aid of their clerical compurgators, than for the simple ceorl or even þegn, and his gegyldan.
It was nevertheless a wise provision that their privileges should not extend so far as to remove them entirely from participation¹³¹ in the general interests of their countrymen, or make them aliens from the obligations which the Anglosaxon state imposed upon all its members. Personal privileges they enjoyed, like other distinguished members of the body politic⁸⁶, as long as their conduct individually was such as to merit them; but they were not cut off entirely from the common burthens or the common advantages: and this will not unsatisfactorily explain the immunity¹³² which England long enjoyed, from struggles by which other European states—and in later periods even our own—were convulsed to their foundations. In their cathedrals and conventual churches, or scattered¹³³ through the parishes over all the surface of the land, but sharing in the interests of all classes, they acted as a body of mediators between the strong and the weak, repressing the violent, consoling and upholding the sufferer, and offering even to the despairing serf the hope of a future rest from misery¹³⁴ and subjection.
On the first establishment of conventual bodies
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we have seen that a complete immunity had been granted from the secular services to which all other lands were liable[926]; but that the inconvenience of this course soon led to its abandonment. It is difficult to say whether this immunity was at any time extended to the hide, “mansus aecclesiasticus,” or “dos aecclesiae” of the parish-church: it is on the contrary probable that it never was so extended; for no hint of the sort occurs in our own annals or charters; and it is well known that the church lands among the neighbouring Franks were subject, like those of the laity¹³⁵, to the burthens of the state[927]. From every hide which passed into clerical hands, the king could to the very last demand the inevitable¹³⁶ dues, military service, repairs of roads and fortifications; and though it is not likely that the parish priest was called upon to serve in person, it is also not likely that he was excused the payment of his quota¹³⁷ toward the arming and support of a substitute in the field[928].
Nor did the legislation of the Teutonic nations contemplate¹³⁸ the withdrawal¹³⁹ of the clergy from the authority of the secular tribunals. The sin of the
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clergyman might indeed be punished in the proper manner by his ecclesiastical superior: penance and censure¹⁴⁰ might be inflicted¹⁴¹ by the bishop upon his delinquent¹⁴² brother; but the crime of the citizen was reserved for the cognizance of the state[929].
This had been the custom of the Franks, even while they permitted the clergy, who belonged to the class of Roman provincials¹⁴⁴, to be judged by the Roman law[930]: it was for centuries the practice
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in England, and would probably so have remained had the error of the Conqueror¹⁴⁵ in separating the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions¹⁴⁶ not prepared the way for the troublous times of the Henries and Edwards. In the case of manslaughter, Ælfred commands that the priest shall be secularised before he is delivered for punishment to the ordinary tribunals[931]: Æðelred[932] and Cnut[933] decree that he is to be secularised, to become an outlaw¹⁴⁷ and abjure¹⁴⁸ the realm, and do such penance as the Pope shall prescribe; and they extend this penalty to other grievous offences besides homicide. Eádweard the elder enacts¹⁴⁹ that if a man in orders steal, fight, perjure¹⁵⁰ himself or be unchaste, he shall be subject to the same penalties as the laity under the same circumstances would be, and to his canonical penance besides[934]. But the plainest evidence that the clergy, even including the most dignified¹⁵² of their body, were held to answer before the ordinary courts, is supplied by the many provisions in the laws as to the mode of conducting their trials[935]. It could not indeed be otherwise in a country where every offence was to be tried by the people themselves.
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But the most effectual mode of separating the clergy from the other members of the church yet remains¹⁵³ to be considered. He that is permitted to contract marriage, to enjoy the inestimable blessings¹⁵⁴ of a home, to connect himself with a family, and give the state dear pledges of his allegiance, can never cease to be a citizen of that polity in which his lot is cast. He can be no alien, no machine to be put in motion by foreign force. Accordingly, although the celibacy¹⁵⁵ of the clergy is a mere¹⁵⁶ point of discipline (and could therefore be dispensed¹⁵⁷ with at once were it desired[936]), it has always been pertinaciously¹⁵⁸ insisted upon by those whose interest it was to destroy the national feeling of the clergy in every country, and render them subservient¹⁵⁹ to one centralising power. It is fitting that we enquire¹⁶⁰ how far this was attempted in England, and how far the attempt succeeded.
The perilous¹⁶¹ position of the early Christians, and especially of the clergy, rendered it at least matter of prudence¹⁶² that they should not contract the obligation of family bonds which must prove a serious
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hindrance¹⁶³ to the performance of their duties. It is therefore easily conceivable that marriage should in the first centuries have been discouraged among the members of this particular class. There was also a tendency among the eastern Christians to engraft upon the doctrines¹⁶⁴ of the faith, those peculiar metaphysical notions which seem always to have characterized the oriental modes of thought. The antagonism¹⁶⁵ of spirit and matter, the degraded—nay even diabolical[937]—nature of the latter, and the duty of emancipating¹⁶⁶ the spiritual portion of our being from its trammels, were quite as prominent doctrines of some Christian⁸¹ communities, as of the Brahman or Buddhist¹⁶⁷. The holiness of the priest would, it was thought, be contaminated by his union with a wife; and thus from a combination of circumstances which in themselves had no necessary connexion, an opinion came to prevail that a state of celibacy was the proper one for the ministers of the sacraments. It was at first recommended, and then commanded, that those who wished to devote themselves to the especial service of the church, should not contract the bond of marriage. Even the married citizen who accepted orders was admonished¹⁶⁹ to separate himself from the society of his wife: and both were taught that a life of continence for the future would be an acceptable offering in the sight of God. It seems unnecessary to
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dilate¹⁷⁰ upon the fallacy of these views, or to point out the gross and degrading materialism¹⁷¹ on which they are ultimately based. The historian, while he laments¹⁷², must to the best of his power record the aberrations¹⁷⁴ of human intelligence, under his inevitable conditions of place and time.
It is uncertain at what period this restriction¹⁷⁵ was first attempted to be enforced in the Western Church, but there are early councils which notice the existence of a strong feeling on the subject[938]. In the year 376 a Gallic synod excommunicated those who should refuse the ministrations of a priest on the ground of his marriage[939]. But this can only prove that at the time there were married priests, whether living in continence or not, and that certain persons were scandalized at them. I cannot admit, as some authors have done, that the Council intended to make such marriages legal; on the contrary, it seems to me that the intention of the canon is merely to assert the validity of the sacraments, however unworthy might be the person by whom they were administered[940].
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But restrictions¹⁷⁶ which wound the natural feelings of men are vain: popes and councils may decree, but they cannot enforce obedience¹⁷⁷, and it seems to me that on this particular subject they never entirely succeeded in carrying out their views. All they did was to convert a holy and a blessed connexion into one of much lower character, and to throw the doors wide open to immorality¹⁷⁸ and scandal. The efforts of Boniface in Germany were particularly directed to this point[941], and his biographer
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tells us on more than one occasion of his success in destroying the influence of married priests. But it may be questioned whether the same result attended the efforts of the Roman missionaries in England. It seems to me, on the contrary, that we have an almost unbroken chain of evidence to show that, in spite of the exhortations¹⁷⁹ of the bishops,
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and the legislation of the witan, those at least of the clergy who were not bound to cœnobitical order, did contract marriage, and openly rear the families which were its issue. From Eddius we learn that Wilfrið bishop of York, one of the staunchest supporters of Romish views, had a son[942]; he does not indeed say that this son was born in wedlock¹⁸⁰, nor does any author directly mention Wilfrið’s marriage: but we may adopt this view of the matter, as the less scandalous of two alternatives, and as rendered probable by the absence of all accusations which might have been brought against the bishop on this score by any one of his numerous enemies. In a charter of emancipation¹⁸¹ we find among the witnesses, Ælfsige the priest and his son[943]: by another document a lady grants a church hereditarily¹⁸² to Wulfmǽr the priest and his offspring, as long as he shall have any in orders[944], where a succession of married clergymen is obviously contemplated¹⁸³. Again we read of Godwine at Worðig bishop Ælfsige’s son[945], and of the son of Oswald a presbyter[946]. Under Eádweard the Confessor we are told of Robert the deacon and his
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son-in-law Richard Fitzscrob[947], and of Gódríc a son of the king’s chaplain Gódman[948].
It may no doubt be argued that in some of these instances the children may have been the issue of marriages contracted before the father entered into orders; but it is obvious that this was not the case with all of them, nor is there any proof that any were so. On the other hand we have evidence of married priests which it would be difficult to reject. Florence speaks of the newly born son of a certain presbytera, or priest’s wife[949]: I have already cited a passage from Simeon of Durham which distinctly mentions a married presbyter[950], about the year 1045: and the History of Ely records the wife and family of an archipresbyter in that town[951]. Lastly we are told over and over again that one principal cause for the removal of the canons or prebendaries from the cathedrals and collegiate churches by Æðelwold and Oswald was the contravention of their rule by marriage.
The frequent allusion¹⁸⁴ to this subject by the kings in various enactments¹⁸⁵, serve to show very clearly that the clergy would not submit to the restraint
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attempted to be enforced upon them. But we have a still more conclusive¹⁸⁶ evidence in the words of an episcopal charge delivered by archbishop Ælfric. He says, “Beloved, we cannot now compel you by force to observe chastity, but we admonish¹⁶⁸ you to observe it, as the ministers of Christ ought, and as did those holy men whom we have already mentioned, and who spent all their lives in chastity[952].” It is thus very clear that the clergy paid little regard to such admonishments, unsupported by secular penalties. In this, as perhaps in some other cases, the good sense and sound feeling of the nation struggled successfully against the authority of the Papal See. In fact, though spirituality were the pretext¹⁸⁷, a most abominable¹⁸⁸ slavery to materialism lies at the root of all the grounds on which the Roman prelates founded the justification¹⁸⁹ of their course. That they had ulterior objects in view may easily be surmised¹⁹⁰, though these may have been but dimly described and hesitatingly confessed, until Gregory the Seventh boldly and openly avowed¹⁹¹ them. Had the Roman church ventured to argue that the clergy ought to be separated entirely from the nation and the state, nay from humanity itself, for certain definite purposes and ends, it would at least have deserved the praise of candour; and much might have been alleged¹⁹² in favour of this view while the clergy were still strictly missionaries exposed to the perils and uncertainties¹⁹³ of a daily struggle. But, in an absurd idolatry of
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what was miscalled chastity, to proscribe¹⁹⁴ the noblest condition and some of the highest functions of man, was to set up a rule essentially¹⁹⁵ false, and literally¹⁹⁶ hold out a premium¹⁹⁷ to immorality; and so the more reflecting even of the clergy themselves admitted[953]. Whatever may have been the desire of the prelates, we may be certain that not only in England, but generally throughout the North of Europe, the clergy did enter into quasi-marriages; and as late as the thirteenth century, the priests in Norway replied to Gregory the Ninth by setting up the fact of uninterrupted custom[954].
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In addition to the clergy who either in their conventual or parochial churches administered the rites of religion to their flocks, very considerable monastic establishments existed from an early period in England. It is true that not every church which our historians call monasterium was really a monastic foundation, but many of them undoubtedly¹⁹⁸ were so; and it is likely that they supplied no small number of presbyters and bishops to the service of the church. The rule of St. Benedict was well established throughout the West long before Augustine set foot in Britain; and although monks are not necessarily clergymen, it is probable that many of the body in this country took holy orders. Like the clergy the monks were subject to the control of the bishop, and the abbots received consecration from the diocesan. Till a late period in fact, there is little reason to suppose that any English monastery¹⁹⁹ succeeded in obtaining exemption²⁰⁰ from episcopal visitation: though on the other hand it is probable that monasteries founded by powerful and wealthy laymen²⁰² did contrive²⁰³ practically to establish a considerable independence. This is the more conceivable, because we cannot doubt that a great difference did from the first exist between
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the rules adopted by various congregations of monks, or imposed upon them by their patrons and founders, until the time when greater familiarity with Benedict’s regulations, and the customs of celebrated houses, produced a more general conformity²⁰⁴.
One of the most disputed questions in Anglosaxon history is that touching²⁰⁵ the revival²⁰⁶ of monkery by Dúnstán and his partizans. Its supposed connexion with the tragical²⁰⁷ story of Eádwig, and the dismemberment of England by Eádgár, have lent it some of the attractions of romance; and by the monastic chroniclers in general, it has very naturally been looked upon as the greatest point in the progressive record of our institutions. Connected as it is with some of the most violent prejudices of our nature, political, professional and personal, it has not only obtained a large share of attention from ecclesiastical historians of all ages, but has been discussed with great eagerness, not to say acrimony, by those who differed in opinion as to the wisdom and justice of the revival itself. Yet it does not appear to me to have been brought to the degree of clearness which we should have expected from the skill and learning of those who have undertaken its elucidation²⁰⁹. Neither the share which Dúnstán took in the great revolution, nor the extent to which Æðelwold and Oswald succeeded in their plans, are yet satisfactorily settled; and great obscurity still hangs both over the manner and the effect of the change.
Few things in history, when carefully investigated,
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do really prove to have been done in a hurry. Sudden revolutions are much less common than we are apt to suppose, and fewer links than we imagine are wanting in the great chain of causes and effects. Could we place ourselves above the exaggerations of partizans, who hold it a point of honour to prove certain events to be indiscriminately right or indiscriminately wrong, we should probably find that the course of human affairs had been one steady and very gradual progression; the reputation of individual men would perhaps be shorn of part of its lustre²¹⁰; and though we should lose some of the satisfaction of hero-worship, we might more readily admit the constant action of a superintending providence²¹¹, operating without caprice through very common and every-day channels. But it would have been too much to expect an impartial²¹² account of the events which led to the reformation of the Benedictine order in England; like Luther in the fifteenth, Dúnstán must be made the principal figure in the picture of the tenth century: throughout all great social struggles the protagonist²¹³ stalks before us in gigantic stature,—glorious as an archangel, or terrible and hideous²¹⁴ as Satan.
The writers who arose shortly after the triumph of the Reformation have revelled²¹⁶ in this fruitful theme. The abuses of monachism,—not entirely forgotten at the beginning of the seventeenth century,—its undeniable faults, and the mischief²¹⁷ it entails²¹⁸ upon society,—judged with the exaggeration which unhappily seems inseparable from religious polemics²¹⁹, produced in every part of Europe a succession
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of violent and headlong attacks upon the institution and its patrons, which we can now more readily understand than excuse. But just as little can the calm, impartial judgment²²⁰ of the historian ratify²²¹ the indiscriminate praise which was lavished²²² by the Roman Catholics upon all whom the zeal of Protestants condemned²²³, the misrepresentations of fact by which they attempted to fortify²²⁵ their opinions, or the eager credulity which they showed when any tale, however preposterous²²⁶, appeared to support their particular objects. In later times the controversy²²⁷ has been renewed with greater decency of language, but not less zeal. The champion of protestantism is the Rev¹. Mr. Soames: Dr. Lingard takes up the gauntlet on behalf of his church. It is no intention of mine to balance their conflicting views as to the character and intentions of Dúnstán and his two celebrated coadjutors; these have been too deeply tinged²²⁸ by the ground-colour that lies beneath the outlines. But I propose to examine the facts upon which both parties seem agreed, though each may represent them variously in accordance with a favourite theory.
It admits of no doubt whatever that monachism, and monachism under the rule of St. Benedict, had been established at an early period in this country[955];
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but it is equally certain that the strict rule had very generally ceased to be maintained at the time
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when Dúnstán undertook its restoration. Many of the conventual churches had never been connected with monks at all; while among the various abbeys which the piety or avarice of individuals had founded, there were probably numerous instances where no rule had ever prevailed, but the caprice of the founders, who iure dominii imposed such regulations as their vanity suggested, or their industry gleaned²²⁹ from the established orders of Columba, Benedict, and other credited authorities[956]. The
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chapters, whatever their origin, had in process of time slid into that easy and serene²³⁰ state of secular canons, which we can still contemplate in the venerable precincts of cathedral closes. The celibacy of the clergy had not been maintained: and even in the collegiate churches the presbyter and prebendaries had permitted themselves to take wives, which could never have been contemplated even by those who would have looked with indulgence upon that connexion on the part of parish priests. Moreover in many places, wealthy ease, power, a dignified and somewhat irresponsible position had produced their natural effect upon the canons, some of whom were connected with the best families of the state; so that, in spite of all the deductions²³¹ which must be made for exaggeration on the part of the monkish²³² writers, we cannot deny that many instances of profligacy²³³ and worldly-mindedness
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did very probably disgrace the clerical profession. It would be strange indeed if what has taken place in every other age and country should have been unexampled only among the Anglosaxons of the ninth and tenth centuries, or that their monks and clergy should have enjoyed a monopoly of purity, holiness and devotion to duty[957].
As we have seen already, it was only towards the end of the eighth century that Chrodogang introduced a cœnobitical mode of life in the cathedral of his archdiocese. Long before this time the great majority of our churches had been founded; and among them some may possibly from the first have been served by clergymen resident in their own detached houses, and who merely met at stated hours to perform their duties in the choir²³⁴, living at other times apart upon their præbenda or allowances from the general fund. But some of the cathedrals had been founded in connexion with abbeys; and it is probable that a majority of these great establishments were provided with some Rule of life, and demanded a cœnobitical though not strictly monastic habit. This is too frequently alluded²³⁵ to by the prelates of the seventh century, not to be admitted. But whatever may have been the
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details in different establishments, we may be certain that residence, temperance, soberness, chastity, and a strict attendance upon the divine services were required by the Rule of every society. Unfortunately these are restrictions and duties which experience proves to have been sometimes neglected; nor can we find any great improbability in the assertion of the Saxon Chronicle, that the canons of Winchester would hold no rule at all[958]; or in the accusations brought against them in the Annals of Winchester[959], and in Wulfstán’s Life of Æðelwold[960], of violating every one of their obligations. I do not see any reason to doubt the justice of the charge made against some of their body by the last-named author, of having deserted²³⁶ the wives they had taken, and living in open and scandalous disregard of morality as well as canonical restraint. Wulfstán very likely made the most of his facts, but it is to be remembered that he was an eye-witness; and it is improbable that he should have been indebted exclusively to his invention for charges so boldly made, so capable of being readily brought to the test, and containing in truth nothing
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repugnant to our experience of human nature. The canons of Winchester, many of whom were highly connected, wealthy beyond those of most other foundations, and established in the immediate vicinity of the royal court, may possibly have been more than ordinarily neglectful of their duties[961]; and they do appear in fact to have been treated in a much more summary way than the prebendaries of other cathedrals; yet perhaps not with strict justice, unless it can be shown that Winchester was ever a monastic establishment, which, previous to Æðelwold, I do not remember it to have been. Lingard who would have gratefully accepted any evidence against the canons in the other cathedrals, confines himself to Winchester; yet it strikes one as some confirmation of the general charge, even against their brethren at Worcester, that among the signatures to their charters so few are those of deacons and presbyters, till long after Oswald’s appointment to the see. This, although the silence of their adversaries²³⁷ allows us to acquit²³⁸ them of the irregularities laid to the charge of the canons at Winchester, may lead us to infer that they were
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not scrupulously²³⁹ diligent²⁴⁰ in fulfilling the duties of their calling.
We cannot feel the least surprise that Dúnstán desired to reform the state of the church. The peculiar circumstances of his early years, even the severe mental struggles which preceded and explain his adoption²⁴¹ of the monastic career, were eminently²⁴² calculated to train him for a Reviver; and Revival was the fashion of his day. Arnold earl of Flanders[962] had lent himself with the utmost zeal to the reform of the Benedictine abbeys in his territory, and they were the models selected for imitation, or as schools of instruction, by other lands, especially England so closely connected with Flanders by commerce and the alliances of the reigning²⁴³ houses[963].
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Yet with it all, Dúnstán does not appear to have taken a very prominent part in the proceedings²⁴⁴ of the friends of monachism,—certainly not the prominent part taken by Oswald or Æðelwold, the last of whom merited the title of the “Father of Monks,” by the attention he paid to their interests. In the archbishop’s own cathedral at Canterbury, the canons were left in undisturbed possession of their property and dignity, nor were monks introduced there by archbishop Ælfríc till some years after Dúnstán’s death. And even this measure, although supported by papal authority[964], was not final: it was only in the time of Lanfranc that the monks obtained secure possession of Christchurch. Dúnstán very probably continued throughout his life to be a favourer of the Order, and merited its gratitude²⁴⁵ by giving it valuable countenance²⁴⁶ and substantial protection against violence. But he was assuredly not himself a violent disturber, casting all things divine and human into confusion for the sake of a system of monkery. His recorded conduct shows nothing of the kind. I believe his monkish and very vulgar-minded panegyrists to have done his character and memory great wrong in this respect; and that they have measured the distinguished statesman by the narrow gauge²⁴⁷ of their own intelligence and desire. Troublous no doubt were his commencements; and in the days of his misery, while his mind yet tossed
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and struggled among the awful abysses of an unfathomed sea in the fierce conflicts of his ascetic¹¹¹ retirement²⁴⁸, where the broken heart sought rest and found it not, he may have given credence²⁴⁹ himself to what he considered supernatural visitations vouchsafed²⁵⁰, and powers committed, to him. But when time had somewhat healed his wounds, when the first difficulties of his political life were surmounted²⁵¹, and he ruled England,—nominally as the minister of Eádgár, really as the leader of a very powerful party among the aristocracy,—there can be little doubt that the spirit of compromise, which always has been the secret of our public life, produced its necessary effect upon himself. Dúnstán was neither Richelieu nor Mazarin, but the servant of a king who wielded²⁵³ very limited powers; he had first attained his throne through a revolt, the pretext for which was his brother’s bad government, and its justification,—the consequent right of the people to depose⁶⁹ him. Whatever may have been the archbishop’s private leaning, he appears to have conducted himself with great discretion, and to have very skilfully²⁵⁴ maintained the peace between the two embittered²⁵⁵ factions²⁵⁷; he perhaps encouraged Eádgár to manifest his partiality for monachism by the construction or reform of abbeys; he probably supported Oswald and Æðelwold by his advice, and by preventing them from being illegally interfered²⁵⁸ with in the course of their lawful⁷⁰ actions; but as prime minister of England, he maintained the peace as well for one as for the other, and there is no evidence that any measure
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of violence or spoliation took place by his connivance²⁵⁹ or consent. Neither the nation, nor the noble families whose scions²⁶⁰ found a comfortable provision and sufficient support in the prebends, would have looked calmly upon the unprovoked destruction of rights sanctioned by prescription²⁶¹. But there is indeed no reason to believe that violent measures were resorted to in any of the establishments, to bring about the changes desired. Even in Winchester, where more compulsion seems to have been used than anywhere else, the evicted²⁶² canons were provided with pensions. I strongly suspect that in fact they did retain during their lives the prebends which could not legally be taken from them, though they might be expelled from the cathedral service and the collegiate buildings; and that this is what the monkish writers veil under the report that pensions were assigned them.
Dr. Lingard has very justly observed that Oswald, with all his zeal, made no change whatever in his cathedral of York, which archdiocese he at one time held together with Worcester; and that, generally speaking, the new monasteries were either reared upon perfectly²⁶³ new ground, or on ancient foundations then entirely reduced to ruins[965]. With regard to Worcester, he says:—“Of Oswald we
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are told that he introduced monks in the place of clergymen into seven churches within his bishopric; but there is reason to believe that some of the seven were new foundations, and that in some of the others the change was effected with the full consent of the canons themselves. In his cathedral he succeeded by the following artifice²⁶⁴. Having erected in its vicinity a new church to the honour of the Virgin²⁶⁵ Mary, he entrusted it to the care of a community of monks, and frequented it himself for the solemn celebration of mass. The presence of the bishop attracted that of the people; the ancient clergy saw their church gradually abandoned; and after some delay, Wensine, their dean, a man advanced in years and of unblemished character, took the monastic habit, and was advanced three years later to the office of prior. The influence of his example and the honour of his promotion²⁶⁶, held out a strong temptation to his brethren; till at last the number of canons was so diminished by repeated desertions, that the most wealthy of the churches of Mercia became without dispute or violence, by the very act of its old possessors, a monastery of Benedictine monks[966]. In what manner Oswald proceeded with the other churches we are ignorant; but in 971 he became archbishop of York, and though he held that high dignity during twenty years, we do not read that he introduced a single colony of monks or changed
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the constitution of a single clerical establishment, within the diocese. The reason is unknown.”
It might not unfairly be suggested either that the rights of the canons were too well established to be shaken, or that experience had changed his own mind as to the necessity of the alteration²⁶⁷. High station, active engagement with the details of business, increasing age, and a natural mutual respect which grows with better acquaintance, may have convinced Oswald that his youthful zeal had a little outrun discretion, and that the canons in his province and diocese were not so utterly²⁶⁸ devoid²⁶⁹ of claims to consideration as he once had imagined in his reforming fervour. But the reader of Anglosaxon history will not fail to have observed that the measured and in general fair tone of Dr. Lingard differs very widely from that of early monkish chroniclers, and that he himself attributes to Oswald a much less active interference than is asserted by many protestant historians. That he is right I do not for a moment doubt; for not only are the accounts of Oswald’s biographers inconsistent with one another, and improbable, but we have very strong evidence that the eviction²⁷⁰ of the canons from Worcester was not completed in Oswald’s lifetime. We possess no fewer than seventy-eight charters granted by his chapter, and these comprise several signed in 990 and 991, the years immediately preceding that in which he died[967]: these charters are signed in part by presbyters
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and deacons, in part by clerics, and there is but one signature of a monk⁶[968], though there are at least six clerici who subscribe²⁷¹. Although from an examination of the charters I entertain no doubt that several, if not all, the presbyters and deacons were monks, still it is clear that a number of the canons still retained their influence over the property of the chapter till within a few months of Oswald’s decease. This prelate came to his see in 960, and according to many accounts immediately replaced the canons of Worcester by monks: all agree that he lost no time about it, and Florence[969], himself a monk of that place, fixes his triumph in the year 969. Consistently with this we have a grant of that year[970], in which Wynsige the monk, and all the monks at Worcester are named: we have a similar statement[971] in another document of 974: and in subsequent charters monks are named. A good example occurs in a grant of the year 977, to which are appended the names of eight monks[972]: but coupled with these are also the names of sixteen clerics, exclusive of a presbyter and deacon of old standing²⁷², whom the chapter had probably caused to be ordained long
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before, to do the service for them. All at once the addition monachus to seven of these eight names vanishes, and is replaced by presbyter or diaconus. Henceforth the number of clerici gradually diminishes, but, as we have seen, is not entirely gone in 991, the year before Oswald’s death. I do not believe that the bishop had any power to expel the canons, and that he was compelled to let them remain where they were until they died: but he perhaps could prevent any but monks from being received in their places, and it is to be presumed that he could refuse to admit any but monks to priests’ and deacons’ orders. This, we may gather from the charters, was the plan he pursued; and when we consider the dignity and power possessed by the Anglosaxon priesthood, we shall confess that it was one which threw every advantage into the scale of monachism.
Had we similar means of enquiry, it is very probable that we should come to the same conclusion with regard to other establishments from which the canons are said to have been forcibly driven. However enough seems to have been said, to prove that we must be very careful how we trust to the random²⁷³ assertions of partizans either on one side or the other. Let us be ready to condemn²²⁴ ecclesiastical tyranny and arrogance²⁷⁴, wherever it is proved to have disgraced the clerical profession; but let us not forget that it is our duty to judge charitably. In the case which we have now considered, I think we shall be disposed to acquit
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some men, whose names fill a conspicuous²⁷⁵ place in Saxon history, of the violence and folly²⁷⁶ which their own over-zealous partizans have laid to their charge, and which have been used in modern times to embitter²⁵⁶ the separation unfortunately existing between two great bodies of Christians.

