Skalholt.—Reykjavik.—The Fair.—The Peasant and the Merchant.—A Clergyman in his Cups.—Hay-making.—The Icelander’s Hut.—Churches.—Poverty of the Clergy1.—Jon Thorlaksen.—The Seminary of Reykjavik.—Beneficial Influence of the Clergy.—Home Education.—The Icelander’s Winter’s Evening.—Taste for Literature.—The Language.—The Public Library at Reykjavik.—The Icelandic Literary Society.—Icelandic Newspapers.—Longevity.—Leprosy.—Travelling in Iceland.—Fording the Rivers.—Crossing of the Skeidara by Mr. Holland.—A Night’s Bivouac.
Next to Thingvalla, there is no place in Iceland so replete2 with historical interest as Skalholt, its ancient capital. Here in the eleventh century was founded the first school in the island; here was the seat of its first bishops4; here flourished a succession of great orators5, historians, and poets; Isleif, the oldest chronicler of the North; Gissur, who in the beginning of the twelfth century had visited all the countries of Europe and spoke6 all their languages; the philologian7 Thorlak, and Finnur Johnson, the learned author of the “Ecclesiastical History of Iceland.” The Cathedral of Skalholt was renowned8 far and wide for its size, and in the year 1100, Latin, poetry, music, and rhetoric9, the four liberal arts, were taught in its school, more than they were at that time99 in many of the large European cities. As a proof how early the study of the ancients flourished in Skalholt, we find it recorded that in the twelfth century a bishop3 once caught a scholar reading Ovid’s “Art of Love;” and as the story relates that the venerable pastor10 flew into a violent passion at the sight of the unholy book, we may without injustice11 conclude that he must have read it himself in some of his leisure hours, to know its character so well.
Of all its past glories, Skalholt has retained nothing but its name. The school and the bishopric have been removed, the old church has disappeared, and been replaced by a small wooden building, in which divine service is held once a month; three cottages contain all the inhabitants of the once celebrated12 city, and the extensive churchyard is the only memorial of its former importance. Close by are the ruins of the old school-house, and on the spot where the bishop resided a peasant has erected13 his miserable14 hovel.
But the ever-changing tide of human affairs has not bereft15 the now lonely place of its natural charms, for the meadow-lands of Skalholt are beautifully imbedded in an undulating range of hills, overlooking the junction16 of the Bruara and Huita, and backed by a magnificent theatre of mountains, among which Hecla and the Eyjafialla are the most prominent.
Reykjavik, the present capital of the island, has risen into importance at the expense both of Skalholt and Thingvalla. At the beginning of the present century the courts of justice were transferred from the ancient seat of legislature to the new metropolis17, and in 1797 the bishoprics of Hoolum and Skalholt, united into one, had their seats likewise transferred to Reykjavik. The ancient school of Skalholt, after having first migrated to Bessestadt, has also been100 obliged to follow the centralizing tendency, so powerful in our times, and now contributes to the rising fortunes of the small sea-port town.
But in spite of all these accessions, the first aspect of Reykjavik by no means corresponds to our ideas of a capital. “The town,” says Lord Dufferin, “consists of a collection of wooden sheds, one story high—rising here and there into a gable end of greater pretensions18—built along the lava19-track, and flanked at either end by a suburb of turf huts. On every side of it extends a desolate20 plain of lava that once must have boiled up red-hot from some distant gateway21 of hell, and fallen hissing22 into the sea. No tree or bush relieves the dreariness23 of the landscape, and the mountains are too distant to serve as a background to the buildings; but before the door of each merchant’s house facing the sea there flies a gay little pennon; and as you walk along the silent streets, whose dust no carriage-wheel has ever desecrated25, the rows of flower-pots that peep out of the windows, between curtains of white muslin, at once convince you that, notwithstanding their unpretending appearance, within each dwelling26 reign27 the elegance28 and comfort of a woman-tended home.”
