A new phrase has come into the language—counsel on public relations. What does it mean?
As a matter of fact, the actual phrase is completely understood by only a few, and those only the people intimately associated with the work itself. But despite this, the activities of the public relations counsel affect the daily life of the entire population in one form or another.
Because of the recent extraordinary growth of the profession of public relations counsel and the lack of available information concerning it, an air of mystery has surrounded its scope and functions. To the average person, this profession is still unexplained, both in its operation and actual accomplishment1. Perhaps the most definite picture is that of a man who somehow or other produces
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that vaguely2 defined evil, “propaganda,” which spreads an impression that colors the mind of the public concerning actresses, governments, railroads. And yet, as will be pointed3 out shortly, there is probably no single profession which within the last ten years has extended its field of usefulness more remarkably4 and touched upon intimate and important aspects of the everyday life of the world more significantly than the profession of public relations counsel.
There is not even any one name by which the new profession is characterized by others. To some the public relations counsel is known by the term “propagandist.” Others still call him press agent or publicity5 man. Writing even within the last few years, John L. Given, the author of an excellent textbook on journalism6, does not mention the public relations counsel. He limits his reference to the old-time press agent. Many organizations simply do not bother about an individual name and assign to an existing officer the duties of the public relations counsel. One bank’s vice-president is its recognized public relations counsel. Some dismiss the subject or condemn7 the entire profession generally and all its members individually.
Slight examination into the grounds for this disapproval8 readily reveals that it is based on
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nothing more substantial than vague impressions.
Indeed, it is probably true that the very men who are themselves engaged in the profession are as little ready or able to define their work as is the general public itself. Undoubtedly9 this is due, in some measure, to the fact that the profession is a new one. Much more important than that, however, is the fact that most human activities are based on experience rather than analysis.
Judge Cardozo of the Court of Appeals of the State of New York finds the same absence of functional10 definition in the judicial11 mind. “The work of deciding cases,” he says, “goes on every day in hundreds of courts throughout the land. Any judge, one might suppose, would find it easy to describe the process which he had followed a thousand times and more. Nothing could be farther from the truth. Let some intelligent layman12 ask him to explain. He will not go very far before taking refuge in the excuse that the language of craftsmen13 is unintelligible14 to those untutored in the craft. Such an excuse may cover with a semblance15 of respectability an otherwise ignominious16 retreat. It will hardly serve to still the prick17 of curiosity and conscience. In moments of introspection, when there is no longer a necessity of putting off with a show of wisdom
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the uninitiated interlocutor, the troublesome problem will recur18 and press for a solution: What is it that I do when I decide a case?”1
From my own records and from current history still fresh in the public mind, I have selected a few instances which only in a limited measure give some idea of the variety of the public relations counsel’s work and of the type of problem which he attempts to solve.
These examples show him in his position as one who directs and supervises the activities of his clients wherever they impinge upon the daily life of the public. He interprets the client to the public, which he is enabled to do in part because he interprets the public to the client. His advice is given on all occasions on which his client appears before the public, whether it be in concrete form or as an idea. His advice is given not only on actions which take place, but also on the use of mediums which bring these actions to the public it is desired to reach, no matter whether these mediums be the printed, the spoken or the visualized19 word—that is, advertising20, lectures, the stage, the pulpit, the newspaper, the photograph, the wireless21, the mail or any other form of thought communication.
A nationally famous New York hotel found that its business was falling off at an alarming
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rate because of a rumor22 that it was shortly going to close and that the site upon which it was located would be occupied by a department store. Few things are more mysterious than the origins of rumors23, or the credence24 which they manage to obtain. Reservations at this hotel for weeks and months ahead were being canceled by persons who had heard the rumor and accepted it implicitly25.
The problem of meeting this rumor (which like many rumors had no foundation in fact) was not only a difficult but a serious one. Mere26 denial, of course, no matter how vigorous or how widely disseminated27, would accomplish little.
The mere statement of the problem made it clear to the public relations counsel who was retained by the hotel that the only way to overcome the rumor was to give the public some positive evidence of the intention of the hotel to remain in business. It happened that the maître d’hôtel was about as well known as the hotel itself. His contract was about to expire. The public relations counsel suggested a very simple device.