902. “Clerici extra sacros ordines constituti.” Beda, H. E. i. 27. Gregory contemplated the marriage and separate dwelling²⁷⁷ of these persons. But for a long time it is improbable that any such arrangement could take place. Augustine separated his monks from the canons who had accompanied him (the presbyters he was to obtain in the neighbouring countries of Gaul: see Gregory’s Epistles to Theodoric and Theodbert, and to Brunhild; Bed. Op. Min. ii. 234, 235), placing the latter in Christchurch, Canterbury. See Lingard, Ang. Sax. Church, i. 152, 153. But this sort of separation cannot have been always practicable. The Scottish missionaries were not all monks. Beda, H. E. iii. 3.
903. Neander, Gesch. der Relig. u. Kirche, i. 322; ii. 553. Lingard, Aug. Sax. Church, i. 150. Chrodogang’s institution is thus described by Paulus in his Gest. Episc. Mettens. “Hic clerum adunavit, et ad instar coenobii intra claustrorum septa conversari fecit, normamque eis instituit, qualiter in ecclesia militare deberent; quibus annonas vitaeque subsidia sufficienter largitus est, ut perituris vacare negotiis non indigentes, divinis solummodo officiis excubarent.” Pertz, ii. 268. Chrodogang’s rule is preserved in Labbé, Concil. vii. 1444. Harduin, Concil. iv. 1181. See Eichhorn, Deut. Staatsr. i. 760, § 179. It is in many respects similar to the rule of Benedict of Nursia, upon which it appears to have been modelled.
904. “Quadam autem die dum parochiam suam circuiens, monita salutis omnibus ruribus, casis et viculis largiretur, nec non etiam nuper baptizatis ad accipiendam Spiritus sancti gratiam manum imponeret,” etc. Beda, Vit. Cuthb. c. 29. This however is perhaps rather to be considered as an episcopal visitation. But there is abundant evidence that at first the custom was such as the text describes. It is said thus of Aidan, the Scottish bishop in Northumberland: “Erat in villa¹¹ regia non longe ab urbe de qua praefati sumus [i. e. Bamborough]. In hac enim habens aecclesiam et cubiculum, saepius ibidem diverti ac manere, atque inde ad praedicandum circumquaque exire consueverat: quod ipsum et in aliis villis regis facere solebat, utpote nil²⁷⁸ propriae possessionis, excepta aecclesia sua et adiacentibus agellulis, habens.” Beda, H. E. iii. 17. This was a small wooden church, and certainty never a cathedral. But the early custom of the Scottish church in Northumberland is further described by Beda: and one can only lament¹⁷³ that it was not much longer maintained: for his own words show that he is contrasting it with the custom of his own times, nearly a century later; he says: “Quantae autem parsimoniae, cuiusque continentiae fuerit ipse [i. e. Colman] cum praedecessoribus suis, testabatur etiam locus²⁷⁹ ille quem regebant, ubi abeuntibus eis, excepta aecclesia, paucissimae domus repertae sunt; hoc est, illae solummodo, sine quibus conversatio civilis esse nullatenus poterat. Nil pecuniarum absque pecoribus habebant. Si quid enim pecuniae a divitibus accipiebant, mox pauperibus dabant. Nam neque ad susceptionem potentium saeculi, vel pecunias colligi vel domus praevideri necesse fuit, qui nunquam ad aecclesiam nisi orationis tantum, et audiendi verbi Dei causa veniebant.... Tota enim fuit tunc solicitudo doctoribus illis Deo serviendi, non saeculo; tota cura cordis excolendi non ventris. Unde et in magna erat veneratione tempore illo religionis habitus; ita ut ubicunque clericus aliquis aut monachus adveniret, gaudentur ab omnibus tanquam Dei famulus exciperetur: etiam si in itinere pergens inveniretur, adcurrebant, et flexa cervice vel manu signari, vel ore illius se benedici gaudebant; verbis quoque horum exhortatoriis diligenter auditum praebebant. Set et diebus Dominicis ad aecclesiam, sive ad monasteria certatim, non reficiendi corporis, sed audiendi sermonis Dei gratia confluebant: et si quis sacerdotum in vicum forte²⁸⁰ deveniret, mox congregati in unum vicani, verbum vitae ab illo expetere curabant. Nam neque alia ipsis sacerdotibus aut clericis vicos adeundi, quam praedicandi, baptizandi, infirmos visitandi, et, ut breviter dicam, animas curandi causa fuit: qui in tantum erant ab omni avaritiae peste castigati, ut nemo territoria ac possessiones ad construenda monasteria, nisi a potentibus saeculi coactus acciperet. Quae consuetudo per omnia aliquanto post haec tempora in aecclesiis Nordanhymbrorum servata est.” Bed. H. E. iii. 26. Of Ceadda we learn that after his consecration as bishop of York, he was accustomed, “oppida, rura, casas, vicos, castella, propter evangelizandum, non equitando, sed apostolorum more pedibus incedendo peragrare.” Ibid. iii. 21. About the same period we learn from Beda, that Cuthbert used to make circuits for the purpose of preaching: “Erat quippe moris eo tempore populis Anglorum, ut veniente in villam clerico vel presbytero, cuncti ad eius imperium verbum audituri confluerent.” Ibid. iv. 27. The words eo tempore also show that in Beda’s time this custom was no longer observed, which is naturally explained by the existence of parish-churches. The custom of itinerant²⁸¹ preachers in the west of England is also noted²⁸² about the same period, viz. 680. “Cum vero aliqui, sicut illis regionibus moris est, praesbyteri sive clerici populares vel laicos praedicandi causa adiissent, et ad villam domumque praefati patrisfamilias venissent,” etc. Vit. Bonifac. Pertz, ii. 334.
905. If a bishop found it convenient to build a church out of his own diocese, the ecclesiastical authority remained to the bishop in whose diocese it was built. “Si quis episcopus in alienae civitatis territorio aecclesiam aedificare disponit, vel pro² agri sui aut aecclesiastici utilitate, vel quacunque sui opportunitate, permissa licentia, quia prohiberi hoc votum nefas est, non praesumat dedicationem, quae illi omnimodis reservanda est in cuius territorio aecclesia assurgit; reservata aedificatori episcopo hac gratia, ut quos desiderat clericos in re sua videre, ipsos ordinet is cuius territorium est; vel si iam ordinati sunt, ipsos habere acquiescat: et omnis aecclesiae ipsius gubernatio ad eum, in cuius civitatis territorio aecclesia surrexit, pertinebit. Et si quid ipsi aecclesiae fuerit ab episcopo conditore conlatum, is in cuius territorio est, auferendi exinde aliquid non habeat potestatem. Hoc solum aedificatori episcopo credidimus reservandum.” Concil. Arelat. iii. cap. xxxvi. A.D. 452.
906. Elmham says of Theodore:—“Hic excitavit fidelium voluntatem, ut in civitatibus et villis aecclesias fabricarentur, parochias distinguerent, et assensus regios his procuravit, ut siqui sufficientes essent, super proprium fundum construere aecclesias, eorundem perpetuo patronatu gauderent; si inter³⁸ limites alterius alicuius dominii aecclesias facerent, eiusdem fundi domini notarentur pro patronis.” Such churches had nevertheless at first not the full privileges of parish-churches. The twenty-first canon of the Council of Agda decreed: “Si quis etiam extra parochias, in quibus est legitimus ordinariusque conventus, oratorium in agro habere voluerit, reliquis festivitatibus, ut ibi missas teneat, propter fatigationem familiae, iusta ordinatione permittimus. Pascha vero, Natale Domini, Epiphania, Ascensionem Domini, Pentecosten, et Natalem sancti Johannis Baptistae, vel si qui maximi dies in festivitatibus habentur, non nisi in civitatibus, aut in parochiis teneant. Clerici vero, si qui in festivitatibus quas supradiximus, in oratoriis, nisi iubente aut permittente episcopo, missas facere aut tenere voluerint, a communione pellantur.”—Concil. Agathense, A.D. 506. cap. xxi. That there were at this period parish-churches in Gaul, served by a single presbyter, appears from other decisions usually attributed to this council, but really published by the Council of Albon, held eleven years later. They are in fact not found in the three oldest MSS. of the Concilium Agathense. “Diacones vel presbyteri in parochia constituti de rebus²⁸³ aecclesiae sibi creditis nihil audeant commutare, vendere vel donare, quia res sacratae Deo esse noscuntur.... Quicquid parochiarum presbyter de aecclesiastici iuris proprietate distraxerit, inane²⁸⁵ habeatur. Presbyter, dum diocesim tenet, de his quae emerit ad aecclesiae nomen scripturam faciat, aut ab eius quam tenuit aecclesiae ordinatione discedat.” Concil. Epaonense. A.D. 517. As late as the time of Eádgár a regulation was made in England as to the payment of tithe⁷⁶ by a landowner who happened to have a church with a churchyard upon his estate. “If there be any thane who has a church with a churchyard upon his bookland, let him give the third part of his tithe to his church. But if any one have a church that has no churchyard, let him give his priest what he will out of the nine parts,”—that is out of what remains after the payment of his tithe to the cathedral church. Eádg. i. § 2. Thorpe, i. 262. Probably there were many such churches in existence, which had descended²⁸⁶ together with the estates from the first founders, and whose owners could not agree with the ecclesiastical authorities as to their liabilities. The right of patronage was abused unfortunately at a very early period, both by clerics and laymen, as we learn abundantly from the decrees of the several provincial¹⁴³ councils.
907. Beda, Hist. Eccl. v. 4, 5.
908. Thorpe, ii. 73. Kunstmann, Poenit. p. 121.
909. As early as 587, I find a grant of a parish-church to the monastery of St. Peter at Lyons, by Gerart and his wife Gimbergia, on the ground of their daughter being professed²⁸⁷ there: “propterea cedimus et donamus nos vobis aliquid de rebus propriis iuris nostri ... hoc est ecclesia de Darnas cum decimis et parochia.” Bréquigny, Dipl. Chartar. i. 83. Bréquigny, Mabillon, and the editors of the Gallia Nova Christiana, all concur²⁸⁸ in recognising the genuineness of this charter.
910. Excerpt²⁸⁹. Ecgberhti, § 25. Thorpe, ii. 100.
911. “Volens etiam unamquamque aecclesiam habere proprios sumptus, ne per huiusmodi inopiam cultus negligerentur divini, inseruit praedicto edicto, ut super singulas aecclesias mansus tribueretur unus, cum pensatione legitima et servo et ancilla.” Vita Hludovici Imp²³. Pertz, ii. 622. The tenth chapter of Hludwich’s capitulary is drawn up in the same words as Ecgberht uses, with the sole exception of the Frankish mansus for the English mansa, and it is therefore probable that both drew from some common and early source; unless indeed we suppose that the Frankish clergy thought the English custom worthy of imitation. The proper name for this landed foundation is dos aecclesiae, or as it is called in the Langobardic law (lib. iii. tit. i. § 46), mansus aecclesiasticus. The result of this dotation is very evident in the next following chapter of the above-quoted capitulary, by which parish-churches are obviously intended. Cap. xi. “Statutum est ut, postquam hoc impletum fuerit, unaquaeque aecclesia suum Presbyterum habeat, ubi id fieri facultas providente episcopo permiserit.”
912. “Non licet abbati, neque episcopo, terram aecclesiae convertere ad aliam, quamvis ambae in potestate eius sint. Si mutare vult aecclesiae terram, cum consensu amborum sit. Si quis vult monasterium suum in alio loco ponere, cum concilio episcopi et fratrum suorum faciat, et dimittat in priorem locum presbyterum ad ministeria aecclesiae.” Capit. Theodori. Thorpe, ii. 64.
913. Besinga hearh, fanum Besingorum. Cod²⁹⁰. Dipl. No. 994.
914. For example, of the Scotch²⁹¹ missionaries about the year 635, Beda reports as follows: “Exin coepere plures per dies de Scottorum regione venire Brittaniam, atque illis Anglorum provinciis quibus regnavit rex Osuuald, magna devotione verbum fidei praedicare, et credentibus gratiam baptismi, quicumque sacerdotali erant gradu praediti, ministrare. Construebantur ergo aecclesiae per loca, confluebant ad audiendum verbum populi gaudentes, donabantur munere regis possessiones, et territoria ad instituenda monasteria.” Hist. Eccl. iii. 3. Again in Essex, between 650 and 660: “Qui, [i. e. Ced] accepto gradu episcopatus, rediit ad provinciam, et maiori auctoritate caeptum opus explens, fecit per loca aecclesias, presbyteros et diaconos ordinavit, qui se in verbo fidei et ministerio baptizandi adiuvarent, maxime in civitate quae lingua Saxonum Ythancaestir appellatur; sed et in illa quae Tilaburh cognominatur; quorum prior locus est in ripa Pentae amnis, secundus in ripa Tamensis; in quibus collecto examine famulorum Christi, disciplinam vitae regularis, in quantum rudes adhuc capere poterant, custodire docuit.” Hist. Eccl. iii. 22. About 690, Beda says of Cúðberht, “Plures per regiones illas aecclesias, sed et monasteria nonnulla construxit.” H. E. iv. 28. And it is difficult to understand the passage about to be cited of anything but heathen temples in the marks, which the zeal of the bishop of Mercia, Gearoman, converted into Christian churches, that is separate parish-churches. A pestilence²⁹² raged in Essex: one of its kings, Sigheri, apostatized together with all his part of the people, “and set about restoring their deserted temples, and adoring images.” To correct this error, Wulfheri of Mercia, the superior king, sent his bishop Gearoman: “qui multa agens solertia ... longe lateque omnia pervagatus, et populum et regem praefatum ad viam iustitiae reduxit: adeo ut relictis, sive destructis fanis arisque quas fecerant, aperirent aecclesias, ac nomen Christi, cui contradixerant, confiteri gauderent, magis cum fide resurrectionis in illo mori, quam in perfidiae sordibus inter idola vivere cupientes.” Hist. Eccl. iii. 30. This was in 665.
915. In his Poenitential he gives a general direction as to the penance of the parish priest who loses his chrism. He says: “Qui autem in plebe suo [var. suum] chrisma perdideret, et eam invenerit, xl dies vel iii quadragesimas poeniteat.” Bed. Poenit. xxiv. Kunstm. Poenit. p. 165.
916. “Cumque aecclesiarum esset non minima in Hassis et Thyringea multitudo extructa, et singulis singuli providerentur custodes,” etc. Vit. Bonif. Pertz, ii. 346. “Praefato itaque regni eius tempore, servus Dei Willehadus per Wigmodiam aecclesias coepit construere, ac presbyteros super eas ordinare, qui libere populis monita salutis, ac baptismi conferrent gratiam.” Vit. Willehad. Pertz, ii. 381. “Aecclesias quoque destructas restauravit, probatasque personas qui populis monita salutis darent, singulis quibusque locis praeesse disposuit.” Ibid. ii. 383. “Testes quoque aecclesiae quas per loca singula construxit, testes et famulantium Dei congregationes quas aliquibus coadunavit in locis.” Vit. Liutgari, Pertz, ii. 409. “Itaque more solito, cum omni aviditate et sollicitudine rudibus Saxonum populis studebat in doctrina prodesse, erutisque ydolatriae spinis, verbum Dei diligenter per loca singula serere, aecclesias construere, et per eas singulos ordinare presbyteros, quos verbi Dei cooperatores sibi ipsi nutriverat.” Ibid. ii. 411. He also founded a church of canons, “monasterium, sub regula canonica dominio famulantium,” which afterwards became a cathedral. When Liutgar and his companions landed on the little island of Helgoland, they destroyed the heathen temples and built Christian churches. “Pervenientes autem ad eandem insulam, destruxerunt omnia eiusdem Fosetis fana quae illuc fuere constructa, et pro eis Christi fabricaverunt aecclesias.” Pertz, ii. 410. In like manner Willibrord in Frisia established Christian churches on the sites of the heathen fanes. “Simul et reliquias beatorum apostolorum ac martyrum Christi ab eo sperans accipere, ut dum in gente cui praedicaret, destructis idolis aecclesias institueret, haberet in promptu reliquias sanctorum quas ibi introduceret; quibusque ibidem depositis, consequenter in eorum honorem quorum essent illae, singula quaeque loca dedicaret.” Beda, H. E. v. 11. Again, “Plures per regiones illas aecclesias, sed et monasteria nonnulla construxit.” Beda, H. E. v. 11. This was consonant²⁹³ with the wise advice of Pope Gregory to Augustine, already cited vol. i. p. 332, note 2.
917. As late as the tenth century we read of an archipresbyter at the head of a church at Ely. Hist. Eliensis, Ang. Sac. i. 603.
918. Æðelberht’s queen Beorhte had a chaplain, bishop Liuthart, previous to the arrival of Augustine. Beda, H. E. i. 25. Paulinus was Æðelburge’s chaplain before the conversion of Northumberland. Ibid, ii. 9. Oidilwald king of Deira maintained Caelin, a brother of bishop Ced, in his family; “qui ipsi et familae ipsius, verbum et sacramenta fidei, erat enim presbyter, ministrare solebat.” Ibid. iii. 23. Lastly we read of Wilfrið, that he was chaplain to Alchfrið of Northumberland, “desiderante rege ut vir tantae eruditionis et religionis sibi specialiter individuo comitatu sacerdos esset et doctor.” Ibid. v. 19.
919. The distinction is found in the Chron. Saxon, an. 870. The Saxon handpreostas is translated in a Latin copy by capellani clerici; the Saxon túnpreostas by de villis suis presbyteri.
920. “Si qua civitas potestate imperiali novata est aut innovatur, civiles dispositiones et publicas aecclesiasticarum quoque parochiarum ordines subsequantur.” Conc. Chalc. an. 451. This was an attempt to bring the state generally into that condition which would have existed had the church and the empire not been on terms of hostility²⁹⁴ when the church first was founded. Had the heathen creed not stood in the way, from the very first it is probable that the praefect of the city and the mayor of the village would have been universally also the Episcopus and Chorepiscopus of the community: but the χάρισμα κυβερνησέως and χάρισμα διδασκαλίας would not then have united in the same hands. The church assumed form and shape under pressure, and passed from a molluscous into a vertebrated organization through its struggles to resist persecution²⁹⁵ on the one hand and heresy²⁹⁶ on the other. When it entered into its alliance with the state its outward constitution was already completed. That alliance is not a metaphysical entity²⁹⁷, but an historical fact.
921. Let us arrange these offices tabularly:—