55. GOVERNOR’S RESIDENCE, REYKJAVIK.
Twenty years since, Reykjavik was no better than a wretched fishing-village, now it already numbers 1400 inhabitants, and free-trade promises it a still greater increase for the future. It owes its prosperity chiefly to its excellent port, and to the abundance of fish-banks in its neighborhood, which have induced the Danish merchants to make it their principal settlement. Most of them, however, merely visit it in summer like birds of passage, arriving in May with small cargoes30 of foreign goods, and leaving it again in August, after having disposed of their wares31. Thus Reykjavik must be lonely and dreary32 enough in winter, when no trade animates33 its port, and no traveller stays at its solitary34 inn; but the joy of the inhabitants is all the greater when the return of spring re-opens their intercourse35 with the rest of the world, and the delight may be imagined with which they hail the first ship that brings them the long-expected news from Europe, and perhaps some wealthy tourist, eager to admire the wonders of the Geysirs.
The most busy time of the town is, however, the beginning of July, when the annual fair attracts a great number of fishermen and peasants within its walls. From a distance of forty and fifty leagues around, they come with long trains of pack-horses; their stock-fish slung37 freely across the animals’ backs, their more damageable articles close pressed and packed in boxes or skin bags.
The greater part of the trade in this and other small sea-ports—such as Akreyri, Hafnafjord, Eyrarbacki, Berufjord, Vapnafjord, Isafjord, Grafaros, Budenstadt, which, taken all together, do not equal Reykjavik in traffic and population—is carried on by barter38.2
Sometimes the Icelander desires to be paid in specie for part of his produce, but then he is obliged to bargain for a long time with the merchant, who of course derives39 a double profit by an exchange of goods, and is loth to part with101 his hard cash. The dollars thus acquired are either melted down, and worked into silver massive girdles, which in point of execution as well as design are said, on good authority,3 to be equal to any thing of the kind fashioned by English jewellers, or else deposited in a strong-box, as taxes and wages are all paid in produce, and no Icelander ever thinks of investing his money in stocks, shares, or debentures40.
He is, however, by no means so ignorant of mercantile affairs as to strike at once a bargain with the Danish traders. Pitching his tent before the town, he first pays a visit to all the merchants of the place. After carefully noting their several offers (for as each of them invariably treats him to a dram, he with some justice mistrusts his memory), he returns to his caravan41 and makes his calculations as well as his somewhat confused brain allows him. If he is accompanied by his wife, her opinion of course is decisive, and the following morning he repairs with all his goods to the merchant who has succeeded in gaining his confidence.
After the business has been concluded, the peasant empties one glass to the merchant’s health, another to a happy meeting next year, a third to the king, a fourth because three have been drunk already. At length, after many embraces and protestations of eternal friendship, he takes his leave of the merchant. Fortunately there is no thief to be found in all Iceland; but in consequence of these repeated libations, one parcel has not been well packed, another negligently42 attached to the horse, and thus it happens that the poor peasant’s track is not unfrequently marked with sugar, coffee-beans, salt, or flour, and that when he reaches home, he finds some valuable article or other missing.
It would, however, be doing the Icelanders an injustice to regard them as generally intemperate43; for though within the last twelve years the population has increased only ten per cent., and the importation of brandy thirty, yet the whole quantity of spirits consumed in the island amounts to less than three bottles per annum for each individual, and, of this allowance, the people of Reykjavik and of the other small sea-ports have more than their share, while many of the clergy and peasantry in the remoter districts hardly ever taste spirituous liquors. Dr. Hooker mentions the extraordinary effect which a small portion of rum produced on the good old incumbent44 of Middalr, whose stomach had been accustomed only to a milk-diet and a little coffee. “He begged me,” says the doctor,4 “to give him some rum to bathe his wife’s breast; but having applied45 a portion of it to that purpose, he drank the rest without being at all aware of its strength, which, however, had no other effect than in causing this clerical blacksmith,5 with his lame46 hip36, to dance in the most ridiculous manner in front of the house. The scene afforded a great source of merriment to all his family except his old wife, who was very desirous of getting him to bed, while he was no less anxious that she should join him in the dance.”