“Renew his engagement immediately for a term of years,” he said. “Then make public announcement of the fact. Nobody who hears of the renewal30 or the amount of money involved will believe for a moment that you intend to go out of business.” The maître d’hôtel was
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called in and offered a five-year engagement. His salary was one which many bank presidents might envy. Public announcement of his engagement was made. The maître d’hôtel was himself something of a national figure. The salary stipulated31 was not without popular interest from both points of view. The story was one which immediately interested the newspapers. A national press service took up the story and sent it out to all its subscribers. The cancellation32 of reservations stopped and the rumor disappeared.
A nationally known magazine was ambitious to increase its prestige among a more influential33 group of advertisers. It had never made any effort to reach this public except through its own direct circulation. The consultant34 who was retained by the magazine quickly discovered that much valuable editorial material appearing in the magazine was allowed to go to waste. Features of interest to thousands of potential readers were never called to their attention unless they happened accidentally to be readers of the magazine.
The public relations counsel showed how to extend the field of their appeal. He chose for his first work an extremely interesting article by a well-known physician, written about the interesting thesis that “the pace that kills” is the slow, deadly, dull routine pace and not the pace of life
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under high pressure, based on work which interests and excites. The consultant arranged to have the thesis of the article made the basis of an inquiry36 among business and professional men throughout the country by another physician associated with a medical journal. Hundreds of members of “the quality public,” as they are known to advertisers, had their attention focused on the article, and the magazine which the consultant was engaged in counseling on its public relations.
The answers from these leading men of the country were collated37, analyzed38, and the resulting abstract furnished gratuitously39 to newspapers, magazines and class journals, which published them widely. Organizations of business and professional men reprinted the symposium40 by the thousands and distributed it free of charge, doing so because the material contained in the symposium was of great interest. A distinguished41 visitor from abroad, Lord Leverhulme, became interested in the question while in this country and made the magazine and the article the basis of an address before a large and influential conference in England. Nationally and internationally the magazine was called to the attention of a public which had, up to that time, considered it perhaps a publication of no serious social significance.
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Still working with the same magazine, the publicity consultant advised it how to widen its influence with another public on quite a different issue. He took as his subject an article by Sir Philip Gibbs, “The Madonna of the Hungry Child,” dealing42 with the famine situation in Europe and the necessity for its prompt alleviation43. The article was brought to the attention of Herbert Hoover. Mr. Hoover was so impressed by the article that he sent the magazine a letter of commendation for publishing it. He also sent a copy of the article to members of his relief committees throughout the country. The latter, in turn, used the article to obtain support and contributions for relief work. Thus, while an important humanitarian44 project was being materially assisted, the magazine in question was adding to its own influence and standing45.
Now, the interesting thing about this work is that whereas the public relations counsel added nothing to the contents of the magazine, which had for years been publishing material of this nature, he did make its importance felt and appreciated.
A large packing house was faced with the problem of increasing the sale of its particular brand of bacon. It already dominated the market in its field; the problem was therefore one of
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increasing the consumption of bacon generally, for its dominance of the market would naturally continue. The public relations counsel, realizing that hearty46 breakfasts were dietetically sound, suggested that a physician undertake a survey to make this medical truth articulate. He realized that the demand for bacon as a breakfast food would naturally be increased by the wide dissemination47 of this truth. This is exactly what happened.
A hair-net company had to solve the problem created by the increasing vogue48 of bobbed hair. Bobbed hair was eliminating the use of the hair-net. The public relations counsel, after investigation49, advised that the opinions of club women as leaders of the women of the country should be made articulate on the question. Their expressed opinion, he believed, would definitely modify the bobbed hair vogue. A leading artist was interested in the subject and undertook a survey among the club women leaders of the country. The resultant responses confirmed the public relations counsel’s judgment50. The opinions of these women were given to the public and helped to arouse what had evidently been a latent opinion on the question. Long hair was made socially more acceptable than bobbed hair and the vogue for the latter was thereby51 partially52 checked.
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A real estate corporation on Long Island was interested in selling coöperative apartments to a high-class clientele. In order to do this, it realized that it had to impress upon the public the fact that this community, within easy reach of Manhattan, was socially, economically, artistically53 and morally desirable. On the advice of its public relations counsel, instead of merely proclaiming itself as such a community, it proved its contentions54 dramatically by making itself an active center for all kinds of community manifestations55.
When it opened its first post office, for instance, it made this local event nationally interesting. The opening was a formal one. National figures became interested in what might have been merely a local event.
The reverses which the Italians suffered on the Piave in 1918 were dangerous to Italian and Allied56 morale57. One of the results was the awakening58 of a distrust among Italians as to the sincerity59 of American promises of military, financial and moral support for the Italian cause.