 

 
Secular.
 
Ecclesiastical.
1.
Comes.
1.
Episcopus.
 
α. Missus.
 
α. Chorepiscopus. (The Archdeacon or the Rural Dean.)
 
2.
Centenarius. Centurio, or Vicarius: qui per pagos constitutus est.
2.
Presbyter Plebei qui baptismalem aecclesiam habet,
 
3.
Decurio et Decanus.
3.
Minor⁹¹ Presbyter tituli.
 
4.
Collectarius. Quaternio. Duumvir.
 
 
The count (in England Ealdorman) and bishop are on one line, and, if we may anticipate a little for the sake of illustration, we may add the Eorl of Cnut’s constitution on the one side, and the Metropolitan⁸⁸ on the other. The Missus of the count and the chorepiscopus (in Strabo’s time yet existing, though less important than his city brother) are on the second line; nevertheless the Missus partakes of the comitial dignity, and the episcopal, though grudgingly²⁹⁸, is still vouchsafed to the chorepiscopus. Next in rank is the Centenarius or president of the Hundred, the officer of the pagus: his equivalent is the priest in a church where baptism is performed, the peculiar distinctive²⁹⁹ of a parish-church. The Decurio or Decanus is on the same footing as the German Capellanus or Kaplan, who is indeed ordained to a title, but not with power to administer the sacraments. The Kaplan is in truth generally attached to the parish-church—a sort of curate,—and often succeeds to it. But how is it that the parallel can be carried no further? Is it that the Deacon’s ordination was not conclusive enough? Or were Collectarii and Duumviri, beadles, tax-gatherers and bailiffs not dignified enough to compare with even acolytes³⁰⁰ and vergers?
922. “De poentitentibus, ut a presbyteris non reconcilientur, nisi praecipiente episcopo.—Ex concilio Africano.—Ut poenitentibus, secundum differentiam peccatorum, episcopi arbitrio poenitentiae tempora decernantur, et ut presbyter, inconsulto episcopo, non reconciliet poenitentem, nisi absentia episcopi, necessitate³⁰¹ cogente.... Item, Ex concilio Cartaginensi de eadem re. Aurelius episcopus dixit: ‘Si quisquam in periculo fuerit constitutus, et se reconciliari divinis altaribus petierit, si episcopus absens fuerit, debet utique presbyter consulere episcopum, et sic periclitantem eius praecepto reconciliare: quam rem debemus salubri concilio roborare.’ Ab universis episcopis dictum est: ‘Placet quod sanctitas vestra necessaria nos instruere dignata est.’ Romani reconciliant hominem intra absidem: Graeci nolunt. Reconciliatio penitentium in coena Domini tantum est ab episcopo, et consummata penitentia: si vero episcopo dificile sit, presbytero potest, necessitatis causa, praebere potestatem, ut impleat.” Poen. Theodori. Thorpe, ii. 6. Aurelius of Carthage died in 430.
923. “Et ideo quia Carpentoracte convenientes huiusmodi ad nos querela pervenit, quod ea quae a quibuscumque fidelibus parochiis conferuntur, ita ab aliquibus episcopis praesumantur, ut aut parum, aut prope nihil, aecclesiis quibus collata fuerint relinquatur; ut si aecclesia civitatis eius cui episcopus praeest, ita est idonea, ut Christo propitio nihil indigeat, quidquid parochiis fuerit derelictum, clericis qui ipsis parochiis deserviunt, vel reparationibus aecclesiarum rationabiliter dispensetur,” etc. Concil. Carpentor. an. 527.
924. The extraordinary helplessness of early surgery is little appreciated by us, nor are we duly grateful for the advance in that most noble study which now secures to the lowest and poorest sufferer, alleviations once inaccessible³⁰² to the wealthiest and most powerful. An example in point occurs to me in the case of Leopold, duke of Austria, the captor of Coeur de Lion, in 1195. A fall from his horse produced a compound fracture of the leg, which from the treatment it received soon mortified³⁰³. Amputation³⁰⁴ was necessary, and it was performed by the duke himself, holding an axe²⁸⁴ to the limb, which his chamberlain struck with a beetle³⁰⁵. “Acciti mox medici apposuerunt quae expedire credebant; in crastino vero pes ita denigratus apparuit, ut a medicis incidendus decerneretur; et cum non inveniretur qui hoc faceret, accitus tandem³⁰⁶ cubicularius eius, et ad hoc coactus, dum ipse dux dolabrum manu propria tibiae apponeret, malleo vibrato, vix trina percussione pedem eius abscidit.” Walt. Heming. i. 210. Wendov. iii. 88. We feel no surprise that death followed such treatment, even without the excommunication under which the savage³⁰⁷ duke laboured.
925. We do not sufficiently prize our own advantages, and the blessings which the mercy of God has vouchsafed to us in this respect. But let one fact be mentioned, which ought to arrest the attention of even the least reflecting man. In the ninth century there was not a single copy of the Old and New Testaments³⁰⁸ to be found in the whole diocese of Lisieux. We learn this startling fact from a letter sent by Freculf, its bishop, to Hrabanus Maurus. “Ad haec vestrae charitatis vigilantia intendat, quoniam nulla nobis librorum copia suppeditat, etiamsi parvitas obtusi sensus nostri vigeret: dum in episcopio, nostrae parvitati commisso, nec ipsos Novi Veterisque Testamenti repperi libros, multo minus horum expositiones.” Opera Hrabani. Ed. Colvener. ii. 1.
926. Vol. i. 302.
927. Eichhorn, § 114. vol. i. 506.
928. Exemption from munera personalia however was early claimed. “Presbyteros, diaconos, etc. ... etiam personalium munerum expertes esse volumus.” L. 6. C. de Episc. et Cleric. i. 3. Hence the king had an interest in forbidding the ordination of a free man without his consent. See the formulary in Marculfus, i. 10. See also the fourth and eighth canons of the Council of Orleans, A.D. 511. and Eichhorn, i. 484, 485. §§ 94, 96. From those we see that through ordination the king might lose his rights over the freeman and the master over his serf. Of the last case there cannot be the slightest doubt in England, and I should imagine little of the first.
929. The great argument of the clergy in later times,—in the twelfth century particularly, when all over Europe the attempt was made to exempt²⁰¹ them from secular jurisdiction,—“that no one ought to be punished twice for the same offence,” had apparently³⁰⁹ not yet been thought of. The penances³¹⁰ of the church, by which the sinner was to be reconciled to God, were still held quite distinct from the sufferings by which he expiated³¹¹ his violation³¹² of the law. Theodore alleviates³¹³, but does not remit³¹⁴, the penance of those whose guilt³¹⁵ has bent⁹² their heads to human slavery. Theod. Poen. xvi. § 3. See this argument stated in the quarrel between Henry II. and Becket: “In contrarium sentiebat archiepiscopus, ut quos exauctorent episcopi a manu laicali postmodum non punirentur, quia bis in idipsum puniri viderentur.” Rog. Wendov. an. 1164. vol. ii. 304. But this was a two-edged argument, as its upholders soon found, when the laity on the same grounds claimed exemption from secular punishment for offences committed upon the persons of the clergy; justly urging, upon the premises³¹⁶, that they were excommunicated for their acts, and ought not to be subject to a second infliction³¹⁷. Accordingly in 1176, we find Richard archbishop of Canterbury attempting to explain away what Becket had so vigorously advanced: “Nec dicatur quod aliquis bis puniatur propter hoc in idipsum, nec enim iteratum est, quod ab uno incipitur et ab altero consummatur,” etc. See his letter to the bishops in An. Trivet. 1176. p. 82 seq. We shall readily admit that the laity ought not to have been let loose upon the clergy; but upon the same grounds we shall claim the subjection of the clergy to the secular tribunals for all secular offences.
930. Concil. Autisiodor. an. 578. can. 43. Concil. Matiscon. an. 581. can. 7. “Quodsi quicunque index ... clericum absque causa criminali, id est homicidio, furto aut maleficio, hoc [scil. iniuriam] facere fortasse praesumpserit, quamdiu episcopo loci illius visum fuerit, ab aecclesiae liminibus arceatur.”
931. “If a priest kill another man, let all that he had acquired at home be given up, and let the bishop deprive him of his orders: then let him be given up from the minster, unless the lord will compound for the wergeld.” Ælf. § 21.
932. Leg. Æðelr. ix. § 26. Thorpe, i. 346.
933. Leg. Cnut, ii. § 41. Thorpe, i. 400.
934. Eád. Guð. § 3. Thorpe, i. 168. Yet immediately afterwards Eádweard says: “If a man in orders fordo himself with capital crime, let him be seized and held to the bishop’s doom³¹⁸.” Ibid. § 4.
935. See Leg. Wihtr. § 18, 19. Æðelr. ix. § 19-24, 27. Cnut, i. § 5; ii. § 41.
936. Whether it will ever be possible to surmount²⁵² the difficulties which environ this subject, may be doubted; but it cannot escape any one who has enjoyed the intimacy³¹⁹ of the more enlightened Roman Catholics, whether cleric or laic, that a strong feeling exists in favour of a change. In Bohemia and other Slavonic countries, yet in communion with Rome, the celibacy of the clergy has ever been a stumbling-block and stone of offence, and has done more than anything else to keep alive old Hussite traditions. A few years ago so much danger was felt to lurk³²⁰ in the question, that the Vienna censorship thought fit to suppress portions of Palaczy’s History, which favoured the national views. Nor has Germany, at almost any period, lacked thinkers who have vigorously protested against a practice which they assert to have no foundation in Holy Writ²¹⁵, and look upon as disastrous³²¹ to the State.
937. Some sects³²² believed the δημιουργός to have been the devil himself; and as the Saviour³²³ is declared to have made the world, identified Jesus with Satan! Others entirely denied his human nature, on the ground that the incarnation was a materialising of spirit. The ascetic practices of the Eastern church had a similar origin.
938. “Placuit etiam ut si diacones aut presbyteri coniugati ad torum uxorum suorum redire voluerint,” etc. Concil. Agathense, an. 506. Can. 9.
939. “Si quis secernat se a presbytero qui uxorem duxit, tanquam non oporteat, illo liturgiam peragente, de oblatione percipere, anathema³²⁴ sit.” Concil. Gangrense, an. 376. Can. 4. This provision was retained by Burkhart of Worms in his collection of canons made in the eleventh century. See Dönniges, Deut. Staatsr. p. 507. Schmidt, Gesch. der Deutschen, IV Band, lib. 4. cap. 13.
940. This was at least the feeling in the eleventh century. Wendover speaks in the following terms of the Council of Rome, celebrated by Gregory the Seventh in 1074:—“Iste papa in synodo generali simoniacos excommunicavit, uxoratos sacerdotes a divino removit officio, et laicis missas eorum audire interdixit, novo exemplo et, ut multis visum est, inconsiderato iudicio, contra sanctorum patrum sententiam, qui scripserunt, quod sacramenta quae in aecclesia fiunt, baptisma, chrisma, corpus Christi et sanguis, Spiritu invisibiliter cooperante, eorundem sacramentorum effectum [habeant], seu per bonos, seu per malos intra Dei aecclesiam dispensentur; tamen quia Spiritus Sanctus mystice illa vivificat, nec bonorum meritis amplificantur, nec peccatis malorum attenuantur. Ex qua re tam grave oritur scandalum, ut nullius haeresis tempore sancta aecclesia graviori sit schismate discissa, his pro iustitia, illis contra iustitiam agentibus; porro paucis continentiam observantibus: aliquibus eam causa lucri ac iactantiae simulantibus, multis incontinentiam periurio multipliciori adulterio cumulantibus: ad haec, opportunitate laicis insurgentibus contra sacros ordines, et se ab omni aecclesiastica subiectione excutientibus, laici sacra mysteria temerant et de his disputant, infantes baptizant, sordido aurium humore pro sacro chrismate utentes et oleo, in extremo vitae viaticum Dominicum et usitatum aecclesiae obsequium sepulturae a presbyteris uxoratis accipere parvipendunt; decimas etiam presbyteris debitas igne cremant, corpus Domini a presbyteris uxoratis consecratum pedibus saepe conculcant, sanguinem Domini voluntarie frequenter in terram effundunt.” Wend. ii. 13. See the Acts of this Council in Hardouin, vi. col. 1521 seq. In the following year, 1075, the abbot of Pontoise was insulted and beaten in a council held at Paris, for defending this decree of Gregory.
941. Boniface appears to have been quite as earnest in the eighth as Dunstan was in the tenth century. We are told of him in Thuringia, that in accordance with the instructions of the Apostolical Pontiff, “senatores plebis totiusque populi principes verbis spiritalibus affatus est; eosque ad veram agnitionis viam et intelligentiae lucem provocavit, quam olim ante maxima siquidem ex parte pravis seducti doctoribus perdiderunt; sed et sacerdotes ac presbiteros, quorum alii religioso Dei se omnipotentis cultu incoluerunt, alii quidem fornicaria contaminati pollutione castimoniae continentiam, quam sacris servientes altaribus servare debuerunt, amiserant, sermonibus evangelicis, quantum potuit, a malitiae pravitate ad canonicae constitutionis rectitudinem correxit, ammonuit, atque instruxit.” Pertz, ii. 341. “Quoniam cessante religiosorum ducum dominatu, cessavit etiam in eis Christianitatis et religionis intentio, et falsi seducentes populum introducti sunt fratres, qui sub nomine religionis maximam haereticae pravitatis introduxerunt sectam. Ex quibus est Torhtwine et Berhthere, Eanberhct et Hunræd, fornicatores et adulteri, quos iuxta apostolum Dominus iudicavit Deus.” Pertz, ii. 344. These seem all to have been Anglosaxons.
“Et recedens, non solum invitatus Baguariorum ab Odilone duce, sed et spontaneus, visitavit incolas; mansitque apud eos diebus multis, praedicans et evangelizans verbum Dei; veraeque fidei ac religionis sacramenta renovavit, et destructores aecclesiarum populique perversores abigebat. Quorum alii pridem falso se episcopatus gradu praetulerunt, alii etiam presbyteratus se officio deputabant, alii haec atque alia innumerabilia fingentes, magna ex parte populum seduxerunt. Sed quia sanctus vir iam Deo ab infantia deditus, iniuriam Domini sui non ferens, supradictum ducem cunctumque vulgus ab iniusta haereticae falsitatis secta et fornicaria sacerdotum deceptione coercuit; et provinciam Baguariorum, Odilone duce consentiente, in quattuor divisit parochias, quattuorque his praesidere fecit episcopos, quos ordinatione scilicet facta, in episcopatus gradum sublevant.” Pertz, ii. 346.
“Domino Deo opitulante, ac suggerente sancto Bonifatio archiepiscopo, religionis christianae confirmatum est testamentum, et orthodoxorum patrum synodalia sunt in Francis correcta instituta, cunctaque canonum auctoritate emendata atque expiata, et tam laicorum iniusta concubinarum copula partim, exhortante sancto viro separata est, quam etiam clericorum nefanda cum uxoribus coniunctio seiuncta ac segregata.” Pertz, ii. 346. The anonymous³²⁵ author of the life of Boniface tells of a bishop Gerold, who held the see of Mayence: he had a son who succeeded him in the bishopric. Pertz, ii. 354.
942. “Sanctus Pontifex noster de exilio cum filio suo proprio rediens,” etc. Vit. Wilfr. cap. 57.
943. Cod. Dipl. No. 1352.
944. “Wulfmǽr preóst and his bearnteám.” Cod. Dipl. No. 946.
945. “Godwine æt Worðige, Ælfsiges bisceopes sunu.” Chron. Sax. an. 1001. This however was not confined to England: we hear of more than one Frankish bishop having children: for example, “Anchisus dux egregius, filius Arnulfi, episcopi Mettensis.” Ann. Xantens. an. 647. Pertz, ii. 219. See also Paul. Gest. Ep. Mettens. Pertz, ii. 264. [See also T. F. Klitsche, “Geschichte des Cölibats,” etc. Augsb. 1830; J. A. Zaccaria. Storia Polemica del Sagro celibato, Roma, 1774; and Suppl. to Engl. Cyclop., Arts and Sciences, art. Celibacy.]
946. “Filius Oswaldi presbyteri.” Hist. Rams³²⁶., cap. xlv.
947. “Robertum diaconem et generum eius, Ricardum filium Scrob.... quos plus caeteris rex diligebat.” Flor. Wig²⁰⁸. an. 1052.
948. “Godricum regis capellani Godmanni filium, abbatem constituit.” Flor. Wig. an. 1053.
949. Flor. Wig. an. 1035. It is right to add that some MSS. of Florence read presbyteri, not presbyterae.
950. See vol. i. 145. “At ille qui ipsa nocte cum uxore dormierat,” etc. Sim. Dun. Eccl. Dun. cap. xlv.
951. “Mox ingens pestis arripuit domum illius sacerdotis; quae conjugem eius ac liberos eius cita morte percussit, totamque progeniem funditus extirpavit.” Hist. Eliens. Anglia Sacra, i. 603.
952. Thorpe, ii. 376.