Dr. Hooker justly remarks that this very circumstance is a convincing proof how unaccustomed this priest was to spirituous liquors, as the quantity taken could not have exceeded a wine-glass full.
102 After his visit to the fair, the peasant sets about hay-making, which is to him the great business of the year, for he is most anxious to secure winter fodder47 for his cattle, on which his whole prosperity depends. The few potatoes and turnips48 about the size of marbles, or the cabbage and parsley, which he may chance to cultivate, are not worth mentioning; grass is the chief, nay49, the only produce of his farm, and that Heaven may grant clear sunshiny days for hay-making is now his daily prayer.
Every person capable of wielding50 a scythe51 or rake is pressed into the work. The best hay is cut from the “tún,” a sort of paddock comprising the lands adjoining the farm-house, and the only part of his grounds on which the peasant bestows52 any attention, for, in spite of the paramount53 importance of his pasture-land, he does but little for its improvement, and a meadow is rarely seen, where the useless or less nutritious54 herbs are not at least as abundant as those of a better quality. The “tún” is encircled by a turf or stone wall, and is seldom more than ten acres in extent, and generally not more than two or three. Its surface is usually a series of closely-packed mounds55, like graves, most unpleasant to walk over, the gutter56, in some places, being two feet in depth between the mounds. After having finished with the “tún,” the farmer subjects to a process of cutting all the broken hillsides and boggy58 undrained swamps that lie near his dwelling. The blades of the scythes59 are very short. It would be impossible to use a long-bladed scythe, owing to the unevenness60 of the ground.
The cutting and making of hay is carried on, when the weather will permit, through all the twenty-four hours of the day. When the hay is made it is tied in bundles by cords and thongs61, and carried away by ponies62 to the earthen houses prepared for it, which are similar to and adjoin those in which the cattle are stalled. “It is a very curious sight,” says Mr. Shepherd, “to see a string of hay-laden ponies returning home. Each pony’s halter is made fast to the tail of the preceding one, and the little animals are so enveloped63 in their burdens that nothing but their hoofs64 and the connecting ropes are visible, and they look as though a dozen huge haycocks, feeling themselves sufficiently65 made, were crawling off to their resting-places.”
When the harvest is finished the farmer treats his family and laborers67 to a substantial supper, consisting of mutton, and a soup of milk and flour; and although the serious and taciturn Icelander has perhaps of all men the least taste for music and dancing, yet these simple feasts are distinguished69 by a placid70 serenity71, no less pleasing than the more boisterous72 mirth displayed at a southern vintage.
Almost all labor66 out-of-doors now ceases for the rest of the year. A thick mantle73 of snow soon covers mountain and vale, meadow and moor74; with every returning day, the sun pays the cold earth a decreasing visit, until, finally, he hardly appears above the horizon at noon; the wintry storm howls over the waste, and for months the life of the Icelander is confined to his hut, which frequently is but a few degrees better than that of the filthy75 Lap.
Its lower part is built of rude stones to about the height of four feet, and between each row layers of turf are placed with great regularity76, to serve instead of mortar77, and keep out the wind. A roof of such wood as can be procured103 rests upon these walls, and is covered with turf and sods. On one side (generally facing the south) are several gable ends and doors, each surmounted78 with a weather-cock. These are the entrances to the dwelling-house proper, to the smithy, store-room, cow-shed, etc. A long narrow passage, dark as pitch, and redolent of unsavory odors, leads to the several apartments, which are separated from each other by thick walls of turf, each having also its own roof, so that the peasant’s dwelling is in fact a conglomeration79 of low huts, which sometimes receive their light through small windows in the front, but more frequently through holes in the roof, covered with a piece of glass or skin. The floors are of stamped earth; the hearth80 is made of a few stones clumsily piled together; a cask or barrel, with the two ends knocked out, answers the purpose of a chimney, or else the smoke is allowed to escape through a mere29 hole in the roof.