It became imperative60 vividly61 to dramatize for Italy the reality of American coöperation. As one of the means to this end the Committee on Public Information decided62 that the naming of a recently completed American ship should be made the occasion for a demonstration63 of friendship
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which could be reflected in every possible way to the Italians.
Prominent Italians in America were invited by the public relations counsel to participate in the launching of the Piave. Motion and still pictures were taken of the event. The news of the launching and of its significance to Americans was telegraphed to Italian newspapers. At the same time a message from Italian-Americans was transmitted to Italy expressing their confidence in America’s assistance of the Italian cause. Enrico Caruso, Gatti-Casazza, director of the Metropolitan64 Opera, and others highly regarded by their countrymen in Italy, sent inspiriting telegrams which had a decided effect in raising Italian morale, so far as it depended upon assurance of American coöperation. Other means employed to disseminate28 information of this event had the same effect.
The next incident that I have selected is one which conforms more closely than some of the others to the popular conception of the work of the public relations counsel. In the spring and summer of 1919 the problem of fitting ex-service men into the ordinary life of America was serious and difficult. Thousands of men just back from abroad were having a trying time finding work. After their experience in the war it was not surprising that they should be extremely
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ready to feel bitter against the Government and against those Americans who for one reason or another had not been in any branch of the service during the war.
The War Department under Colonel Arthur Woods, assistant to the Secretary of War, instituted a nation-wide campaign to assist those men to obtain employment, and more than that, to manifest to them as concretely as it could that the Government continued its interest in their welfare. The incident to which I refer occurred during this campaign.
In July of 1919 there was such a shortage of labor65 in Kansas that it was feared a large proportion of the wheat crop could not possibly be harvested. The activities of the War Department in the reëmployment of ex-service men had already received wide publicity, and the Chamber66 of Commerce of Kansas City appealed directly to the War Department at Washington, after its own efforts in many other directions had failed, for a supply of men who would assist in the harvesting of the wheat crop. The public relations counsel prepared a statement of this opportunity for employment in Kansas and distributed it to the public through the newspapers throughout the country. The Associated Press sent the statement over its wires as a news dispatch. Within four days the Kansas City Chamber
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of Commerce wired to the War Department that enough labor had been secured to harvest the wheat crop, and asked the War Department to announce that fact as publicly as it had first announced the need for labor.
By contrast with this last instance, and as an illustration of a type of work less well understood by the public, I cite another incident from the same campaign for the reëstablishment of ex-service men to normal economic and social relations. The problem of reëmployment was, of course, the crux68 of the difficulty. Various measures were adopted to obtain the coöperation of business men in extending employment opportunities to ex-members of the Army, Navy and Marines. One of these devices appealed to the personal and local pride of American business men, and stressed their obligation of honor to reëmploy their former employees upon release from Government service.
A citation69 was prepared, signed by the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy and the Assistant to the Secretary of War for display in the stores and factories of employers who assured the War and Navy Departments that they would reëmploy their ex-service men. Simultaneous display of these citations70 was arranged for Bastile Day, July 14, 1919, by members of the Fifth Avenue Association.
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The Fifth Avenue Association of New York City, an influential group of business men, was perhaps the first to coöperate as a body in this important campaign for the reëmployment of ex-service men. Concerted action on a subject which was as much in the public mind as the reëmployment of ex-service men was particularly interesting. The story of what these leaders in American business had undertaken to do went out to the country by mail, by word of mouth, by newspaper comment. Their example was potent35 in obtaining the coöperation of business men throughout the land. An appeal based on this action and capitalizing it was sent to thousands of individual business men and employers throughout the country. It was effective.
An illustration which embodies71 most of the technical and psychological points of interest in the preceding incidents may be found in Lithuania’s campaign in this country in 1919, for popular sympathy and official recognition. Lithuania was of considerable political importance in the reorganization of Europe, but it was a country little known or understood by the American public. An added difficulty was the fact that the independence of Lithuania would interfere72 seriously with the plans which France had for the establishment of a strong Poland. There were excellent historical, ethnic73 and economic reasons
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why, if Lithuania broke off from Russia, it should be allowed to stand on its own feet. On the other hand there were powerful political influences which were against such a result. The American attitude on the question of Lithuanian independence, it was felt, would play an important part. The question was how to arouse popular and official interest in Lithuania’s aspirations74.