953. In 1102 archbishop Anselm excommunicated married priests, sacerdotes concubinarios; Wendover, who records this act, expresses a doubt about its prudence. “Hoc autem bonum quibusdam visum est, et quibusdam periculosum, ne, dum munditias viribus maiores expeterent, in immunditias labarentur.” Wend. ii. 171. The results at this day in Ireland are well known, and the case is very similar in the Roman Catholic part of Hungary. See Paget, Hungary and Transylvania, i. 114. Shortly before the Reformation, the inconveniences arising from this state of things were felt to be so intolerable, yet the danger to society from a strict enforcement of the rule so great, that in some parts of Europe the bishop licensed³²⁷ their priests so take concubines, at a settled tariff³²⁸, and further raised a sum upon each child born. Erasmus relates that one bishop had admitted to him the issuing of no less than twelve thousand such licenses³²⁹ in one year. In his diocese the tax was probably light, the peasants sturdy, and the female population more than ordinarily chaste¹⁵¹. It was not unusual for the English kings to compel the priests to redeem³³⁰ their focariae or concubines, which amounts to much the same thing. This occurred in the years 1129 and 1208. See Wendover, ii. 210; iii. 223.
954. Gregory writes thus upon the subject to Sigurdr, archbishop of Nidaros: “Sicut ex parte tua fuit propositum coram nobis tam in diocesi quam in provincia Nidrosensi abusus detestandae consuetudinis inolevit, quod videlicet sacerdotes inibi existentes matrimonia contrahunt, et utuntur tanquam laici sic contractis. Et licet tu iuxta officii tui debitum id curaveris artius inhibere, multi tamen praetendentes excusationes frivolas in peccatis, scilicet quod felicis recordationis Hadrianus papa praedecessor noster, tunc episcopus Albanensis, dum in partibus illis legationis officio fungeretur, hoc fieri permisisset, quanquam super hoc nullum ipsius documentum ostendant, perire potius eligunt quam parere, longam super hoc nichilominus consuetudinem allegando. Cum igitur diuturnitas temporis peccatum non minuat sed augmentet, mandamus quatenus, si ita est, abusum huiusmodi studeas extirpare, et in rebelles, si qui fuerint, censuram aecclesiasticam exercere. Datum³³¹ Viterbii, xvii Kal. Junii, anno undecimo.” This is A.D. 1237. Diplom. Norweg. No. 19, vol. i. pag. 15.
955. Mr. Soames (Anglosax. Church, p. 179, third edit.) says that Dúnstán’s monastery at Glastonbury was the first establishment of the kind ever known in England, and Dúnstán the first of English Benedictine abbots. Nothing can possibly be more inexact than this assertion. Biscop’s foundation at Wearmouth was a Benedictine one. In an address to his monks, he himself is represented to say:—“Ideo multum cavetote, fratres, semper, ne secundum genus unquam, ne deforis aliunde vobis Patrem quaeratis; sed iuxta quod Regula magni quondam abbatis Benedicti, iuxta quod privilegii nostri continent decreta, in conventa vestrae congregationis communi consilio perquiratis, qui secundum vitae meritum et sapientiae doctrinam aptior ad tale ministerium perficiendum digniorque probetur; et quemcunque omnes unanimae charitatis inquisitione optimum cognoscentes eligeretis, hunc vobis, accito episcopo, rogetis abbatem consueta benedictione formari.” Beda, Vit. Bened. § 12. (Opera Minora, ii. 151.) The same author tells us of abbot Céolfrið:—“Multa diu secum mente versans, utilius decrevit, dato Fratribus praecepto, ut iuxta sui statuta privilegii, iuxtaque Regulam sancti abbatis Benedicti, de suis sibi ipsi Patrem, qui aptior esset, eligerent, etc.” Vit. Bened. § 16. (Op. Min. ii. 156.) The author of the anonymous life of St. Cúðberht, which is earlier than that of Beda, says of Cúðberht at Lindisfarne:—“Vivens ibi quoque secundum sanctam Scripturam, contemplativam vitam in actuali agens, et nobis regularem vitam primus componens constituit, quam usque hodie cum Regula Benedicti observamus.” Anon. Cúðb. § 25. (Bed. Op. Min. ii. 271.) At a still later period, viz. the close of the seventh century, we learn that the monastery of Hnutscilling or Nursling in Hampshire was a Benedictine one, and St. Boniface a Benedictine monk. His contemporary biographer Willibald says:—“Maxime suo sub regulari videlicet disciplina abbati, monachica subditus obedientia praebebat, ut labore manuum cottidiano et disciplinali officiorum amministratione incessanter secundum praefinitam beati Patris Benedicti rectae constitutionis formam insisteret,” etc. Vit. Bonif. Pertz, ii. 336. One can hardly imagine how Mr. Soames should suffer himself to be misled by the exaggerations of Dúnstán’s monkish biographers: they are of a piece with their whole story. That the rule had become very much relaxed even in the Benedictine abbeys of this country is not to be doubted: the same thing took place on the continent. Many had perished in the Danish invasions; many had passed insensibly into the hands of secular canons: and it is not at all improbable that in the middle of the tenth century there was not a genuine Benedictine society left in England. But this will certainly not justify³³² the assertions of Bridferð or Adelard, that Dúnstán was the first of English Benedictine monks or abbots. “Et hoc praedicto modo saluberrimam sancti Benedicti sequens institutionem, primus abbas Anglicae nationis enituit,” (Bridferð. MS. Cott. Cleop. B. xii. fol. 72.)—“Monachorum ibi scholam primo primus instituere coepit,”—(Adel. in Angl. Sacra, ii. 101 note) are at the least grave mistakes: one desires to believe that they are not something worse; but they warn us to be extremely cautious how we admit the authority of their writers as to any facts they may please to record.
956. On this point Beda speaks most explicitly³³³: “Sunt loca innumera, ut novimus omnes, in monasteriorum ascripto vocabulum, sed nihil prorsus monasticae conversationis habentia.” Ep. Ecgb. § 10. “Quod enim turpe est dicere, tot sub nomine monasteriorum loca hi, qui monachicae vitae prorsus sunt expertes, in suam ditionem acceperunt, sicut ipse melius nosti,” etc. Ibid. § 11. “At alii graviore adhuc flagitio, quum sint ipsi laici et nullius vitae regularis vel usu exerciti, vel amore praediti, data regibus pecunia, emunt sibi sub praetextu monasteriorum construendorum territoria, in quibus suae liberius vacent libidini, et haec insuper in ius sibi haereditarium edictis regalibus faciunt ascribi, ipsas quoque litteras privilegiorum suorum, quasi veraciter Deo dignas, pontificum, abbatum et potestatum seculi, obtinent subscriptione confirmari. Sicque usurpatis sibi agellulis sive vicis, liberi exinde a divino simul et humano servitio, suis tantum inibi desideriis laici monachis imperantes deserviunt; immo non monachos ibi congregant, sed quoscunque ob culpam inobedientiae veris expulsos monasteriis alicubi forte oberrantes invenerint, aut evocare monasteriis ipsi valuerint; vel certe quos ipsi de suis satellitibus ad suscipiendam tonsuram, promissa sibi obedientia monachica, invitare quiverint. Horum distortis cohortibus suas, quas instruxere, cellas implent, multumque informi atque inaudito spectaculo, idem ipsi viri modo coniugis ac liberorum procreandorum curam gerunt, modo exsurgentes do cubilibus, quid intra septa onasteriorum geri debeat sedula intentione pertractant.... Sic per annos circiter triginta, hoc est ex quo Aldfrid rex humanis rebus ablatus est, provincia nostra vesano illo errore dementata est, ut nullus pene exinde praefectorum extiterit, qui non huiusmodi sibi monasterium in diebus suae praefecturae comparaverit, suamque simul coniugem pari reatu nocivi mercatus astrinxerit; ac praevalente pessima consuetudine, ministri quoque regis ac famuli idem facere sategerint. Atque ita ordine perverso innumeri sunt inventi, qui se abbates pariter et praefectos, sive ministros, aut famulos regis appellant; qui, etsi aliquid vitae monasterialis ediscere laici, non experiendo sed audiendo, potuerint, a persona tamen illa ac professione, quae hanc docere debeat, sunt funditus exsortes; et quidem tales repente, ut nosti, tonsuram pro suo libitu accipiunt, suo examine de laicis non monachi sed abbates efficiuntur.” Ibid. § 12, 13. (Bed. Op. Min. ii. 216, 218 seq.) On these and other grounds Beda earnestly impresses upon Ecgberht the duty of founding the twelve bishoprics contemplated by Gregory in the province of York, in order to multiply the means of ecclesiastical supervision³³⁴. But if this was the condition of the Northumbrian monasteries in the year 734, the period of Northumbria’s greatest literary eminence³³⁵, what may we conclude to have been the condition of similar establishments in less instructed parts of England, especially after a century of cruel wars had relaxed all the bonds of civilized society? We may not greatly admire monachism, or believe it useful to a state; but we can hardly blame those, who, finding the institution in existence, desire to make the men who are attached to it worthy and not unworthy members of their profession.
957. In the often-cited letter to Ecgberht, Beda gives but a bad character to some among the prelates of his time. He says: “Quod non ita loquor, quasi te aliter facere sciam, sed quia de quibusdam episcopis fama vulgatum est, quod ipsi ita Christo serviant, ut nullos secum alicuius religionis aut continentiae viros habeant; sed potius illos qui risui, iocis, fabulis, commessationibus, et ebrietatibus, caeterisque vitae remissioris illecebris subigantur, et qui magis quotidie ventrem dapibus quam mentem sacrificiis coelestibus pascant.” § 4 (Op Min. ii. 209, 210).
958. “Dráf út ða clerca of ða biscopríce, forðan ðæt hí noldon nán Regul healdan.” Chron. Sax. an. 963.
959. “Clerici illi, nominetenus Canonici, frequentationem chori, labores vigiliarum, et ministerium altaris vicariis suis utcumque sustentatis relinquentes, et ab aecclesiae conspectu plerumque absentes septennio, quidquid de praebendis percipiebant, locis et modis sibi placitis absumebant. Nuda fuit aecclesia intus et extra.” An. Wint. p. 289.
960. “Erant Canonici nefandis scelerum moribus implicati, elatione et insolentia, atque luxuria praeventi, adeo ut nonnulli eorum dedignarentur missas suo ordine celebrare, repudiantes uxores quas illicite duxerant, et alias³³⁶ accipientes, gulae et ebrietati iugiter dediti.” Vit. Æðelw. p. 614.
961. The description of a secular clerk given by the anonymous author of the Gesta Abbatum Fontanellensium, written in the ninth century, was probably not exaggerated. He says of Wido, a relative of Charles Martel, “Erat de saecularibus clericis, gladioque quem semispatium vocant semper accinctus, sagoque pro cappa utebatur, parumque aecclesiasticae disciplinae imperiis parebat. Nam copiam canum multiplicem semper habebat, cum qua venationi quotidie insistebat, sagittatorque praecipuus in arcubus ligneis ad aves feriendas erat, hisque operibus magis quam aecclesiasticae disciplinae studiis se exercebat.” It does not surprise us to learn that this prelate was also “ignarus litterarum.” Pertz, i. 284, 285.
962. Arnold died in 904, but his reforms began twenty years earlier. However, between the years 912 and 942, Berno, and his still more celebrated successor Odo, abbots of Cluny, had introduced a reform of the Benedictine rule in a great number of monasteries. Flodoardus calls Odo: “Dominus Odo, venerabilis abbas, multorum restaurator monasteriorum, sanctaeque Regulae reparator.” See Pagi. Baron³³⁷, ad an. 942. This example was not lost upon Dúnstán.
963. “Baudouin le chauve, IIe comte de Flandre, s’empara, en 900, des deux abbayes de St. Vaast et St. Bertin.... Dès l’année 944, Arnould-le-vieux, rentré en possession de St. Vaast, entreprit la réforme de ces abbayes, par⁵ les soins de St. Gérard de Brognes, qu’il nomma abbé de St. Bertin. Il le chargea ensuite (probablement vers 950) de celle des abbayes de St. Pierre et de St. Bavon à Gand, qu’il avait également sous son pouvoir: Womare en fut nommé abbé. Ces reformes, sans doute d’après la règle de Cluny, créé en 910 [read 912 not 910], s’étendirent d’après la chronique de St. Bertin (Thes. Anecd. iii. 552, 553), à dix-huit abbayes de l’ordre de Saint Benoit (Chron. de Jean de Thielrode, édit. de M. Vanlokeren, p. 127). Les moines qui refusèrent de s’y soumettre, furent expulsés de leurs monastères: quelques-uns émigrèrent en Angleterre ou ailleurs.” Warnkönig, Hist. Fland. ii. 338 seq. In 956 Dúnstán flying from England, found hospitality and rest in one of these reformed houses, that of Blandinium or St. Peter, at Ghent.
964. Chron. Sax. an. 995. Probably it never had been monastic from the very time of Augustine: and the setting up a claim on the part of the monks, derived from Augustine himself, was totally inadmissible.
965. Hist. and Ant. Ang. Church, ii. 290, 294. This was certainly the case with several of Æðelwold’s monasteries; and I regret to think that many of the Saxon charters which pretend to the greatest antiquity³³⁸ were forged on occasion of this revival, to enlarge the basis of the restored foundations.
966. Eadmer, Vit. Oswald, p. 202. Ang. Sac. i. 542. Hist. Rames. p. 400.
967. Cod. Dipl. Nos. 674-678.
968. In Nos. 675, 678. In the other charters where this Leófwine occurs, he is even called clericus, unless it were another person of the same name.
969. An. 969. “S. Oswaldus, sui voti compos effectus, clericos Wigorniensis aecclesiae monachilem habitum suscipere renuentes de monasterio expulit; consentientes vero, hoc anno, ipso teste monachizavit, cisque Ramesiensium coenobitam Wynsinum, magnae religionis virum, loco decani praefecit.”
970. Cod. Dipl. No. 553.
971. Ibid. No. 586.
972. Ibid. No. 615.

1 rev   

v.发动机旋转，加快速度

参考例句：

• It's his job to rev up the audience before the show starts.他要负责在表演开始前鼓动观众的热情。
• Don't rev the engine so hard.别让发动机转得太快。

2 pro   

n.赞成，赞成的意见，赞成者

参考例句：

• The two debating teams argued the question pro and con.辩论的两组从赞成与反对两方面辩这一问题。
• Are you pro or con nuclear disarmament?你是赞成还是反对核裁军？

3 missionary   

adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士

参考例句：

• She taught in a missionary school for a couple of years.她在一所教会学校教了两年书。
• I hope every member understands the value of missionary work. 我希望教友都了解传教工作的价值。

4 missionaries   

n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• Some missionaries came from England in the Qing Dynasty. 清朝时，从英国来了一些传教士。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• The missionaries rebuked the natives for worshipping images. 传教士指责当地人崇拜偶像。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》

5 par   

n.标准，票面价值，平均数量；adj.票面的，平常的，标准的

参考例句：

• Sales of nylon have been below par in recent years.近年来尼龙织品的销售额一直不及以往。
• I don't think his ability is on a par with yours.我认为他的能力不能与你的能力相媲美。

6 monk   

n.和尚，僧侣，修道士

参考例句：

• The man was a monk from Emei Mountain.那人是峨眉山下来的和尚。
• Buddhist monk sat with folded palms.和尚合掌打坐。

7 monks   

n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• The monks lived a very ascetic life. 僧侣过着很清苦的生活。
• He had been trained rigorously by the monks. 他接受过修道士的严格训练。 来自《简明英汉词典》

8 conversion   

n.转化，转换，转变

参考例句：

• He underwent quite a conversion.他彻底变了。
• Waste conversion is a part of the production process.废物处理是生产过程的一个组成部分。

9 clergy   

n.[总称]牧师，神职人员

参考例句：

• I could heartily wish that more of our country clergy would follow this example.我衷心希望，我国有更多的牧师效法这个榜样。
• All the local clergy attended the ceremony.当地所有的牧师出席了仪式。

10 forth   

adv.向前；向外，往外

参考例句：

• The wind moved the trees gently back and forth.风吹得树轻轻地来回摇晃。
• He gave forth a series of works in rapid succession.他很快连续发表了一系列的作品。

11 villa   

n.别墅，城郊小屋

参考例句：

• We rented a villa in France for the summer holidays.我们在法国租了一幢别墅消夏。
• We are quartered in a beautiful villa.我们住在一栋漂亮的别墅里。

12 salvation   

n.（尤指基督）救世，超度，拯救，解困

参考例句：

• Salvation lay in political reform.解救办法在于政治改革。
• Christians hope and pray for salvation.基督教徒希望并祈祷灵魂得救。

13 attainment   

n.达到，到达；［常pl.］成就，造诣

参考例句：

• We congratulated her upon her attainment to so great an age.我们祝贺她高寿。
• The attainment of the success is not easy.成功的取得并不容易。

14 mutual   

adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的

参考例句：

• We must pull together for mutual interest.我们必须为相互的利益而通力合作。
• Mutual interests tied us together.相互的利害关系把我们联系在一起。

15 consolation   

n.安慰，慰问

参考例句：

• The children were a great consolation to me at that time.那时孩子们成了我的莫大安慰。
• This news was of little consolation to us.这个消息对我们来说没有什么安慰。

16 perils   

极大危险( peril的名词复数 )； 危险的事（或环境）

参考例句：

• The commander bade his men be undaunted in the face of perils. 指挥员命令他的战士要临危不惧。
• With how many more perils and disasters would he load himself? 他还要再冒多少风险和遭受多少灾难？

17 motives   

n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• to impeach sb's motives 怀疑某人的动机
• His motives are unclear. 他的用意不明。

18 nay   

adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者

参考例句：

• He was grateful for and proud of his son's remarkable,nay,unique performance.他为儿子出色的，不，应该是独一无二的表演心怀感激和骄傲。
• Long essays,nay,whole books have been written on this.许多长篇大论的文章，不，应该说是整部整部的书都是关于这件事的。

19 rite   

n.典礼，惯例，习俗

参考例句：

• This festival descends from a religious rite.这个节日起源于宗教仪式。
• Most traditional societies have transition rites at puberty.大多数传统社会都为青春期的孩子举行成人礼。

20 rites   

仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• to administer the last rites to sb 给某人举行临终圣事
• He is interested in mystic rites and ceremonies. 他对神秘的仪式感兴趣。