56. ICELANDIC HOUSES.
The thick turf walls, the dirty floor, the personal uncleanliness of the inhabitants, all contribute to the pollution of the atmosphere. No piece of furniture seems ever to have been cleaned since it was first put into use; all is disorder81 and confusion. Ventilation is utterly82 impossible, and the whole family, frequently consisting of twenty persons or more, sleep in the same dormitory, as well as any strangers who may happen to drop in. On either side of this apartment are bunks83 three or four feet in width, on which the sleepers84 range themselves.
Such are in general the dwellings85 of the farmers and clergy, for but very few of the more wealthy inhabitants live in any way according to our notions of comfort, while the cots of the poor fisherman are so wretched that one can hardly believe them to be tenanted by human beings.
104 The farm-houses are frequently isolated86, and, on account of their grass-covered roofs and their low construction, are not easily distinguished from the neighboring pasture-grounds; where four or five of them are congregated87 in a grassy88 plain, they are dignified89 with the name of a village, and become the residence of a Hrepstior, or parish constable90.
Then also a church is seldom wanting, which however is distinguished from the low huts around merely by the cross planted on its roof. An Icelandic house of prayer is generally from eight to ten feet wide, and from eighteen to twenty-four long; but of this about eight feet are devoted91 to the altar, which is divided off by a partition stretching across the church, and against which stands the pulpit. A small wooden chest or cupboard, placed at the end of the building, between two very small square windows not larger than a common-sized pane92 of glass, constitutes the communion-table, over which is generally a miserable representation of the Lord’s Supper painted on wood. The height of the walls, which are wainscoted, is about six feet, and from them large wooden beams stretch across from side to side. On these beams are placed in great disorder a quantity of old Bibles, psalters, and fragments of dirty manuscripts. The interior of the roof, the rafters of which rest on the walls, is also lined with wood. On the right of the door, under which one is obliged to stoop considerably93 on entering, is suspended a bell, large enough to make an intolerable noise in so small a space. A few benches on each side the aisle94, so crowded together as almost to touch one another, and affording accommodation to thirty or forty persons when squeezed very tight, leave room for a narrow passage.
These churches, besides their proper use, are also made to answer the purpose of the caravanseras of the East, by affording a night’s lodging95 to foreign tourists. They are indeed neither free from dirt, nor from bad smells; but the stranger is still far better off than in the intolerable atmosphere of a peasant’s hut.
Mr. Ross Browne thus describes the church and parsonage at Thingvalla; “The church is of modern construction, and, like all I saw in the interior, is made of wood, painted a dark color, and roofed with boards covered with sheets of tarred canvas. It is a very primitive96 little affair, only one story high, and not more than fifteen by twenty feet in dimensions. From the date on the weather-cock it appears to have been built in 1858. The congregation is supplied by the few sheep-ranches in the neighborhood, consisting at most of half a dozen families. These unpretending little churches are to be seen in the vicinity of every settlement throughout the whole island. Simple and homely97 as they are, they speak well for the pious98 character of the people.
“The pastor of Thingvalla and his family reside in a group of sod-covered huts close by the church. These cheerless little hovels are really a curiosity, none of them being over ten or fifteen feet high, and all huddled99 together without the slightest regard to latitude100 or longitude101, like a parcel of sheep in a storm. Some have windows in the roof, and some have chimneys; grass and weeds grow all over them, and crooked102 by-ways and dark alleys103 run among them and through them. At the base they are walled up with big lumps of lava, and two of them have board fronts, painted black, while the remainder are105 patched up with turf and rubbish of all sorts, very much in the style of a stork’s nest. A low stone wall encircles the premises104, but seems to be of little use as a barrier against the encroachments of live-stock, being broken up in gaps every few yards. In front of the group some attempt has been made at a pavement, which, however, must have been abandoned soon after the work was commenced. It is now littered all over with old tubs, pots, dish-cloths, and other articles of domestic use.