A Lithuanian National Council was organized, composed of prominent American-Lithuanians, and a Lithuanian Information Bureau established to act as a clearing house for news about Lithuania and for special pleading on behalf of Lithuania’s ambitions. The public relations counsel who was retained to direct this work recognized that the first problem to be solved was America’s indifference75 to and ignorance about Lithuania and its desires.
He had an exhaustive study made of every conceivable aspect of the problem of Lithuania from its remote and recent history and ethnic origins to its present-day marriage customs and its popular recreations. He divided his material into its various categories, based primarily on the public to which it would probably make its appeal. For the amateur ethnologist he provided interesting and accurate data of the racial origins of Lithuania. To the student of languages
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he appealed with authentic76 and well written studies of the development of the Lithuanian language from its origins in the Sanskrit. He told the “sporting fan” about Lithuanian sports and told American women about Lithuanian clothes. He told the jeweler about amber67 and provided the music lover with concerts of Lithuanian music.
To the senators, he gave facts about Lithuania which would give them basis for favorable action. To the members of the House of Representatives he did likewise. He reflected to those communities whose crystallized opinion would be helpful in guiding other opinions, facts which gave them basis for conclusions favorable to Lithuania.
A series of events which would carry with them the desired implications were planned and executed. Mass meetings were held in different cities; petitions were drawn77, signed and presented; pilgrims made calls upon Senate and House of Representatives Committees. All the avenues of approach to the public were utilized78 to capitalize the public interest and bring public action. The mails carried statements of Lithuania’s position to individuals who might be interested. The lecture platform resounded79 to Lithuania’s appeal. Newspaper advertising was bought and paid for. The radio carried the message
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of speakers to the public. Motion pictures reached the patrons of moving picture houses.
Little by little and phase by phase, the public, the press and Government officials acquired a knowledge of the customs, the character and the problems of Lithuania, the small Baltic nation that was seeking freedom.
When the Lithuanian Information Bureau went before the press associations to correct inaccurate80 or misleading Polish news about the Lithuanian situation, it came there as representative of a group which had figured largely in the American news for a number of weeks, as a result of the advice and activities of its public relations counsel. In the same way, when delegations81 of Americans, interested in the Lithuanian problem, appeared before members of Congress or officials of the State Department, they came there as spokesmen for a country which was no longer unknown. They represented a group which could no longer be entirely82 ignored. Somebody described this campaign, once it had achieved recognition for the Baltic republic, as the campaign of “advertising a nation to freedom.”
What happened with Roumania is another instance. Roumania wanted to plead its case before the American people. It wanted to tell Americans that it was an ancient and established
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country. The original technique was the issuance of treatises83, historically correct and ethnologically accurate. Their facts were for the large part ignored. The public relations counsel, called in on the case of Roumania, advised them to make these studies into interesting stories of news value. The public read these stories with avidity and Roumania became part of America’s popular knowledge with consequent valuable results for Roumania.
The hotels of New York City discovered that there was a falling off of business and profits. Fewer visitors came to New York. Fewer travelers passed through New York on their way to Europe. The public relations counsel who was consulted and asked to remedy the situation, made an extensive analysis. He talked to visitors. He queried84 men and women who represented groups, sections and opinions of main cities and towns throughout the country. He examined American literature—books, magazines, newspapers, and classified attacks made on New York and New York citizens. He found that the chief cause for lack of interest in New York was the belief that New York was “cold and inhospitable.”
He found animosity and bitterness against New York’s apparent indifference to strangers was keeping away a growing number of travelers. To counteract86 this damaging wave of resentment87,
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he called together the leading groups, industrial, social and civic88, of New York, and formed the Welcome Stranger Committee. The friendly and hospitable85 aims of this committee, broadcasted to the nation, helped to reëstablish New York’s good repute. Congratulatory editorials were printed in the rural and city journals of the country.
Again, in analyzing89 the restaurant service of a prominent hotel, he discovers that its menu is built on the desires of the average eater and that a large group of people with children desire special foods for them. He may then advise his client to institute a children’s diet service.
This was done specifically with the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, which instituted special menus for children. This move, which excited wide comment, was economically and dietetically sound.
In its campaign to educate the public on the importance of early radium treatments for incipient90 cancer, the United States Radium Corporation founded the First National Radium Bank, in order to create and crystallize the impression that radium is and should be available to all physicians who treat cancer sufferers.