21 sufficiently   

adv.足够地，充分地

参考例句：

• It turned out he had not insured the house sufficiently.原来他没有给房屋投足保险。
• The new policy was sufficiently elastic to accommodate both views.新政策充分灵活地适用两种观点。

22 imposing   

adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的

参考例句：

• The fortress is an imposing building.这座城堡是一座宏伟的建筑。
• He has lost his imposing appearance.他已失去堂堂仪表。

23 imp   

n.顽童

参考例句：

• What a little imp you are!你这个淘气包！
• There's a little imp always running with him.他总有一个小鬼跟着。

24 ecclesiastics   

n.神职者，教会，牧师( ecclesiastic的名词复数 )

参考例句：

25 derived   

vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取

参考例句：

• Many English words are derived from Latin and Greek. 英语很多词源出于拉丁文和希腊文。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• He derived his enthusiasm for literature from his father. 他对文学的爱好是受他父亲的影响。 来自《简明英汉词典》

26 immediate   

adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的

参考例句：

• His immediate neighbours felt it their duty to call.他的近邻认为他们有责任去拜访。
• We declared ourselves for the immediate convocation of the meeting.我们主张立即召开这个会议。

27 proximity   

n.接近，邻近

参考例句：

• Marriages in proximity of blood are forbidden by the law.法律规定禁止近亲结婚。
• Their house is in close proximity to ours.他们的房子很接近我们的。

28 opposition   

n.反对，敌对

参考例句：

• The party leader is facing opposition in his own backyard.该党领袖在自己的党內遇到了反对。
• The police tried to break down the prisoner's opposition.警察设法制住了那个囚犯的反抗。

29 bigotry   

n.偏见，偏执，持偏见的行为[态度]等

参考例句：

• She tried to dissociate herself from the bigotry in her past.她力图使自己摆脱她以前的偏见。
• At least we can proceed in this matter without bigotry.目前这件事咱们至少可以毫无偏见地进行下去。

30 bishop   

n.主教，（国际象棋）象

参考例句：

• He was a bishop who was held in reverence by all.他是一位被大家都尊敬的主教。
• Two years after his death the bishop was canonised.主教逝世两年后被正式封为圣者。

31 zeal   

n.热心，热情，热忱

参考例句：

• Revolutionary zeal caught them up,and they joined the army.革命热情激励他们，于是他们从军了。
• They worked with great zeal to finish the project.他们热情高涨地工作，以期完成这个项目。

32 monasteries   

修道院( monastery的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• In ancient China, there were lots of monasteries. 在古时候，中国有许多寺院。
• The Negev became a religious center with many monasteries and churches. 内格夫成为许多庙宇和教堂的宗教中心。

33 exhortation   

n.劝告，规劝

参考例句：

• After repeated exhortation by his comrades,he finally straightened out his thinking.经过同志们再三劝导，他终于想通了。
• Foreign funds alone are clearly not enough,nor are exhortations to reform.光有外资显然不够，只是劝告人们进行改革也不行。

34 fatigue   

n.疲劳，劳累

参考例句：

• The old lady can't bear the fatigue of a long journey.这位老妇人不能忍受长途旅行的疲劳。
• I have got over my weakness and fatigue.我已从虚弱和疲劳中恢复过来了。

35 machinery   

n.(总称)机械，机器；机构

参考例句：

• Has the machinery been put up ready for the broadcast?广播器材安装完毕了吗？
• Machinery ought to be well maintained all the time.机器应该随时注意维护。

36 possessed   

adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的

参考例句：

• He flew out of the room like a man possessed.他像着了魔似地猛然冲出房门。
• He behaved like someone possessed.他行为举止像是魔怔了。

37 multiplication   

n.增加，增多，倍增；增殖，繁殖；乘法

参考例句：

• Our teacher used to drum our multiplication tables into us.我们老师过去老是让我们反覆背诵乘法表。
• The multiplication of numbers has made our club building too small.会员的增加使得我们的俱乐部拥挤不堪。

38 inter   

v.埋葬

参考例句：

• They interred their dear comrade in the arms.他们埋葬了他们亲爱的战友。
• The man who died in that accident has been interred.在那次事故中死的那个人已经被埋葬了。

39 intercourse   

n.性交；交流，交往，交际

参考例句：

• The magazine becomes a cultural medium of intercourse between the two peoples.该杂志成为两民族间文化交流的媒介。
• There was close intercourse between them.他们过往很密。

40 neophyte   

n.新信徒；开始者

参考例句：

• The neophyte began to stammer out a reply,but fell silent.新门徒嗫嚅了两句，然后沉默了。
• He is a neophyte at politics.他是个初涉政界的人。

41 attained   

（通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况）

参考例句：

• She has attained the degree of Master of Arts. 她已获得文学硕士学位。
• Lu Hsun attained a high position in the republic of letters. 鲁迅在文坛上获得崇高的地位。

42 applied   

adj.应用的；v.应用，适用

参考例句：

• She plans to take a course in applied linguistics.她打算学习应用语言学课程。
• This cream is best applied to the face at night.这种乳霜最好晚上擦脸用。

43 entrusted   

v.委托，托付( entrust的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• He entrusted the task to his nephew. 他把这任务托付给了他的侄儿。
• She was entrusted with the direction of the project. 她受委托负责这项计划。 来自《简明英汉词典》

44 piety   

n.虔诚，虔敬

参考例句：

• They were drawn to the church not by piety but by curiosity.他们去教堂不是出于虔诚而是出于好奇。
• Experience makes us see an enormous difference between piety and goodness.经验使我们看到虔诚与善意之间有着巨大的区别。

45 bestowed   

赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• It was a title bestowed upon him by the king. 那是国王赐给他的头衔。
• He considered himself unworthy of the honour they had bestowed on him. 他认为自己不配得到大家赋予他的荣誉。

46 bishops   

（基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象

参考例句：

• Each player has two bishops at the start of the game. 棋赛开始时，每名棋手有两只象。
• "Only sheriffs and bishops and rich people and kings, and such like. “他劫富济贫，抢的都是郡长、主教、国王之类的富人。

47 manors   

n.庄园（manor的复数形式）

参考例句：

• Manors were private estates of aristocrats or of distinction. 庄园是贵族与豪族的私人领地。 来自互联网
• These lands were parcelled into farms or manors. 这些土地被分成了农田和庄园。 来自互联网

48 stewards   

（轮船、飞机等的）乘务员( steward的名词复数 )； （俱乐部、旅馆、工会等的）管理员； （大型活动的）组织者； （私人家中的）管家

参考例句：

• The stewards all wore armbands. 乘务员都戴了臂章。
• The stewards will inspect the course to see if racing is possible. 那些干事将检视赛马场看是否适宜比赛。

49 administrators   

n.管理者( administrator的名词复数 )；有管理（或行政）才能的人；（由遗嘱检验法庭指定的）遗产管理人；奉派暂管主教教区的牧师

参考例句：

• He had administrators under him but took the crucial decisions himself. 他手下有管理人员，但重要的决策仍由他自己来做。 来自辞典例句
• Administrators have their own methods of social intercourse. 办行政的人有他们的社交方式。 来自汉英文学 - 围城

50 discretion   

n.谨慎；随意处理

参考例句：

• You must show discretion in choosing your friend.你择友时必须慎重。
• Please use your best discretion to handle the matter.请慎重处理此事。

51 benevolent   

adj.仁慈的，乐善好施的

参考例句：

• His benevolent nature prevented him from refusing any beggar who accosted him.他乐善好施的本性使他不会拒绝走上前向他行乞的任何一个乞丐。
• He was a benevolent old man and he wouldn't hurt a fly.他是一个仁慈的老人，连只苍蝇都不愿伤害。

52 meritorious   

adj.值得赞赏的

参考例句：

• He wrote a meritorious theme about his visit to the cotton mill.他写了一篇关于参观棉纺织厂的有价值的论文。
• He was praised for his meritorious service.他由于出色地工作而受到称赞。

53 peculiar   

adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的

参考例句：

• He walks in a peculiar fashion.他走路的样子很奇特。
• He looked at me with a very peculiar expression.他用一种很奇怪的表情看着我。

54 worthy   

adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的

参考例句：

• I did not esteem him to be worthy of trust.我认为他不值得信赖。
• There occurred nothing that was worthy to be mentioned.没有值得一提的事发生。

55 tenants   

n.房客( tenant的名词复数 )；佃户；占用者；占有者

参考例句：

• A number of tenants have been evicted for not paying the rent. 许多房客因不付房租被赶了出来。
• Tenants are jointly and severally liable for payment of the rent. 租金由承租人共同且分别承担。

56 disposition   

n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署

参考例句：

• He has made a good disposition of his property.他已对财产作了妥善处理。
• He has a cheerful disposition.他性情开朗。

57 relinquished   

交出，让给( relinquish的过去式和过去分词 )； 放弃

参考例句：

• She has relinquished the post to her cousin, Sir Edward. 她把职位让给了表弟爱德华爵士。
• The small dog relinquished his bone to the big dog. 小狗把它的骨头让给那只大狗。

58 patronage   

n.赞助，支援，援助；光顾，捧场

参考例句：

• Though it was not yet noon,there was considerable patronage.虽然时间未到中午，店中已有许多顾客惠顾。
• I am sorry to say that my patronage ends with this.很抱歉，我的赞助只能到此为止。

59 Founder   

n.创始者，缔造者

参考例句：

• He was extolled as the founder of their Florentine school.他被称颂为佛罗伦萨画派的鼻祖。
• According to the old tradition,Romulus was the founder of Rome.按照古老的传说，罗穆卢斯是古罗马的建国者。

60 canonical   

n.权威的；典型的

参考例句：

• These canonical forms have to existence except in our imagination.这些正规式并不存在，只是我们的想象。
• This is a combinatorial problem in canonical form.这是组合论中的典型问题。

61 consecration   

n.供献，奉献，献祭仪式

参考例句：

• "What we did had a consecration of its own. “我们的所作所为其本身是一种神圣的贡献。 来自英汉文学 - 红字
• If you do add Consecration or healing, your mana drop down lower. 如果你用了奉献或者治疗，你的蓝将会慢慢下降。 来自互联网

62 ordained   

v.任命（某人）为牧师( ordain的过去式和过去分词 )；授予（某人）圣职；（上帝、法律等）命令；判定

参考例句：

• He was ordained in 1984. 他在一九八四年被任命为牧师。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• He was ordained priest. 他被任命为牧师。 来自辞典例句

63 dedication   

n.奉献，献身，致力，题献，献辞

参考例句：

• We admire her courage,compassion and dedication.我们钦佩她的勇气、爱心和奉献精神。
• Her dedication to her work was admirable.她对工作的奉献精神可钦可佩。

64 strictly   

adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地

参考例句：

• His doctor is dieting him strictly.他的医生严格规定他的饮食。
• The guests were seated strictly in order of precedence.客人严格按照地位高低就座。

65 avarice   

n.贪婪；贪心

参考例句：

• Avarice is the bane to happiness.贪婪是损毁幸福的祸根。
• Their avarice knows no bounds and you can never satisfy them.他们贪得无厌，你永远无法满足他们。

66 founders   

n.创始人( founder的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• He was one of the founders of the university's medical faculty. 他是该大学医学院的创建人之一。 来自辞典例句
• The founders of our religion made this a cornerstone of morality. 我们宗教的创始人把这看作是道德的基石。 来自辞典例句

67 layman   

n.俗人，门外汉，凡人

参考例句：

• These technical terms are difficult for the layman to understand.这些专门术语是外行人难以理解的。
• He is a layman in politics.他对政治是个门外汉。

68 deposed   

v.罢免( depose的过去式和过去分词 )；（在法庭上）宣誓作证

参考例句：

• The president was deposed in a military coup. 总统在军事政变中被废黜。
• The head of state was deposed by the army. 国家元首被军队罢免了。 来自《简明英汉词典》

69 depose   

vt.免职；宣誓作证

参考例句：

• The witness is going to depose.证人即将宣誓做证。
• The emperor attempted to depose the Pope.皇帝企图废黜教皇。

70 lawful   

adj.法律许可的，守法的，合法的

参考例句：

• It is not lawful to park in front of a hydrant.在消火栓前停车是不合法的。
• We don't recognised him to be the lawful heir.我们不承认他为合法继承人。

71 lawfully   

adv.守法地，合法地；合理地

参考例句：

• Lawfully established contracts shall be protected by law. 依法成立的合同应受法律保护。 来自口语例句
• As my lawfully wedded husband, in sickness and in health, till death parts us. 当成是我的合法丈夫，无论疾病灾难，直到死亡把我们分开。 来自电影对白

72 entirely   

ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地

参考例句：

• The fire was entirely caused by their neglect of duty. 那场火灾完全是由于他们失职而引起的。
• His life was entirely given up to the educational work. 他的一生统统献给了教育工作。

73 vice   

n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的

参考例句：

• He guarded himself against vice.他避免染上坏习惯。
• They are sunk in the depth of vice.他们堕入了罪恶的深渊。

74 diffused   

散布的，普及的，扩散的

参考例句：

• A drop of milk diffused in the water. 一滴牛奶在水中扩散开来。
• Gases and liquids diffused. 气体和液体慢慢混合了。

75 tithes   

n.（宗教捐税）什一税，什一的教区税，小部分( tithe的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• For your tithes and offerings, please use the envelopes at the entrance. 什一捐款及奉献：奉献信封摆放于入口处。 来自互联网
• Although she left the church officially, she still tithes. 虽然她正式离开了该教堂，但她仍然对教堂缴纳什一税。 来自互联网

76 tithe   

n.十分之一税；v.课什一税，缴什一税

参考例句：

• It's not Christ plus your tithe.这不是基督再加上你的什一税。
• The bible tells us that the tithe is the lords.圣经说十分之一是献给主的。

77 fixed   

adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的

参考例句：

• Have you two fixed on a date for the wedding yet?你们俩选定婚期了吗？
• Once the aim is fixed,we should not change it arbitrarily.目标一旦确定，我们就不应该随意改变。

78 interfere   

v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰

参考例句：

• If we interfere, it may do more harm than good.如果我们干预的话，可能弊多利少。
• When others interfere in the affair,it always makes troubles. 别人一卷入这一事件，棘手的事情就来了。

79 alienate   

vt.使疏远，离间；转让(财产等)

参考例句：

• His attempts to alienate the two friends failed because they had complete faith.他离间那两个朋友的企图失败了，因为他们彼此完全信任。
• We'd better not alienate ourselves from the colleagues.我们最好还是不要与同事们疏远。

80 ERECTED   

adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立

参考例句：

• A monument to him was erected in St Paul's Cathedral. 在圣保罗大教堂为他修了一座纪念碑。
• A monument was erected to the memory of that great scientist. 树立了一块纪念碑纪念那位伟大的科学家。

81 Christian   

adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒

参考例句：

• They always addressed each other by their Christian name.他们总是以教名互相称呼。
• His mother is a sincere Christian.他母亲是个虔诚的基督教徒。

82 creed   

n.信条；信念，纲领

参考例句：

• They offended against every article of his creed.他们触犯了他的每一条戒律。
• Our creed has always been that business is business.我们的信条一直是公私分明。

83 abolition   

n.废除，取消

参考例句：

• They declared for the abolition of slavery.他们声明赞成废除奴隶制度。
• The abolition of the monarchy was part of their price.废除君主制是他们的其中一部分条件。

84 manorial   

adj.庄园的

参考例句：

• In time the manorial court was regarded as having two natures. 当时，采邑法庭被认为具有两种类型。 来自辞典例句
• Traditional manorial organization provided scant encouragement for economic growth. 传统的庄园组织没有为经济发展提供足够的激励。 来自互联网

85 distinguished   

adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的

参考例句：

• Elephants are distinguished from other animals by their long noses.大象以其长长的鼻子显示出与其他动物的不同。
• A banquet was given in honor of the distinguished guests.宴会是为了向贵宾们致敬而举行的。

86 politic   

adj.有智虑的；精明的；v.从政

参考例句：

• He was too politic to quarrel with so important a personage.他很聪明，不会与这么重要的人争吵。
• The politic man tried not to offend people.那个精明的人尽量不得罪人。

87 metropolitans   

n.大都会的( metropolitan的名词复数 )；大城市的；中心地区的；正宗的

参考例句：

• Metropolitans are the results of the fast economic development in China. 城市群是我国经济迅速发展的产物。 来自互联网
• The minutest detail counts when mingling mild miners and militant metropolitans. 将温和的矿工与好斗的大城市人混在一起时，最微小的细节都很重要。 来自互联网

88 metropolitan   

adj.大城市的，大都会的

参考例句：

• Metropolitan buildings become taller than ever.大城市的建筑变得比以前更高。
• Metropolitan residents are used to fast rhythm.大都市的居民习惯于快节奏。

89 functionaries   

n.公职人员，官员( functionary的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• The Indian transmitters were court functionaries, not missionaries. 印度文化的传递者都是朝廷的官员而不是传教士。 来自辞典例句
• All government institutions functionaries must implement state laws, decrees and policies. 所有政府机关极其工作人员都必须认真执行国家的法律，法规和政策。 来自互联网

90 drawn   

v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的

参考例句：

• All the characters in the story are drawn from life.故事中的所有人物都取材于生活。
• Her gaze was drawn irresistibly to the scene outside.她的目光禁不住被外面的风景所吸引。

91 minor   

adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修

参考例句：

• The young actor was given a minor part in the new play.年轻的男演员在这出新戏里被分派担任一个小角色。
• I gave him a minor share of my wealth.我把小部分财产给了他。

92 bent   

n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的

参考例句：

• He was fully bent upon the project.他一心扑在这项计划上。
• We bent over backward to help them.我们尽了最大努力帮助他们。

93 dispersed   

adj. 被驱散的, 被分散的, 散布的

参考例句：

• The clouds dispersed themselves. 云散了。
• After school the children dispersed to their homes. 放学后，孩子们四散回家了。

94 quorum   

n.法定人数

参考例句：

• The meeting is adjourned since there is no quorum.因为没有法定人数会议休会。
• Three members shall constitute a quorum.三名成员可组成法定人数。

95 confirmation   

n.证实，确认，批准

参考例句：

• We are waiting for confirmation of the news.我们正在等待证实那个消息。
• We need confirmation in writing before we can send your order out.给你们发送订购的货物之前，我们需要书面确认。

96 ordination   

n.授任圣职

参考例句：

• His ordination gives him the right to conduct a marriage or a funeral.他的晋升圣职使他有权主持婚礼或葬礼。
• The vatican said the ordination places the city's catholics in a "very delicate and difficult decision."教廷说，这个任命使得这个城市的天主教徒不得不做出“非常棘手和困难的决定”。

97 jurisdiction   

n.司法权，审判权，管辖权，控制权

参考例句：

• It doesn't lie within my jurisdiction to set you free.我无权将你释放。
• Changzhou is under the jurisdiction of Jiangsu Province.常州隶属江苏省。

98 confession   

n.自白，供认，承认

参考例句：

• Her confession was simply tantamount to a casual explanation.她的自白简直等于一篇即席说明。
• The police used torture to extort a confession from him.警察对他用刑逼供。

99 penance   

n.（赎罪的）惩罪

参考例句：

• They had confessed their sins and done their penance.他们已经告罪并做了补赎。
• She knelt at her mother's feet in penance.她忏悔地跪在母亲脚下。

100 solely   

adv.仅仅，唯一地

参考例句：

• Success should not be measured solely by educational achievement.成功与否不应只用学业成绩来衡量。
• The town depends almost solely on the tourist trade.这座城市几乎完全靠旅游业维持。

101 accrued   

adj.权责已发生的v.增加( accrue的过去式和过去分词 )；（通过自然增长）产生；获得；（使钱款、债务）积累

参考例句：

• The company had accrued debts of over 1000 yuan. 该公司已积欠了1000多万元的债务。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• I have accrued a set of commemoration stamps. 我已收集一套纪念邮票。 来自《简明英汉词典》

102 sustenance   

n.食物，粮食；生活资料；生计

参考例句：

• We derive our sustenance from the land.我们从土地获取食物。
• The urban homeless are often in desperate need of sustenance.城市里无家可归的人极其需要食物来维持生命。

103 apportion   

vt.（按比例或计划）分配

参考例句：

• It's already been agreed in principle to apportion the value of the patents.原则上已经同意根据专利的价值按比例来分配。
• It was difficult to apportion the blame for the accident.很难分清这次事故的责任。