57. CHURCH AT THINGVALLA.
“The interior of this strange abode105 is even more complicated than one would be led to expect from the exterior106. Passing through a dilapidated doorway107 in one of the smaller cabins, which you would hardly suppose to be the main entrance, you find yourself in a long dark passage-way, built of rough stone, and roofed with wooden rafters and brushwood covered with sod. The sides are ornamented108 with pegs109 stuck in the crevices110 between the stones, upon which hang saddles, bridles111, horse-shoes, bunches of herbs, dried fish, and various articles of cast-off clothing, including old shoes and sheepskins. Wide or narrow, straight or crooked, to suit the sinuosities of the different cabins into which it forms the entrance, it seems to have been originally located upon the track of a blind boa-constrictor. The best room, or rather house—for every room is a house—is set apart for the accommodation of travellers. Another cabin is occupied by some members of the pastor’s family, who bundle about like a lot of rabbits. The kitchen is also the dog-kennel, and occasionally the sheep-house. A pile of stones in one corner of it, upon which a few twigs112 or scraps113 of sheep-manure serve to make the fire, constitute the cooking apartment. The floor consists of the original lava-bed, and artificial puddles114 composed of106 slops and offal of diverse unctuous115 kinds. Smoke fills all the cavities in the air not already occupied by foul116 odors, and the beams, and posts, and rickety old bits of furniture are dyed to the core with the dense117 and variegated118 atmosphere around them. This is a fair specimen119 of the whole establishment, with the exception of the travellers’ room. The beds in these cabins are the chief articles of luxury.”
The poverty of the clergy corresponds with the meanness of their churches. The best living in the island is that of Breide’-Bolstadr, where the nominal120 stipend121 amounts to 180 specie dollars, or about £40 a year; and Mr. Holland states that the average livings do not amount to more than £10 for each parish in the island. The clergymen must therefore depend almost entirely122 for subsistence on their glebe land, and a small pittance123 to which they are entitled for the few baptisms, marriages, and funerals that occur among their parishioners. The bishop himself has only 2000 rix-dollars, or £200, a year, a miserable pittance to make a decent appearance, and to exercise hospitality to the clergy who visit Reykjavik from distant parts.
58. THE PASTOR’S HOUSE, THINGVALLA.
It can not be wondered at that pastors124 thus miserably125 paid are generally obliged to perform the hardest work of day laborers to preserve their families from starving, and that their external appearance corresponds less with the dignity of their office than with their penury126. Besides hay-making and tending the cattle, they may be frequently seen leading a train of pack-horses from a fishing-station to their distant hut. They are all blacksmiths also from necessity, and the best shoers of horses on the island. The feet of an Iceland horse would be cut to pieces over the sharp rock and lava, if not well shod. The great resort of the peasantry is the church; and should any of the numerous horses have lost a shoe, or be likely to do so, the priest puts on his apron127, lights his little charcoal128 fire in his smithy (one of which is always attached to every parsonage), and sets the animal on his legs again. The task of getting the necessary charcoal107 is not the least of his labors129, for whatever the distance may be to the nearest thicket130 of dwarf-birch, he must go thither131 to burn the wood, and to bring it home when charred132 across his horse’s back. His hut is scarcely better than that of the meanest fisherman; a bed, a rickety table, a few chairs, and a chest or two, are all his furniture. This is, as long as he lives, the condition of the Icelandic clergyman, and learning, virtue133, and even genius are but too frequently buried under this squalid poverty.
But few of my readers have probably ever heard of the poet Jon Thorlakson, but who can withhold134 the tribute of his admiration135 from the poor priest of Backa, who with a fixed136 income of less than £6 a year, and condemned137 to all the drudgery138 which I have described, finished at seventy years of age a translation of Milton’s “Paradise Lost,” having previously139 translated Pope’s “Essay on Man.”
59. THE PASTOR OF THINGVALLA.
Three of the first books only of the “Paradise Lost” were printed by the Icelandic Literary Society, when it was dissolved in 1796, and to print the rest at his own expense was of course impossible. In a few Icelandic verses, Thorlakson touchingly140 alludes141 to his penury:—“Ever since I came into this world I have been wedded142 to Poverty, who has now hugged me to her bosom143 these seventy winters, all but two; and whether we shall ever be separated here below is only known to Him who joined us together.”