An inter-city radio company planned to open a wireless service between the three cities of New York, Detroit and Cleveland. This company might merely have opened its service and waited
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for the public to send its messages, but the president of the organization realized astutely91 that to succeed in any measure at all he must have immediate29 public support. He called in a public relations counsel, who advised an elaborate inauguration92 ceremony, in which the mayors of the three cities thus for the first time connected, would officiate. The mayor of each city officially received and sent the first messages issued on commercial inter-city radio waves. These openings excited wide interest, not only in the three cities directly concerned, but throughout the entire country.
Shortly after the World War, the King and Queen of the Belgians visited America. One of the many desired results of this visit was that it should be made apparent that America, with all the foreign elements represented in its body, was unified93 in its support of King Albert and his country. To present a graphic94 picture of the affection which the national elements here had for the Belgian monarch95, a performance was staged at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City, at which the many nationalist groups were represented and gave voice to their approval. The story of the Metropolitan Opera House performance was spread in the news columns and by photographs in the press throughout
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the world. It was evident to all who saw the pictures or read the story that this king had really stirred the affectionate interest of the national elements that make up America.
An interesting illustration of the broad field of work of the public relations counsel to-day is noted96 in the efforts which were exerted to secure wide commendation and support among Americans for the League of Nations. Obviously a small group of persons, banded together for the sole purpose of furthering the appeal of the League, would have no powerful effect. In order to secure a certain homogeneity among the members of groups who individually had widely varied97 interests and affiliations98, it was decided to form a non-partisan committee for the League of Nations.
The public relations consultant, having assisted in the formation of this committee, called a meeting of women representing Democratic, Republican, radical99, reactionary100, club, society, professional and industrial groups, and suggested that they make a united appeal for national support of the League of Nations. This meeting accurately101 and dramatically reflected disinterested102 and unified support of the League. The public relations counsel made articulate what would otherwise have remained a strong passive sentiment. The
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still insistent103 demand for the League of Nations is undoubtedly due in part to efforts of this nature.
Cases as diverse as the following are the daily work of the public relations counsel. One client is advised to give up a Rolls-Royce car and to buy a Ford104, because the public has definite concepts of what ownership of each represents—another man may be given the contrary advice. One client is advised to withdraw the hat-check privilege, because it causes unfavorable public comment. Another is advised to change the façade of his building to conform to a certain public taste.
One client is advised to announce changes of price policy to the public by telegraph, another by circular, another by advertising. One client is advised to publish a Bible, another a book of French Renaissance105 tales.
One department store is advised to use prices in its advertising, another store not to mention them.
A client is advised to make his labor policy, the hygienic aspect of his factory, his own personality, part of his sales campaign.
Another client is advised to exhibit his wares106 in a museum and school.
Still another is urged to found a scholarship in his subject at a leading university.
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Further incidents could be given here, illustrating107 different aspects of the ordinary daily functions of the public relations counsel—how, for example, the production of “Damaged Goods” in America became the basis of the first notably108 successful move in this country for overcoming the prudish109 refusal to appreciate and face the place of sex in human life; or how, more recently, the desire of some great corporations to increase their business was, through the advice of Ivy110 Lee, their public relations counsel, made the basis of popular education on the importance of brass111 and copper112 to civilization. Enough has been cited, however, to show how little the average member of the public knows of the real work of the public relations counsel, and how that work impinges upon the daily life of the public in an almost infinite number of ways.
Popular misunderstanding of the work of the public relations counsel is easily comprehensible because of the short period of his development. Nevertheless, the fact remains113 that he has become in recent years too important a figure in American life for this ignorance to be safely or profitably continued.