104 fabric   

n.织物，织品，布；构造，结构，组织

参考例句：

• The fabric will spot easily.这种织品很容易玷污。
• I don't like the pattern on the fabric.我不喜欢那块布料上的图案。

105 devoted   

adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的

参考例句：

• He devoted his life to the educational cause of the motherland.他为祖国的教育事业贡献了一生。
• We devoted a lengthy and full discussion to this topic.我们对这个题目进行了长时间的充分讨论。

106 ransoming   

付赎金救人，赎金( ransom的现在分词 )

参考例句：

• The same system was used for ransoming or exchanging captives. 相同的制度还应用于赎回或交换俘虏。
• We have to recover from some poison, need saving, ransoming. 我们需要消毒，需要治疗，需要救赎。

107 civilized   

a.有教养的，文雅的

参考例句：

• Racism is abhorrent to a civilized society. 文明社会憎恶种族主义。
• rising crime in our so-called civilized societies 在我们所谓文明社会中日益增多的犯罪行为

108 insufficient   

adj.(for，of)不足的，不够的

参考例句：

• There was insufficient evidence to convict him.没有足够证据给他定罪。
• In their day scientific knowledge was insufficient to settle the matter.在他们的时代，科学知识还不能足以解决这些问题。

109 superstition   

n.迷信，迷信行为

参考例句：

• It's a common superstition that black cats are unlucky.认为黑猫不吉祥是一种很普遍的迷信。
• Superstition results from ignorance.迷信产生于无知。

110 compulsory   

n.强制的，必修的；规定的，义务的

参考例句：

• Is English a compulsory subject?英语是必修课吗？
• Compulsory schooling ends at sixteen.义务教育至16岁为止。

111 ascetic   

adj.禁欲的；严肃的

参考例句：

• The hermit followed an ascetic life-style.这个隐士过的是苦行生活。
• This is achieved by strict celibacy and ascetic practices.这要通过严厉的独身生活和禁欲修行而达到。

112 admiration   

n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕

参考例句：

• He was lost in admiration of the beauty of the scene.他对风景之美赞不绝口。
• We have a great admiration for the gold medalists.我们对金牌获得者极为敬佩。

113 honourably   

adv.可尊敬地，光荣地，体面地

参考例句：

• Will the time never come when we may honourably bury the hatchet? 难道我们永远不可能有个体面地休战的时候吗？ 来自《简明英汉词典》
• The dispute was settled honourably. 争议体面地得到解决。 来自《简明英汉词典》

114 celebrated   

adj.有名的，声誉卓著的

参考例句：

• He was soon one of the most celebrated young painters in England.不久他就成了英格兰最负盛名的年轻画家之一。
• The celebrated violinist was mobbed by the audience.观众团团围住了这位著名的小提琴演奏家。

115 progenitors   

n.祖先( progenitor的名词复数 )；先驱；前辈；原本

参考例句：

• The researchers also showed that the progenitors mature into neurons in Petri dishes. 研究人员还表示，在佩特里培养皿中的脑细胞前体可以发育成神经元。 来自英汉非文学 - 生命科学 - 大脑与疾病
• Though I am poor and wretched now, my progenitors were famously wealthy. 别看我现在穷困潦倒，我家上世可是有名的富翁。 来自互联网

116 decency   

n.体面，得体，合宜，正派，庄重

参考例句：

• His sense of decency and fair play made him refuse the offer.他的正直感和公平竞争意识使他拒绝了这一提议。
• Your behaviour is an affront to public decency.你的行为有伤风化。

117 skilful   

(=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的

参考例句：

• The more you practise,the more skilful you'll become.练习的次数越多，熟练的程度越高。
• He's not very skilful with his chopsticks.他用筷子不大熟练。

118 specimens   

n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人

参考例句：

• Astronauts have brought back specimens of rock from the moon. 宇航员从月球带回了岩石标本。
• The traveler brought back some specimens of the rocks from the mountains. 那位旅行者从山上带回了一些岩石标本。 来自《简明英汉词典》

119 cultivation   

n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成

参考例句：

• The cultivation in good taste is our main objective.培养高雅情趣是我们的主要目标。
• The land is not fertile enough to repay cultivation.这块土地不够肥沃，不值得耕种。

120 cloister   

n.修道院；v.隐退，使与世隔绝

参考例句：

• They went out into the stil,shadowy cloister garden.他们出了房间，走到那个寂静阴沉的修道院的园子里去。
• The ancient cloister was a structure of red brick picked out with white stone.古老的修道院是一座白石衬托着的红砖建筑物。

121 exquisite   

adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的

参考例句：

• I was admiring the exquisite workmanship in the mosaic.我当时正在欣赏镶嵌画的精致做工。
• I still remember the exquisite pleasure I experienced in Bali.我依然记得在巴厘岛所经历的那种剧烈的快感。

122 coveted   

adj.令人垂涎的；垂涎的，梦寐以求的v.贪求，觊觎(covet的过去分词)；垂涎；贪图

参考例句：

• He had long coveted the chance to work with a famous musician. 他一直渴望有机会与著名音乐家一起工作。
• Ther other boys coveted his new bat. 其他的男孩都想得到他的新球棒。 来自《简明英汉词典》

123 intervention   

n.介入，干涉，干预

参考例句：

• The government's intervention in this dispute will not help.政府对这场争论的干预不会起作用。
• Many people felt he would be hostile to the idea of foreign intervention.许多人觉得他会反对外来干预。

124 incessant   

adj.不停的，连续的

参考例句：

• We have had incessant snowfall since yesterday afternoon.从昨天下午开始就持续不断地下雪。
• She is tired of his incessant demands for affection.她厌倦了他对感情的不断索取。

125 advisers   

顾问，劝告者( adviser的名词复数 )； （指导大学新生学科问题等的）指导教授

参考例句：

• a member of the President's favoured circle of advisers 总统宠爱的顾问班子中的一员
• She withdrew to confer with her advisers before announcing a decision. 她先去请教顾问然后再宣布决定。

126 makers   

n.制造者，制造商（maker的复数形式）

参考例句：

• The makers of the product assured us that there had been no sacrifice of quality. 这一产品的制造商向我们保证说他们没有牺牲质量。
• The makers are about to launch out a new product. 制造商们马上要生产一种新产品。 来自《简明英汉词典》

127 Christians   

n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• Christians of all denominations attended the conference. 基督教所有教派的人都出席了这次会议。
• His novel about Jesus caused a furore among Christians. 他关于耶稣的小说激起了基督教徒的公愤。

128 secular   

n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的

参考例句：

• We live in an increasingly secular society.我们生活在一个日益非宗教的社会。
• Britain is a plural society in which the secular predominates.英国是个世俗主导的多元社会。

129 rebut   

v.辩驳，驳回

参考例句：

• He attempted to rebut the assertions made by the prosecution witness.他试图反驳控方证人所作的断言。
• This open letter is to rebut the argument of abstractionism.这封公开信是反驳抽象派论点的。

130 accusations   

n.指责( accusation的名词复数 )；指控；控告；（被告发、控告的）罪名

参考例句：

• There were accusations of plagiarism. 曾有过关于剽窃的指控。
• He remained unruffled by their accusations. 对于他们的指控他处之泰然。

131 participation   

n.参与，参加，分享

参考例句：

• Some of the magic tricks called for audience participation.有些魔术要求有观众的参与。
• The scheme aims to encourage increased participation in sporting activities.这个方案旨在鼓励大众更多地参与体育活动。

132 immunity   

n.优惠；免除；豁免，豁免权

参考例句：

• The law gives public schools immunity from taxation.法律免除公立学校的纳税义务。
• He claims diplomatic immunity to avoid being arrested.他要求外交豁免以便避免被捕。

133 scattered   

adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的

参考例句：

• Gathering up his scattered papers,he pushed them into his case.他把散乱的文件收拾起来，塞进文件夹里。

134 misery   

n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦

参考例句：

• Business depression usually causes misery among the working class.商业不景气常使工薪阶层受苦。
• He has rescued me from the mire of misery.他把我从苦海里救了出来。

135 laity   

n.俗人；门外汉

参考例句：

• The Church and the laity were increasingly active in charity work.教会与俗众越来越积极参与慈善工作。
• Clergy and laity alike are divided in their views.神职人员和信众同样都观点各异。

136 inevitable   

adj.不可避免的，必然发生的

参考例句：

• Mary was wearing her inevitable large hat.玛丽戴着她总是戴的那顶大帽子。
• The defeat had inevitable consequences for British policy.战败对英国政策不可避免地产生了影响。

137 quota   

n.（生产、进出口等的）配额，（移民的）限额

参考例句：

• A restricted import quota was set for meat products.肉类产品设定了进口配额。
• He overfulfilled his production quota for two months running.他一连两个月超额完成生产指标。

138 contemplate   

vt.盘算，计议；周密考虑；注视，凝视

参考例句：

• The possibility of war is too horrifying to contemplate.战争的可能性太可怕了，真不堪细想。
• The consequences would be too ghastly to contemplate.后果不堪设想。

139 withdrawal   

n.取回，提款；撤退，撤军；收回，撤销

参考例句：

• The police were forced to make a tactical withdrawal.警方被迫进行战术撤退。
• They insisted upon a withdrawal of the statement and a public apology.他们坚持要收回那些话并公开道歉。

140 censure   

v./n.责备；非难；责难

参考例句：

• You must not censure him until you know the whole story.在弄清全部事实真相前不要谴责他。
• His dishonest behaviour came under severe censure.他的不诚实行为受到了严厉指责。

141 inflicted   

把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• They inflicted a humiliating defeat on the home team. 他们使主队吃了一场很没面子的败仗。
• Zoya heroically bore the torture that the Fascists inflicted upon her. 卓娅英勇地承受法西斯匪徒加在她身上的酷刑。

142 delinquent   

adj.犯法的，有过失的；n.违法者

参考例句：

• Most delinquent children have deprived backgrounds.多数少年犯都有未受教育的背景。
• He is delinquent in paying his rent.他拖欠房租。

143 provincial   

adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人

参考例句：

• City dwellers think country folk have provincial attitudes.城里人以为乡下人思想迂腐。
• Two leading cadres came down from the provincial capital yesterday.昨天从省里下来了两位领导干部。

144 provincials   

n.首都以外的人，地区居民( provincial的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• We were still provincials in the full sense of the word. 严格说来，我们都还是乡巴佬。 来自辞典例句
• Only provincials love such gadgets. 只有粗俗的人才喜欢玩这玩意。 来自辞典例句

145 conqueror   

n.征服者，胜利者

参考例句：

• We shall never yield to a conqueror.我们永远不会向征服者低头。
• They abandoned the city to the conqueror.他们把那个城市丢弃给征服者。

146 jurisdictions   

司法权( jurisdiction的名词复数 )； 裁判权； 管辖区域； 管辖范围

参考例句：

• Butler entreated him to remember the act abolishing the heritable jurisdictions. 巴特勒提醒他注意废除世袭审判权的国会法令。
• James I personally adjudicated between the two jurisdictions. 詹姆士一世亲自裁定双方纠纷。

147 outlaw   

n.歹徒，亡命之徒；vt.宣布…为不合法

参考例句：

• The outlaw hid out in the hills for several months.逃犯在山里隐藏了几个月。
• The outlaw has been caught.歹徒已被抓住了。

148 abjure   

v.发誓放弃

参考例句：

• The conqueror tried to make the natives abjure their religion.征服者试著让当地人宣誓放弃他们的宗教。
• Some of the Roman Emperors tried to make Christians abjure their religion.有些罗马皇帝试著使基督教徒宣誓放弃他们的宗教。

149 enacts   

制定（法律），通过（法案）( enact的第三人称单数 )

参考例句：

• The legislative branch enacts laws; the executive branch enforces them, and the judicial branch interprets them. 立法部门制订法律，行政部门执行法律，司法部门解释法律。
• Hold phasic characteristic correctly, ability enacts the policy with an actual suit, measure. 正确地把握形势特点，才能制定出切合实际的政策、措施。

150 perjure   

v.作伪证；使发假誓

参考例句：

• The man scrupled to perjure himself.这人发伪誓时迟疑了起来。
• She would rather perjure herself than admit to her sins.她宁愿在法庭上撒谎也不愿承认她的罪行。

151 chaste   

adj.贞洁的；有道德的；善良的；简朴的

参考例句：

• Comparatively speaking,I like chaste poetry better.相比较而言，我更喜欢朴实无华的诗。
• Tess was a chaste young girl.苔丝是一个善良的少女。

152 dignified   

a.可敬的，高贵的

参考例句：

• Throughout his trial he maintained a dignified silence. 在整个审讯过程中，他始终沉默以保持尊严。
• He always strikes such a dignified pose before his girlfriend. 他总是在女友面前摆出这种庄严的姿态。

153 remains   

n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹

参考例句：

• He ate the remains of food hungrily.他狼吞虎咽地吃剩余的食物。
• The remains of the meal were fed to the dog.残羹剩饭喂狗了。

154 blessings   

n.（上帝的）祝福( blessing的名词复数 )；好事；福分；因祸得福

参考例句：

• Afflictions are sometimes blessings in disguise. 塞翁失马，焉知非福。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• We don't rely on blessings from Heaven. 我们不靠老天保佑。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》

155 celibacy   

n.独身(主义)

参考例句：

• People in some religious orders take a vow of celibacy. 有些宗教修会的人发誓不结婚。
• The concept of celibacy carries connotations of asceticism and religious fervor. 修道者的独身观念含有禁欲与宗教热情之意。

156 mere   

adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过

参考例句：

• That is a mere repetition of what you said before.那不过是重复了你以前讲的话。
• It's a mere waste of time waiting any longer.再等下去纯粹是浪费时间。

157 dispensed   

v.分配( dispense的过去式和过去分词 )；施与；配（药）

参考例句：

• Not a single one of these conditions can be dispensed with. 这些条件缺一不可。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》
• They dispensed new clothes to the children in the orphanage. 他们把新衣服发给孤儿院的小孩们。 来自《现代英汉综合大词典》

158 pertinaciously   

adv.坚持地；固执地；坚决地；执拗地

参考例句：

• He struggled pertinaciously for the new resolution. 他为了这项新决议而不懈努力。 来自互联网

159 subservient   

adj.卑屈的，阿谀的

参考例句：

• He was subservient and servile.他低声下气、卑躬屈膝。
• It was horrible to have to be affable and subservient.不得不强作欢颜卖弄风骚，真是太可怕了。

160 enquire   

v.打听，询问；调查，查问

参考例句：

• She wrote to enquire the cause of the delay.她只得写信去询问拖延的理由。
• We will enquire into the matter.我们将调查这事。

161 perilous   

adj.危险的，冒险的

参考例句：

• The journey through the jungle was perilous.穿过丛林的旅行充满了危险。
• We have been carried in safety through a perilous crisis.历经一连串危机，我们如今已安然无恙。

162 prudence   

n.谨慎，精明，节俭

参考例句：

• A lack of prudence may lead to financial problems.不够谨慎可能会导致财政上出现问题。
• The happy impute all their success to prudence or merit.幸运者都把他们的成功归因于谨慎或功德。

163 hindrance   

n.妨碍，障碍

参考例句：

• Now they can construct tunnel systems without hindrance.现在他们可以顺利地建造隧道系统了。
• The heavy baggage was a great hindrance to me.那件行李成了我的大累赘。

164 doctrines   

n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明

参考例句：

• To modern eyes, such doctrines appear harsh, even cruel. 从现代的角度看，这样的教义显得苛刻，甚至残酷。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• His doctrines have seduced many into error. 他的学说把许多人诱入歧途。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》

165 antagonism   

n.对抗，敌对，对立

参考例句：

• People did not feel a strong antagonism for established policy.人们没有对既定方针产生强烈反应。
• There is still much antagonism between trades unions and the oil companies.工会和石油公司之间仍然存在着相当大的敌意。

166 emancipating   

v.解放某人（尤指摆脱政治、法律或社会的束缚）( emancipate的现在分词 )

参考例句：

• Innovation requires emancipating our minds, seeking truth from facts and keeping pace with the times. 创新就要不断解放思想、实事求是、与时俱进。 来自汉英非文学 - 十六大报告
• The harmonious society is important content of Marx's mankind emancipating thought. 和谐社会是马克思人类解放思想中的重要内容。 来自互联网

167 Buddhist   

adj./n.佛教的，佛教徒

参考例句：

• The old lady fell down in adoration before Buddhist images.那老太太在佛像面前顶礼膜拜。
• In the eye of the Buddhist,every worldly affair is vain.在佛教徒的眼里，人世上一切事情都是空的。

168 admonish   

v.训戒；警告；劝告

参考例句：

• I will tactfully admonish him not to behave like this again.我会婉转的规诫他不要再这样做。
• Admonish your friends privately,but praise them openly.要私下告戒朋友，但是要公开夸奖朋友。

169 admonished   

v.劝告( admonish的过去式和过去分词 )；训诫；（温和地）责备；轻责

参考例句：

• She was admonished for chewing gum in class. 她在课堂上嚼口香糖，受到了告诫。
• The teacher admonished the child for coming late to school. 那个孩子迟到，老师批评了他。 来自《简明英汉词典》

170 dilate   

vt.使膨胀，使扩大

参考例句：

• At night,the pupils dilate to allow in more light.到了晚上，瞳孔就会扩大以接收更多光线。
• Exercise dilates blood vessels on the surface of the brain.运动会使大脑表层的血管扩张。

171 materialism   

n.［哲］唯物主义，唯物论；物质至上

参考例句：

• Idealism is opposite to materialism.唯心论和唯物论是对立的。
• Crass materialism causes people to forget spiritual values.极端唯物主义使人忘掉精神价值。

172 laments   

n.悲恸，哀歌，挽歌( lament的名词复数 )v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的第三人称单数 )

参考例句：

• In the poem he laments the destruction of the countryside. 在那首诗里他对乡村遭到的破坏流露出悲哀。
• In this book he laments the slight interest shown in his writings. 在该书中他慨叹人们对他的著作兴趣微弱。 来自辞典例句

173 lament   

n.悲叹，悔恨，恸哭；v.哀悼，悔恨，悲叹

参考例句：

• Her face showed lament.她的脸上露出悲伤的样子。
• We lament the dead.我们哀悼死者。

174 aberrations   

n.偏差( aberration的名词复数 )；差错；脱离常规；心理失常

参考例句：

• These events were aberrations from the norm. 这些事件不合常规。 来自辞典例句
• These chromosome aberrations are all stable, compatible with cell viability. 这些染色体畸变都是稳定的，不影响细胞生活力的。 来自辞典例句

175 restriction   

n.限制，约束

参考例句：

• The park is open to the public without restriction.这个公园对公众开放，没有任何限制。
• The 30 mph speed restriction applies in all built-up areas.每小时限速30英里适用于所有建筑物聚集区。

176 restrictions   

约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则）

参考例句：

• I found the restrictions irksome. 我对那些限制感到很烦。
• a snaggle of restrictions 杂乱无章的种种限制

177 obedience   

n.服从，顺从

参考例句：

• Society has a right to expect obedience of the law.社会有权要求人人遵守法律。
• Soldiers act in obedience to the orders of their superior officers.士兵们遵照上级军官的命令行动。

178 immorality   

n. 不道德, 无道义

参考例句：

• All the churchmen have preached against immorality. 所有牧师都讲道反对不道德的行为。
• Where the European sees immorality and lawlessness, strict law rules in reality. 在欧洲人视为不道德和无规则的地方，事实上都盛行着一种严格的规则。 来自英汉非文学 - 家庭、私有制和国家的起源

179 exhortations   

n.敦促( exhortation的名词复数 )；极力推荐；（正式的）演讲；（宗教仪式中的）劝诫

参考例句：

• The monuments of men's ancestors were the most impressive exhortations. 先辈们的丰碑最能奋勉人心的。 来自辞典例句
• Men has free choice. Otherwise counsels, exhortations, commands, prohibitions, rewards and punishments would be in vain. 人具有自由意志。否则，劝告、赞扬、命令、禁规、奖赏和惩罚都将是徒劳的。 来自辞典例句

180 wedlock   

n.婚姻，已婚状态

参考例句：

• My wife likes our wedlock.我妻子喜欢我们的婚姻生活。
• The Fawleys were not made for wedlock.范立家的人就跟结婚没有缘。