As if Providence144 had intended to teach the old man that we must hope to the last, he soon after received the unexpected visit of Mr. Henderson, an agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, who thus relates his interview:
“Like most of his brethren at this season of the year, we found him in the meadow assisting his people in hay-making. On hearing of our arrival, he made all the haste home which his age and infirmity would allow, and bidding us welcome to his lowly abode, ushered145 us into the humble146 apartment where he translated my countrymen into Icelandic. The door is not quite four feet in height, and the room may be about eight feet in length by six in breadth. At the inner end is the poet’s bed, and close to the door, over against a small window, not exceeding two feet square, is a table where he commits to paper the effusions of his Muse147. On my telling him that my countrymen would not have forgiven me, nor could I have forgiven myself, had I passed through this part of the island without paying him a visit, he replied that the translation of Milton108 had yielded him many a pleasant hour, and often given him occasion to think of England.”
This visit was followed by agreeable consequences for the venerable bard148. The Literary Fund soon afterwards sent him a present of £30, a modest sum according to our ideas, but a mine of wealth in the eyes of the poor Icelandic priest. His life, however, was now near its close, as it is stated in a short view “Of the Origin, Progress, and Operations of the Society,” dated March 3d, 1821, that “the poet of Iceland is now in his grave; but it is satisfactory to know that the attention, in this instance, of a foreign and remote society to his gains and his fortunes was highly gratifying to his feelings, and contributed not immaterially to the comfort of his concluding days.”
He wrote a letter in very elegant Latin, expressing his heartfelt gratitude149 for the kindness and generosity150 of the Society, so accordant with the character of the British nation, and accompanied it with a MS. copy of his translation. The latter was first printed in Iceland in 1828, but his own original poems did not appear before 1842.
The school where most of the Icelandic clergymen, so poor and yet generally so respectable in their poverty, are educated, is that of Reykjavik, as few only enjoy stipends151 which enable them to study at Copenhagen. There they live several years under a milder sky, they become acquainted with the splendor152 of a large capital, and thus it might be supposed that the idea of returning to the dreary wastes of their own land must be intolerable. Yet this is their ardent153 desire, and, like banished154 exiles, they long for their beloved Iceland, where privation and penury await them.
In no Christian155 country, perhaps with the sole exception of Lapland, are the clergy so poor as in Iceland, but in none do they exert a more beneficial influence.
Though the island has but the one public school at Reykjavik, yet perhaps in no country is elementary education more generally diffused156. Every mother teaches her children to read and write, and a peasant, after providing for the wants of his family by the labor of his hands, loses no opportunity, in his leisure hours, of inculcating a sound morality. In these praiseworthy efforts the parents are supported by the pastor.
He who, judging from the sordid157 condition of an Icelandic hut, might imagine its inhabitants to be no better than savages158, would soon change his opinion were he introduced on a winter evening into the low, ill-ventilated room where the family of a peasant or a small landholder is assembled. Vainly would he seek a single idler in the whole company. The women and girls spin or knit; the men and boys are all busy mending their agricultural implements159 and household utensils160, or else chiselling161 or cutting with admirable skill ornaments162 or snuff-boxes in silver, ivory, or wood. By the dubious163 light of a tallow lamp, just making obscurity visible, sits one of the family, who reads with a loud voice an old “saga” or chronicle, or maybe the newest number of the “Northurfari,” an Iceland literary almanac, published during the last few years by Mr. Gisle Brinjulfsson. Sometimes poems or whole sagas164 are repeated from memory, and there are even itinerant165 story-tellers, who, like the troubadours109 and trouvères of the Middle Ages, wander from one farm to another, and thus gain a scanty166 livelihood167. In this manner the deeds of the ancient Icelanders remain fixed in the memory of their descendants, and Snorre Sturleson, Sämund, Frodi, and Eric Rauda are unforgotten. Nine centuries have elapsed; but every Icelander still knows the names of the proud yarls who first peopled the fiords of the island; and the exploits of the brave vikings who spread terror and desolation along all the coasts of Europe still fill the hearts of the peaceful islanders of our days with a glow of patriotic168 pride.