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accomplishment
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| n.完成，成就，（pl.）造诣，技能 | |
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vaguely
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| adv.含糊地，暖昧地 | |
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pointed
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remarkably
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| ad.不同寻常地，相当地 | |
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publicity
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| n.众所周知，闻名；宣传，广告 | |
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journalism
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| n.新闻工作，报业 | |
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condemn
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| vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑 | |
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disapproval
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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functional
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judicial
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| adj.司法的，法庭的，审判的，明断的，公正的 | |
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layman
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craftsmen
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| n. 技工 | |
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unintelligible
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| adj.无法了解的，难解的，莫明其妙的 | |
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semblance
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ignominious
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| adj.可鄙的，不光彩的，耻辱的 | |
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prick
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recur
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visualized
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| 直观的，直视的 | |
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advertising
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| n.广告业；广告活动 a.广告的；广告业务的 | |
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wireless
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rumor
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| n.谣言，谣传，传说 | |
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rumors
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| n.传闻( rumor的名词复数 )；[古]名誉；咕哝；[古]喧嚷v.传闻( rumor的第三人称单数 )；[古]名誉；咕哝；[古]喧嚷 | |
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credence
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implicitly
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mere
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disseminated
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disseminate
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immediate
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renewal
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stipulated
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cancellation
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influential
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consultant
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| n.顾问；会诊医师，专科医生 | |
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potent
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inquiry
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collated
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analyzed
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gratuitously
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| 平白 | |
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symposium
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| n.讨论会，专题报告会；专题论文集 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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42
dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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43
alleviation
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| n. 减轻，缓和，解痛物 | |
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humanitarian
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| n.人道主义者，博爱者，基督凡人论者 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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hearty
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| adj.热情友好的；衷心的；尽情的，纵情的 | |
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dissemination
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| 传播,宣传,传染(病毒) | |
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Vogue
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| n.时髦，时尚；adj.流行的 | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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partially
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| adv.部分地，从某些方面讲 | |
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artistically
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| adv.艺术性地 | |
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54
contentions
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| n.竞争( contention的名词复数 )；争夺；争论；论点 | |
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manifestations
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| n.表示，显示（manifestation的复数形式） | |
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allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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morale
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| n.道德准则，士气，斗志 | |
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awakening
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| n.觉醒，醒悟 adj.觉醒中的；唤醒的 | |
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sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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imperative
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| n.命令，需要；规则；祈使语气；adj.强制的；紧急的 | |
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vividly
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| adv.清楚地，鲜明地，生动地 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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demonstration
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| n.表明，示范，论证，示威 | |
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metropolitan
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| adj.大城市的，大都会的 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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amber
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| n.琥珀；琥珀色；adj.琥珀制的 | |
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crux
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| adj.十字形；难事，关键，最重要点 | |
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citation
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| n.引用，引证，引用文；传票 | |
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citations
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| n.引用( citation的名词复数 )；引证；引文；表扬 | |
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embodies
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| v.表现( embody的第三人称单数 )；象征；包括；包含 | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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ethnic
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| adj.人种的，种族的，异教徒的 | |
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aspirations
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| 强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音 | |
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indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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authentic
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| a.真的，真正的；可靠的，可信的，有根据的 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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utilized
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| v.利用，使用( utilize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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resounded
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| v.（指声音等）回荡于某处( resound的过去式和过去分词 )；产生回响；（指某处）回荡着声音 | |
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inaccurate
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| adj.错误的，不正确的，不准确的 | |
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delegations
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| n.代表团( delegation的名词复数 )；委托，委派 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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treatises
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| n.专题著作，专题论文，专著( treatise的名词复数 ) | |
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queried
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| v.质疑，对…表示疑问( query的过去式和过去分词 )；询问 | |
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hospitable
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| adj.好客的；宽容的；有利的，适宜的 | |
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counteract
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| vt.对…起反作用，对抗，抵消 | |
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resentment
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| n.怨愤，忿恨 | |
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civic
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| adj.城市的，都市的，市民的，公民的 | |
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analyzing
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| v.分析；分析( analyze的现在分词 )；分解；解释；对…进行心理分析n.分析 | |
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incipient
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| adj.起初的，发端的，初期的 | |
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astutely
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| adv.敏锐地；精明地；敏捷地；伶俐地 | |
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inauguration
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| n.开幕、就职典礼 | |
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unified
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| (unify 的过去式和过去分词)； 统一的； 统一标准的； 一元化的 | |
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graphic
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| adj.生动的，形象的，绘画的，文字的，图表的 | |
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monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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affiliations
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| n.联系( affiliation的名词复数 )；附属机构；亲和性；接纳 | |
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radical
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| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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reactionary
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| n.反动者，反动主义者；adj.反动的，反动主义的，反对改革的 | |
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101
accurately
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| adv.准确地，精确地 | |
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102
disinterested
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| adj.不关心的，不感兴趣的 | |
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103
insistent
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| adj.迫切的，坚持的 | |
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104
Ford
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| n.浅滩，水浅可涉处；v.涉水，涉过 | |
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renaissance
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| n.复活，复兴，文艺复兴 | |
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106
wares
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| n. 货物, 商品 | |
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107
illustrating
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的现在分词 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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108
notably
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| adv.值得注意地，显著地，尤其地，特别地 | |
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109
prudish
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| adj.装淑女样子的，装规矩的，过分规矩的；adv.过分拘谨地 | |
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ivy
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| n.常青藤，常春藤 | |
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111
brass
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| n.黄铜；黄铜器，铜管乐器 | |
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112
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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113
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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