181 emancipation   

n.（从束缚、支配下）解放

参考例句：

• We must arouse them to fight for their own emancipation. 我们必须唤起他们为其自身的解放而斗争。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• They rejoiced over their own emancipation. 他们为自己的解放感到欢欣鼓舞。 来自《简明英汉词典》

182 hereditarily   

世袭地，遗传地

参考例句：

• The De Courcy's were hereditarily shortsighted. 德库西家的人祖传下来全是近视眼。
• Moreover an analogous result of hereditarily normal weakly submetacompact is obtained. 进一步还得到了遗传正规的遗传弱次亚紧性的类似结果。

183 contemplated   

adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式

参考例句：

• The doctor contemplated the difficult operation he had to perform. 医生仔细地考虑他所要做的棘手的手术。
• The government has contemplated reforming the entire tax system. 政府打算改革整个税收体制。

184 allusion   

n.暗示，间接提示

参考例句：

• He made an allusion to a secret plan in his speech.在讲话中他暗示有一项秘密计划。
• She made no allusion to the incident.她没有提及那个事件。

185 enactments   

n.演出( enactment的名词复数 )；展现；规定；通过

参考例句：

• The enactments specified in Part 3 of Schedule 5 are repealed. 附表５第３部指明的成文法则现予废除。 来自互联网
• On and after April 1st the new enactments shall be enforced. 从4月1日起实施新法令。 来自互联网

186 conclusive   

adj.最后的，结论的；确凿的，消除怀疑的

参考例句：

• They produced some fairly conclusive evidence.他们提供了一些相当确凿的证据。
• Franklin did not believe that the French tests were conclusive.富兰克林不相信这个法国人的实验是结论性的。

187 pretext   

n.借口，托词

参考例句：

• He used his headache as a pretext for not going to school.他借口头疼而不去上学。
• He didn't attend that meeting under the pretext of sickness.他以生病为借口，没参加那个会议。

188 abominable   

adj.可厌的，令人憎恶的

参考例句：

• Their cruel treatment of prisoners was abominable.他们虐待犯人的做法令人厌恶。
• The sanitary conditions in this restaurant are abominable.这家饭馆的卫生状况糟透了。

189 justification   

n.正当的理由；辩解的理由

参考例句：

• There's no justification for dividing the company into smaller units. 没有理由把公司划分成小单位。
• In the young there is a justification for this feeling. 在年轻人中有这种感觉是有理由的。

190 surmised   

v.臆测，推断( surmise的过去式和过去分词 )；揣测；猜想

参考例句：

• From the looks on their faces, I surmised that they had had an argument. 看他们的脸色，我猜想他们之间发生了争执。
• From his letter I surmised that he was unhappy. 我从他的信中推测他并不快乐。 来自《简明英汉词典》

191 avowed   

adj.公开声明的，承认的v.公开声明，承认( avow的过去式和过去分词)

参考例句：

• An aide avowed that the President had known nothing of the deals. 一位助理声明，总统对这些交易一无所知。
• The party's avowed aim was to struggle against capitalist exploitation. 该党公开宣称的宗旨是与资本主义剥削斗争。 来自《简明英汉词典》

192 alleged   

a.被指控的，嫌疑的

参考例句：

• It was alleged that he had taken bribes while in office. 他被指称在任时收受贿赂。
• alleged irregularities in the election campaign 被指称竞选运动中的不正当行为

193 uncertainties   

无把握( uncertainty的名词复数 )； 不确定； 变化不定； 无把握、不确定的事物

参考例句：

• One of the uncertainties of military duty is that you never know when you might suddenly get posted away. 任军职不稳定的因素之一是你永远不知道什么时候会突然被派往它处。
• Uncertainties affecting peace and development are on the rise. 影响和平与发展的不确定因素在增加。 来自汉英非文学 - 十六大报告

194 proscribe   

v.禁止；排斥；放逐，充军；剥夺公权

参考例句：

• They are proscribed by federal law from owning guns.根据联邦法律的规定，他们不准拥有枪支。
• The sale of narcotics is proscribed by law.法律禁止贩卖毒品。

195 essentially   

adv.本质上，实质上，基本上

参考例句：

• Really great men are essentially modest.真正的伟人大都很谦虚。
• She is an essentially selfish person.她本质上是个自私自利的人。

196 literally   

adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实

参考例句：

• He translated the passage literally.他逐字逐句地翻译这段文字。
• Sometimes she would not sit down till she was literally faint.有时候，她不走到真正要昏厥了，决不肯坐下来。

197 premium   

n.加付款；赠品；adj.高级的；售价高的

参考例句：

• You have to pay a premium for express delivery.寄快递你得付额外费用。
• Fresh water was at a premium after the reservoir was contaminated.在水库被污染之后，清水便因稀而贵了。

198 undoubtedly   

adv.确实地，无疑地

参考例句：

• It is undoubtedly she who has said that.这话明明是她说的。
• He is undoubtedly the pride of China.毫无疑问他是中国的骄傲。

199 monastery   

n.修道院，僧院，寺院

参考例句：

• They found an icon in the monastery.他们在修道院中发现了一个圣像。
• She was appointed the superior of the monastery two years ago.两年前她被任命为这个修道院的院长。

200 exemption   

n.豁免，免税额，免除

参考例句：

• You may be able to apply for exemption from local taxes.你可能符合资格申请免除地方税。
• These goods are subject to exemption from tax.这些货物可以免税。

201 exempt   

adj.免除的；v.使免除；n.免税者，被免除义务者

参考例句：

• These goods are exempt from customs duties.这些货物免征关税。
• He is exempt from punishment about this thing.关于此事对他已免于处分。

202 laymen   

门外汉，外行人( layman的名词复数 )； 普通教徒（有别于神职人员）

参考例句：

• a book written for professionals and laymen alike 一本内行外行都可以读的书
• Avoid computer jargon when you write for laymen. 写东西给一般人看时，应避免使用电脑术语。

203 contrive   

vt.谋划，策划；设法做到；设计，想出

参考例句：

• Can you contrive to be here a little earlier?你能不能早一点来？
• How could you contrive to make such a mess of things?你怎么把事情弄得一团糟呢？

204 conformity   

n.一致，遵从，顺从

参考例句：

• Was his action in conformity with the law?他的行动是否合法？
• The plan was made in conformity with his views.计划仍按他的意见制定。

205 touching   

adj.动人的，使人感伤的

参考例句：

• It was a touching sight.这是一幅动人的景象。
• His letter was touching.他的信很感人。

206 revival   

n.复兴，复苏，（精力、活力等的）重振

参考例句：

• The period saw a great revival in the wine trade.这一时期葡萄酒业出现了很大的复苏。
• He claimed the housing market was showing signs of a revival.他指出房地产市场正出现复苏的迹象。

207 tragical   

adj. 悲剧的, 悲剧性的

参考例句：

• One day she was pink and flawless; another pale and tragical. 有的时候，她就娇妍、完美；另有的时候，她就灰白戚楚。
• Even Mr. Clare began to feel tragical at the dairyman's desperation. 连克莱先生看到牛奶商这样无计奈何的样子，都觉得凄惨起来。

208 wig   

n.假发

参考例句：

• The actress wore a black wig over her blond hair.那个女演员戴一顶黑色假发罩住自己的金黄色头发。
• He disguised himself with a wig and false beard.他用假发和假胡须来乔装。

209 elucidation   

n.说明，阐明

参考例句：

• The advertising copy is the elucidation text,which must be written according to the formula of AIDA. 文案是说明文，应基本遵照AIDA公式来写作。 来自互联网
• Fourth, a worm hole, elucidation space-time can stretch, compression, rent, also is deduced time-travel this idea. 第四，有了虫洞，就说明时空可以被拉伸、压缩、撕裂，也就推导出了时空旅行这个想法。 来自互联网

210 lustre   

n.光亮，光泽；荣誉

参考例句：

• The sun was shining with uncommon lustre.太阳放射出异常的光彩。
• A good name keeps its lustre in the dark.一个好的名誉在黑暗中也保持它的光辉。

211 providence   

n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝

参考例句：

• It is tempting Providence to go in that old boat.乘那艘旧船前往是冒大险。
• To act as you have done is to fly in the face of Providence.照你的所作所为那样去行事，是违背上帝的意志的。

212 impartial   

adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的

参考例句：

• He gave an impartial view of the state of affairs in Ireland.他对爱尔兰的事态发表了公正的看法。
• Careers officers offer impartial advice to all pupils.就业指导员向所有学生提供公正无私的建议。

213 protagonist   

n.(思想观念的)倡导者；主角，主人公

参考例句：

• The protagonist reforms in the end and avoids his proper punishment.戏剧主角最后改过自新并避免了他应受的惩罚。
• He is the model for the protagonist in the play.剧本中的主人公就是以他为模特儿创作的！

214 hideous   

adj.丑陋的，可憎的，可怕的，恐怖的

参考例句：

• The whole experience had been like some hideous nightmare.整个经历就像一场可怕的噩梦。
• They're not like dogs,they're hideous brutes.它们不像狗，是丑陋的畜牲。

215 writ   

n.命令状，书面命令

参考例句：

• This is a copy of a writ I received this morning.这是今早我收到的书面命令副本。
• You shouldn't treat the newspapers as if they were Holy Writ. 你不应该把报上说的话奉若神明。

216 revelled   

v.作乐( revel的过去式和过去分词 )；狂欢；着迷；陶醉

参考例句：

• The foreign guests revelled in the scenery of the lake. 外宾们十分喜爱湖上的景色。 来自辞典例句
• He revelled in those moments of idleness stolen from his work. 他喜爱学习之余的闲暇时刻。 来自辞典例句

217 mischief   

n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹

参考例句：

• Nobody took notice of the mischief of the matter. 没有人注意到这件事情所带来的危害。
• He seems to intend mischief.看来他想捣蛋。

218 entails   

使…成为必要( entail的第三人称单数 )； 需要； 限定继承； 使必需

参考例句：

• The job entails a lot of hard work. 这工作需要十分艰苦的努力。
• This job entails a lot of hard work. 这项工作需要十分努力。

219 polemics   

n.辩论术，辩论法；争论( polemic的名词复数 )；辩论；辩论术；辩论法

参考例句：

• He enjoys polemics, persuasion, and controversy. 他喜欢辩论、说服和争议。 来自辞典例句
• The modes of propaganda are opportunistic and the polemics can be vicious. 宣传的模式是投机取巧的，诡辩是可恶性的。 来自互联网

220 judgment   

n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见

参考例句：

• The chairman flatters himself on his judgment of people.主席自认为他审视人比别人高明。
• He's a man of excellent judgment.他眼力过人。

221 ratify   

v.批准，认可，追认

参考例句：

• The heads of two governments met to ratify the peace treaty.两国政府首脑会晤批准和平条约。
• The agreement have to be ratify by the board.该协议必须由董事会批准。

222 lavished   

v.过分给予，滥施( lavish的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• I lavished all the warmth of my pent-up passion. 我把憋在心里那一股热烈的情感尽量地倾吐出来。 来自辞典例句
• An enormous amount of attention has been lavished on these problems. 在这些问题上，我们已经花费了大量的注意力。 来自辞典例句

223 condemned   

adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词

参考例句：

• He condemned the hypocrisy of those politicians who do one thing and say another. 他谴责了那些说一套做一套的政客的虚伪。
• The policy has been condemned as a regressive step. 这项政策被认为是一种倒退而受到谴责。

224 condemn   

vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑

参考例句：

• Some praise him,whereas others condemn him.有些人赞扬他，而有些人谴责他。
• We mustn't condemn him on mere suppositions.我们不可全凭臆测来指责他。

225 fortify   

v.强化防御，为…设防；加强，强化

参考例句：

• This country will fortify the coastal areas.该国将加强沿海地区的防御。
• This treaty forbade the United States to fortify the canal.此条约禁止美国对运河设防。

226 preposterous   

adj.荒谬的，可笑的

参考例句：

• The whole idea was preposterous.整个想法都荒唐透顶。
• It would be preposterous to shovel coal with a teaspoon.用茶匙铲煤是荒谬的。

227 controversy   

n.争论，辩论，争吵

参考例句：

• That is a fact beyond controversy.那是一个无可争论的事实。
• We ran the risk of becoming the butt of every controversy.我们要冒使自己在所有的纷争中都成为众矢之的的风险。

228 tinged   

v.（使）发丁丁声( ting的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• memories tinged with sadness 略带悲伤的往事
• white petals tinged with blue 略带蓝色的白花瓣

229 gleaned   

v.一点点地收集（资料、事实）( glean的过去式和过去分词 )；（收割后）拾穗

参考例句：

• These figures have been gleaned from a number of studies. 这些数据是通过多次研究收集得来的。
• A valuable lesson may be gleaned from it by those who have eyes to see. 明眼人可从中记取宝贵的教训。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》

230 serene   

adj. 安详的，宁静的，平静的

参考例句：

• He has entered the serene autumn of his life.他已进入了美好的中年时期。
• He didn't speak much,he just smiled with that serene smile of his.他话不多，只是脸上露出他招牌式的淡定的微笑。

231 deductions   

扣除( deduction的名词复数 )； 结论； 扣除的量； 推演

参考例句：

• Many of the older officers trusted agents sightings more than cryptanalysts'deductions. 许多年纪比较大的军官往往相信特务的发现，而不怎么相信密码分析员的推断。
• You know how you rush at things,jump to conclusions without proper deductions. 你知道你处理问题是多么仓促，毫无合适的演绎就仓促下结论。

232 monkish   

adj.僧侣的，修道士的，禁欲的

参考例句：

• There was an unconquerable repulsion for her in that monkish aspect. 她对这副猴子样的神气有一种无法克制的厌恶。 来自辞典例句

233 profligacy   

n.放荡，不检点，肆意挥霍

参考例句：

• Subsequently, this statement was quoted widely in the colony as an evidence of profligacy. 结果这句话成为肆意挥霍的一个例证在那块领地里传开了。 来自辞典例句
• Recession, they reason, must be a penance for past profligacy. 经济衰退，他们推断，肯定是对过去大肆挥霍的赎罪。 来自互联网

234 choir   

n.唱诗班，唱诗班的席位，合唱团，舞蹈团；v.合唱

参考例句：

• The choir sang the words out with great vigor.合唱团以极大的热情唱出了歌词。
• The church choir is singing tonight.今晚教堂歌唱队要唱诗。

235 alluded   

提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• In your remarks you alluded to a certain sinister design. 在你的谈话中，你提到了某个阴谋。
• She also alluded to her rival's past marital troubles. 她还影射了对手过去的婚姻问题。

236 deserted   

adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的

参考例句：

• The deserted village was filled with a deathly silence.这个荒废的村庄死一般的寂静。
• The enemy chieftain was opposed and deserted by his followers.敌人头目众叛亲离。

237 adversaries   

n.对手，敌手( adversary的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• That would cause potential adversaries to recoil from a challenge. 这会迫使潜在的敌人在挑战面前退缩。 来自辞典例句
• Every adversaries are more comfortable with a predictable, coherent America. 就连敌人也会因有可以预料的，始终一致的美国而感到舒服得多。 来自辞典例句

238 acquit   

vt.宣判无罪；(oneself)使(自己)表现出

参考例句：

• That fact decided the judge to acquit him.那个事实使法官判他无罪。
• They always acquit themselves of their duty very well.他们总是很好地履行自己的职责。

239 scrupulously   

adv.一丝不苟地；小心翼翼地，多顾虑地

参考例句：

• She toed scrupulously into the room. 她小心翼翼地踮着脚走进房间。 来自辞典例句
• To others he would be scrupulously fair. 对待别人，他力求公正。 来自英汉非文学 - 文明史

240 diligent   

adj.勤勉的，勤奋的

参考例句：

• He is the more diligent of the two boys.他是这两个男孩中较用功的一个。
• She is diligent and keeps herself busy all the time.她真勤快，一会儿也不闲着。

241 adoption   

n.采用，采纳，通过；收养

参考例句：

• An adoption agency had sent the boys to two different families.一个收养机构把他们送给两个不同的家庭。
• The adoption of this policy would relieve them of a tremendous burden.采取这一政策会给他们解除一个巨大的负担。

242 eminently   

adv.突出地；显著地；不寻常地

参考例句：

• She seems eminently suitable for the job. 她看来非常适合这个工作。
• It was an eminently respectable boarding school. 这是所非常好的寄宿学校。 来自《简明英汉词典》

243 reigning   

adj.统治的，起支配作用的

参考例句：

• The sky was dark, stars were twinkling high above, night was reigning, and everything was sunk in silken silence. 天很黑，星很繁，夜阑人静。
• Led by Huang Chao, they brought down the reigning house after 300 years' rule. 在黄巢的带领下，他们推翻了统治了三百年的王朝。

244 proceedings   

n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报

参考例句：

• He was released on bail pending committal proceedings. 他交保获释正在候审。
• to initiate legal proceedings against sb 对某人提起诉讼

245 gratitude   

adj.感激，感谢

参考例句：

• I have expressed the depth of my gratitude to him.我向他表示了深切的谢意。
• She could not help her tears of gratitude rolling down her face.她感激的泪珠禁不住沿着面颊流了下来。

246 countenance   

n.脸色，面容；面部表情；vt.支持，赞同

参考例句：

• At the sight of this photograph he changed his countenance.他一看见这张照片脸色就变了。
• I made a fierce countenance as if I would eat him alive.我脸色恶狠狠地，仿佛要把他活生生地吞下去。

247 gauge   

v.精确计量；估计；n.标准度量；计量器

参考例句：

• Can you gauge what her reaction is likely to be?你能揣测她的反应可能是什么吗？
• It's difficult to gauge one's character.要判断一个人的品格是很困难的。

248 retirement   

n.退休，退职

参考例句：

• She wanted to enjoy her retirement without being beset by financial worries.她想享受退休生活而不必为金钱担忧。
• I have to put everything away for my retirement.我必须把一切都积蓄起来以便退休后用。

249 credence   

n.信用，祭器台，供桌，凭证

参考例句：

• Don't give credence to all the gossip you hear.不要相信你听到的闲话。
• Police attach credence to the report of an unnamed bystander.警方认为一位不知姓名的目击者的报告很有用。

250 vouchsafed   

v.给予，赐予( vouchsafe的过去式和过去分词 )；允诺

参考例句：

• He vouchsafed to me certain family secrets. 他让我知道了某些家庭秘密。
• The significance of the event does, indeed, seem vouchsafed. 这个事件看起来确实具有重大意义。 来自辞典例句

251 surmounted   

战胜( surmount的过去式和过去分词 )； 克服（困难）； 居于…之上； 在…顶上

参考例句：

• She was well aware of the difficulties that had to be surmounted. 她很清楚必须克服哪些困难。
• I think most of these obstacles can be surmounted. 我认为这些障碍大多数都是可以克服的。

252 surmount   

vt.克服；置于…顶上

参考例句：

• We have many problems to surmount before we can start the project.我们得克服许多困难才能著手做这项工作。
• We are fully confident that we can surmount these difficulties.我们完全相信我们能够克服这些困难。

253 wielded   

手持着使用（武器、工具等）( wield的过去式和过去分词 )； 具有； 运用（权力）； 施加（影响）

参考例句：

• The bad eggs wielded power, while the good people were oppressed. 坏人当道，好人受气
• He was nominally the leader, but others actually wielded the power. 名义上他是领导者，但实际上是别人掌握实权。

254 skilfully   

adv. (美skillfully)熟练地

参考例句：

• Hall skilfully weaves the historical research into a gripping narrative. 霍尔巧妙地把历史研究揉进了扣人心弦的故事叙述。
• Enthusiasm alone won't do. You've got to work skilfully. 不能光靠傻劲儿，得找窍门。

255 embittered   

v.使怨恨，激怒( embitter的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• These injustices embittered her even more. 不公平使她更加受苦。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• The artist was embittered by public neglect. 大众的忽视于那位艺术家更加难受。 来自《简明英汉词典》

256 embitter   

v.使苦；激怒

参考例句：

• The loss of all his money embitters the old man.失去全部的钱，使这位老人甚为痛苦。
• Hops serve to embitter beer.酒花的作用是使啤酒发苦。

257 factions   

组织中的小派别，派系( faction的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• The gens also lives on in the "factions." 氏族此外还继续存在于“factions〔“帮”〕中。 来自英汉非文学 - 家庭、私有制和国家的起源
• rival factions within the administration 政府中的对立派别

258 interfered   

v.干预( interfere的过去式和过去分词 )；调停；妨碍；干涉

参考例句：

• Complete absorption in sports interfered with his studies. 专注于运动妨碍了他的学业。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• I am not going to be interfered with. 我不想别人干扰我的事情。 来自《简明英汉词典》

259 connivance   

n.纵容；默许

参考例句：

• The criminals could not have escaped without your connivance.囚犯没有你的默契配合，是逃不掉的。
• He tried to bribe the police into connivance.他企图收买警察放他一马。

260 scions   

n.接穗，幼枝( scion的名词复数 )；（尤指富家）子孙

参考例句：

• Eldritch giants are powerful scions of arcane lore. 邪术巨人是神秘奥术知识的强大传承者。 来自互联网
• Grafting can join scions with desirable qualities to root stock that is strong and resistsand insects. 嫁接能够将理想质量的接穗嫁接到强有力抗病虫害的砧木上。 来自互联网

261 prescription   

n.处方，开药；指示，规定

参考例句：

• The physician made a prescription against sea- sickness for him.医生给他开了个治晕船的药方。
• The drug is available on prescription only.这种药只能凭处方购买。

262 evicted   

v.（依法从房屋里或土地上）驱逐，赶出( evict的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• A number of tenants have been evicted for not paying the rent. 许多房客因不付房租被赶了出来。
• They had evicted their tenants for non-payment of rent. 他们赶走了未交房租的房客。

263 perfectly   

adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地

参考例句：

• The witnesses were each perfectly certain of what they said.证人们个个对自己所说的话十分肯定。
• Everything that we're doing is all perfectly above board.我们做的每件事情都是光明正大的。

264 artifice   

n.妙计，高明的手段；狡诈，诡计

参考例句：

• The use of mirrors in a room is an artifice to make the room look larger.利用镜子装饰房间是使房间显得大一点的巧妙办法。
• He displayed a great deal of artifice in decorating his new house.他在布置新房子中表现出富有的技巧。

265 virgin   

n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的

参考例句：

• Have you ever been to a virgin forest?你去过原始森林吗？
• There are vast expanses of virgin land in the remote regions.在边远地区有大片大片未开垦的土地。

266 promotion   

n.提升，晋级；促销，宣传

参考例句：

• The teacher conferred with the principal about Dick's promotion.教师与校长商谈了迪克的升级问题。
• The clerk was given a promotion and an increase in salary.那个职员升了级，加了薪。

267 alteration   

n.变更，改变；蚀变

参考例句：

• The shirt needs alteration.这件衬衣需要改一改。
• He easily perceived there was an alteration in my countenance.他立刻看出我的脸色和往常有些不同。

268 utterly   

adv.完全地，绝对地

参考例句：

• Utterly devoted to the people,he gave his life in saving his patients.他忠于人民，把毕生精力用于挽救患者的生命。
• I was utterly ravished by the way she smiled.她的微笑使我完全陶醉了。

269 devoid   

adj.全无的，缺乏的

参考例句：

• He is completely devoid of humour.他十分缺乏幽默。
• The house is totally devoid of furniture.这所房子里什么家具都没有。

270 eviction   

n.租地等的收回

参考例句：

• The family have won a temporary reprieve from eviction.这个家庭暂时免于被逐出。
• He claimed damages for unlawful eviction.他要求对非法驱逐作出赔偿。

271 subscribe   

vi.(to)订阅，订购；同意；vt.捐助，赞助

参考例句：

• I heartily subscribe to that sentiment.我十分赞同那个观点。
• The magazine is trying to get more readers to subscribe.该杂志正大力发展新订户。

272 standing   

n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的

参考例句：

• After the earthquake only a few houses were left standing.地震过后只有几幢房屋还立着。
• They're standing out against any change in the law.他们坚决反对对法律做任何修改。

273 random   

adj.随机的；任意的；n.偶然的(或随便的)行动

参考例句：

• The list is arranged in a random order.名单排列不分先后。
• On random inspection the meat was found to be bad.经抽查，发现肉变质了。

274 arrogance   

n.傲慢，自大

参考例句：

• His arrogance comes out in every speech he makes.他每次讲话都表现得骄傲自大。
• Arrogance arrested his progress.骄傲阻碍了他的进步。

275 conspicuous   

adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的

参考例句：

• It is conspicuous that smoking is harmful to health.很明显，抽烟对健康有害。
• Its colouring makes it highly conspicuous.它的色彩使它非常惹人注目。

276 folly   

n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话

参考例句：

• Learn wisdom by the folly of others.从别人的愚蠢行动中学到智慧。
• Events proved the folly of such calculations.事情的进展证明了这种估计是愚蠢的。

277 dwelling   

n.住宅，住所，寓所

参考例句：

• Those two men are dwelling with us.那两个人跟我们住在一起。
• He occupies a three-story dwelling place on the Park Street.他在派克街上有一幢3层楼的寓所。

278 nil   

n.无，全无，零

参考例句：

• My knowledge of the subject is practically nil.我在这方面的知识几乎等于零。
• Their legal rights are virtually nil.他们实际上毫无法律权利。

279 locus   

n.中心

参考例句：

• Barcelona is the locus of Spanish industry.巴塞罗那是西班牙工业中心。
• Thereafter,the military remained the locus of real power.自此之后，军方一直掌握着实权。

280 forte   

n.长处，擅长；adj.(音乐)强音的

参考例句：

• Her forte is playing the piano.她擅长弹钢琴。
• His forte is to show people around in the company.他最拿手的就是向大家介绍公司。

281 itinerant   

adj.巡回的；流动的

参考例句：

• He is starting itinerant performance all over the world.他正在世界各地巡回演出。
• There is a general debate nowadays about the problem of itinerant workers.目前，针对流动工人的问题展开了普遍的争论。

282 noted   

adj.著名的，知名的

参考例句：

• The local hotel is noted for its good table.当地的那家酒店以餐食精美而著称。
• Jim is noted for arriving late for work.吉姆上班迟到出了名。

283 rebus   

n.谜,画谜

参考例句：

• A picture of a cat on a log is a rebus for catalog.谜画中有一只猫（cat）站在一块木头（a log）上，谜底是catalog（目录）。
• Most people know a sort of puzzle called rebus.大多数人都知道有一种称为画谜的猜谜。

284 axe   

n.斧子；v.用斧头砍，削减

参考例句：

• Be careful with that sharp axe.那把斧子很锋利，你要当心。
• The edge of this axe has turned.这把斧子卷了刃了。

285 inane   

adj.空虚的，愚蠢的，空洞的

参考例句：

• She started asking me inane questions.她开始问我愚蠢的问题。
• Such comments are inane because they don't help us solve our problem.这种评论纯属空洞之词，不能帮助我们解决问题。

286 descended   

a.为...后裔的，出身于...的

参考例句：

• A mood of melancholy descended on us. 一种悲伤的情绪袭上我们的心头。
• The path descended the hill in a series of zigzags. 小路呈连续的之字形顺着山坡蜿蜒而下。

287 professed   

公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的

参考例句：

• These, at least, were their professed reasons for pulling out of the deal. 至少这些是他们自称退出这宗交易的理由。
• Her manner professed a gaiety that she did not feel. 她的神态显出一种她并未实际感受到的快乐。

288 concur   

v.同意，意见一致，互助，同时发生

参考例句：

• Wealth and happiness do not always concur.财富与幸福并非总是并存的。
• I concur with the speaker in condemning what has been done.我同意发言者对所做的事加以谴责。

289 excerpt   

n.摘录，选录，节录

参考例句：

• This is an excerpt from a novel.这是一部小说的摘录。
• Can you excerpt something from the newspaper? 你能从报纸上选录些东西吗？

290 cod   

n.鳕鱼；v.愚弄；哄骗

参考例句：

• They salt down cod for winter use.他们腌鳕鱼留着冬天吃。
• Cod are found in the North Atlantic and the North Sea.北大西洋和北海有鳕鱼。

291 scotch   

n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的

参考例句：

• Facts will eventually scotch these rumours.这种谣言在事实面前将不攻自破。
• Italy was full of fine views and virtually empty of Scotch whiskey.意大利多的是美景，真正缺的是苏格兰威士忌。

292 pestilence   

n.瘟疫

参考例句：

• They were crazed by the famine and pestilence of that bitter winter.他们因那年严冬的饥饿与瘟疫而折磨得发狂。
• A pestilence was raging in that area. 瘟疫正在那一地区流行。

293 consonant   

n.辅音；adj.[音]符合的

参考例句：

• The quality of this suit isn't quite consonant with its price.这套衣服的质量和价钱不相称。
• These are common consonant clusters at the beginning of words.这些单词的开头有相同辅音组合。

294 hostility   

n.敌对，敌意；抵制［pl.］交战，战争

参考例句：

• There is open hostility between the two leaders.两位领导人表现出公开的敌意。
• His hostility to your plan is well known.他对你的计划所持的敌意是众所周知的。

295 persecution   

n. 迫害,烦扰

参考例句：

• He had fled from France at the time of the persecution. 他在大迫害时期逃离了法国。
• Their persecution only serves to arouse the opposition of the people. 他们的迫害只激起人民对他们的反抗。

296 heresy   

n.异端邪说；异教

参考例句：

• We should denounce a heresy.我们应该公开指责异端邪说。
• It might be considered heresy to suggest such a notion.提出这样一个观点可能会被视为异端邪说。

297 entity   

n.实体，独立存在体，实际存在物

参考例句：

• The country is no longer one political entity.这个国家不再是一个统一的政治实体了。
• As a separate legal entity,the corporation must pay taxes.作为一个独立的法律实体，公司必须纳税。

298 grudgingly   

参考例句：

• He grudgingly acknowledged having made a mistake. 他勉强承认他做错了。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• Their parents unwillingly [grudgingly] consented to the marriage. 他们的父母无可奈何地应允了这门亲事。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》

299 distinctive   

adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的

参考例句：

• She has a very distinctive way of walking.她走路的样子与别人很不相同。
• This bird has several distinctive features.这个鸟具有几种突出的特征。

300 acolytes   

n.助手( acolyte的名词复数 )；随从；新手；（天主教）侍祭

参考例句：

• To his acolytes, he is known simply as 'the Boss'. 他被手下人简称为“老板”。 来自辞典例句
• Many of the acolytes have been in hiding amongst the populace. 许多寺僧都隐藏在平民当中。 来自互联网

301 necessitate   

v.使成为必要，需要

参考例句：

• Your proposal would necessitate changing our plans.你的提议可能使我们的计划必须变更。
• The conversion will necessitate the complete rebuilding of the interior.转变就必需完善内部重建。

302 inaccessible   

adj.达不到的，难接近的

参考例句：

• This novel seems to me among the most inaccessible.这本书对我来说是最难懂的小说之一。
• The top of Mount Everest is the most inaccessible place in the world.珠穆朗玛峰是世界上最难到达的地方。

303 mortified   

v.使受辱( mortify的过去式和过去分词 )；伤害（人的感情）；克制；抑制（肉体、情感等）

参考例句：

• She was mortified to realize he had heard every word she said. 她意识到自己的每句话都被他听到了，直羞得无地自容。
• The knowledge of future evils mortified the present felicities. 对未来苦难的了解压抑了目前的喜悦。 来自《简明英汉词典》

304 amputation   

n.截肢

参考例句：

• In ancient India,adultery was punished by amputation of the nose.在古代印度，通奸要受到剖鼻的处罚。
• He lived only hours after the amputation.截肢后，他只活了几个小时。

305 beetle   

n.甲虫，近视眼的人

参考例句：

• A firefly is a type of beetle.萤火虫是一种甲虫。
• He saw a shiny green beetle on a leaf.我看见树叶上有一只闪闪发光的绿色甲虫。

306 tandem   

n.同时发生；配合；adv.一个跟着一个地；纵排地；adj.（两匹马）前后纵列的

参考例句：

• Malcolm's contract will run in tandem with his existing one.马尔科姆的合同将与他手头的合同同时生效。
• He is working in tandem with officials of the Serious Fraud Office.他正配合欺诈重案办公室的官员工作。

307 savage   

adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人

参考例句：

• The poor man received a savage beating from the thugs.那可怜的人遭到暴徒的痛打。
• He has a savage temper.他脾气粗暴。

308 testaments   

n.遗嘱( testament的名词复数 )；实际的证明

参考例句：

• The coastline is littered with testaments to the savageness of the waters. 海岸线上充满了海水肆虐过后的杂乱东西。 来自互联网
• A personification of wickedness and ungodliness alluded to in the Old and New Testaments. 彼勒《旧约》和《新约》中邪恶和罪孽的化身。 来自互联网

309 apparently   

adv.显然地；表面上，似乎

参考例句：

• An apparently blind alley leads suddenly into an open space.山穷水尽，豁然开朗。
• He was apparently much surprised at the news.他对那个消息显然感到十分惊异。

310 penances   

n.（赎罪的）苦行，苦修( penance的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• Brahman! O my child! Cease from practising further penances. 婆罗门！我的孩子！请停止练习进一步的苦行。 来自互联网

311 expiated   

v.为（所犯罪过）接受惩罚，赎（罪）( expiate的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• The thief expiated his theft by giving back the amount stolen and by reforming. 那小偷送回全部偷窃物并改过自新，以为他的偷窃行为赎罪。 来自互联网

312 violation   

n.违反(行为)，违背(行为)，侵犯

参考例句：

• He roared that was a violation of the rules.他大声说，那是违反规则的。
• He was fined 200 dollars for violation of traffic regulation.他因违反交通规则被罚款200美元。

313 alleviates   

减轻，缓解，缓和( alleviate的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• Heat often alleviates pain. 热常常能减缓疼痛。
• A cold compress often alleviates pain. 冷敷常会减轻疼痛。

314 remit   

v.汇款，汇寄；豁免（债务），免除（处罚等）

参考例句：

• I hope you'll remit me the money in time.我希望你能及时把钱汇寄给我。
• Many immigrants regularly remit money to their families.许多移民定期给他们的家人汇款。

315 guilt   

n.犯罪；内疚；过失，罪责

参考例句：

• She tried to cover up her guilt by lying.她企图用谎言掩饰自己的罪行。
• Don't lay a guilt trip on your child about schoolwork.别因为功课责备孩子而使他觉得很内疚。

316 premises   

n.建筑物，房屋

参考例句：

• According to the rules,no alcohol can be consumed on the premises.按照规定，场内不准饮酒。
• All repairs are done on the premises and not put out.全部修缮都在家里进行，不用送到外面去做。

317 infliction   

n.（强加于人身的）痛苦，刑罚

参考例句：

• Don't immerse yourself in the infliction too long.不要长时间沉浸在痛苦经历中。
• Instead of rivets there came an invasion,an infliction,and a visitation.但是铆钉并没有运来，来的却是骚扰、混乱和视察。

318 doom   

n.厄运，劫数；v.注定，命定

参考例句：

• The report on our economic situation is full of doom and gloom.这份关于我们经济状况的报告充满了令人绝望和沮丧的调子。
• The dictator met his doom after ten years of rule.独裁者统治了十年终于完蛋了。

319 intimacy   

n.熟悉，亲密，密切关系，亲昵的言行

参考例句：

• His claims to an intimacy with the President are somewhat exaggerated.他声称自己与总统关系密切，这有点言过其实。
• I wish there were a rule book for intimacy.我希望能有个关于亲密的规则。

320 lurk   

n.潜伏，潜行；v.潜藏，潜伏，埋伏

参考例句：

• Dangers lurk in the path of wilderness.在这条荒野的小路上隐伏着危险。
• He thought he saw someone lurking above the chamber during the address.他觉得自己看见有人在演讲时潜藏在会议厅顶上。

321 disastrous   

adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的

参考例句：

• The heavy rainstorm caused a disastrous flood.暴雨成灾。
• Her investment had disastrous consequences.She lost everything she owned.她的投资结果很惨，血本无归。

322 sects   

n.宗派，教派( sect的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• Members of these sects are ruthlessly persecuted and suppressed. 这些教派的成员遭到了残酷的迫害和镇压。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• He had subdued the religious sects, cleaned up Saigon. 他压服了宗教派别，刷新了西贡的面貌。 来自辞典例句

323 saviour   

n.拯救者，救星

参考例句：

• I saw myself as the saviour of my country.我幻想自己为国家的救星。
• The people clearly saw her as their saviour.人们显然把她看成了救星。

324 anathema   

n.诅咒；被诅咒的人(物)，十分讨厌的人(物)

参考例句：

• Independence for the Kurds is anathema to Turkey and Iran.库尔德人的独立对土耳其和伊朗来说将是一场梦魇。
• Her views are ( an ) anathema to me.她的观点真叫我讨厌。

325 anonymous   

adj.无名的；匿名的；无特色的

参考例句：

• Sending anonymous letters is a cowardly act.寄匿名信是懦夫的行为。
• The author wishes to remain anonymous.作者希望姓名不公开。

326 rams   

n.公羊( ram的名词复数 )；(R-)白羊（星）座；夯；攻城槌v.夯实（土等）( ram的第三人称单数 )；猛撞；猛压；反复灌输

参考例句：

• A couple of rams are butting at each other. 两只羊正在用角互相抵触。 来自辞典例句
• More than anything the rams helped to break what should have been on interminable marriage. 那些牡羊比任何东西都更严重地加速了他们那本该天长地久的婚姻的破裂。 来自辞典例句

327 licensed   

adj.得到许可的v.许可，颁发执照(license的过去式和过去分词)

参考例句：

• The new drug has not yet been licensed in the US. 这种新药尚未在美国获得许可。
• Is that gun licensed? 那支枪有持枪执照吗？

328 tariff   

n.关税，税率；(旅馆、饭店等)价目表，收费表

参考例句：

• There is a very high tariff on jewelry.宝石类的关税率很高。
• The government is going to lower the tariff on importing cars.政府打算降低进口汽车的关税。

329 licenses   

n.执照( license的名词复数 )v.批准，许可，颁发执照( license的第三人称单数 )

参考例句：

• Drivers have ten days' grace to renew their licenses. 驾驶员更换执照有10天的宽限期。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》
• Jewish firms couldn't get import or export licenses or raw materials. 犹太人的企业得不到进出口许可证或原料。 来自辞典例句

330 redeem   

v.买回，赎回，挽回，恢复，履行（诺言等）

参考例句：

• He had no way to redeem his furniture out of pawn.他无法赎回典当的家具。
• The eyes redeem the face from ugliness.这双眼睛弥补了他其貌不扬之缺陷。

331 datum   

n.资料；数据；已知数

参考例句：

• The author has taught foreigners Chinese manyand gathered rich language and datum.作者长期从事对外汉语教学，积累了丰富的语言资料。
• Every theory,datum,or fact is generated by purpose.任何理论，资料、事实都来自于一定的目的。

332 justify   

vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护

参考例句：

• He tried to justify his absence with lame excuses.他想用站不住脚的借口为自己的缺席辩解。
• Can you justify your rude behavior to me?你能向我证明你的粗野行为是有道理的吗？

333 explicitly   

ad.明确地，显然地

参考例句：

• The plan does not explicitly endorse the private ownership of land. 该计划没有明确地支持土地私有制。
• SARA amended section 113 to provide explicitly for a right to contribution. 《最高基金修正与再授权法案》修正了第123条，清楚地规定了分配权。 来自英汉非文学 - 环境法 - 环境法

334 supervision   

n.监督，管理

参考例句：

• The work was done under my supervision.这项工作是在我的监督之下完成的。
• The old man's will was executed under the personal supervision of the lawyer.老人的遗嘱是在律师的亲自监督下执行的。

335 eminence   

n.卓越，显赫；高地，高处；名家

参考例句：

• He is a statesman of great eminence.他是个声名显赫的政治家。
• Many of the pilots were to achieve eminence in the aeronautical world.这些飞行员中很多人将会在航空界声名显赫。

336 alias   

n.化名；别名；adv.又名

参考例句：

• His real name was Johnson,but he often went by the alias of Smith.他的真名是约翰逊，但是他常常用化名史密斯。
• You can replace this automatically generated alias with a more meaningful one.可用更有意义的名称替换这一自动生成的别名。

337 baron   

n.男爵；(商业界等)巨头，大王

参考例句：

• Henry Ford was an automobile baron.亨利·福特是一位汽车业巨头。
• The baron lived in a strong castle.男爵住在一座坚固的城堡中。

338 antiquity   

n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹

参考例句：

• The museum contains the remains of Chinese antiquity.博物馆藏有中国古代的遗物。
• There are many legends about the heroes of antiquity.有许多关于古代英雄的传说。