Where education is so general, one may naturally expect to find a high degree of intellectual cultivation169 among the clergy, the public functionaries170, and the wealthier part of the population. Their classical knowledge is one of the first things that strike the stranger with astonishment171. He sees men whose appearance too frequently denotes an abject172 poverty conversant173 with the great authors of antiquity174, and keenly alive to their beauties. Travelling to the Geysirs, he is not seldom accosted175 in Latin by his guide, and stopping at a farm, his host greets him in the same language.
I have specially176 named Jon Thorlakson, but Iceland has produced and still produces many other men who, without the hope of any other reward but that which proceeds from the pure love of literature, devote their days and nights to laborious177 studies, and live with Virgil and Homer under the sunny skies of Italy and Greece. In the study of the modern languages, the Icelanders are as far advanced as can be expected from their limited intercourse with the rest of the world.
The English language, in which they find so many words of their own and so many borrowed from the Latin, is cultivated by many of the clergy. The German they find still more easy; and as all the Scandinavian languages proceed from the same root, they have no difficulty in understanding the Danish and the Norwegian tongues. Of all the modern languages or dialects which have sprung from the ancient Norse, spoken a thousand years ago all over Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, none has undergone fewer changes than the Icelandic. In the sea-ports it is mixed up with many Danish words and phrases, but in the interior of the island it is still spoken as it was in the times of Ingolfr and Eric the Red, and in the whole island there is no fisherman or day laborer68 who does not perfectly178 understand the oldest writings.
It may easily be imagined that among a people so fond of literature, books must be in great request. Too poor to be constantly increasing their small collections of modern publications, or of old “sagas” or chronicles, by new acquisitions, one assists the other. When the peasant goes on Sundays to church, he takes a few volumes with him, ready to lend his treasures to his neighbors, and, on his part, selects from among those which they have brought for the same purpose. When he is particularly pleased with a work, he has it copied at home, and it may be here remarked that the Icelanders are frequently most excellent calligraphists.
The foundation of a public library at Reykjavik in 1821, at the instigation of the learned Professor Rafn of Copenhagen, was a great boon179 to the people. It is said to contain about 12,000 volumes, which are kept under the roof of the110 cathedral. Books are freely lent for months, or even for a whole year, to the inhabitants of remote districts. This liberality is, of course, attended with some inconvenience, but it has the inestimable advantage of rendering180 a number of good works accessible to numerous families too poor to purchase them.
Another excellent institution is the New Icelandic Literary Society, founded in 1816. It has two seats, one in Copenhagen, the other in Reykjavik, and its chief object is the publication of useful works in the language of the country. Besides an annual grant of 100 specie dollars (£24) awarded to it by the Danish Government, its income is confined to the yearly contributions of its members,6 and with this scanty means it has already published many excellent works.
Though remote from the busy scenes of the world, Iceland has three newspapers, the Thyodtholfr and the Islendingur, which appear at Reykjavik, and the Northri, which is published at Akreyri, on the borders of the Polar Ocean. The Islendingur is said to contain many excellent articles, but it would sorely task the patience of those who are accustomed to the regular enjoyment181 of the “Times” at breakfast; as it sometimes appears but once in three weeks, and then again, as if to make up for lost time, twice in eight days.
In spite of their ill-ventilated dwellings and the hardships entailed182 upon them by the severity of the climate, the Icelanders frequently attain183 a good old age. Of the 2019 persons who died in 1858, 25 had passed the age of ninety, and of these 20 belonged to the fair sex. The mortality among the children is, however, very considerable; 993, or nearly one-half of the entire number having died before the age of five in the year above-mentioned. Cutaneous affections are very common among Icelanders, as may easily be supposed from their sordid woollen apparel and the uncleanliness of their huts; and the northern leprosy, or “likthra,” is constantly seeking out its victims among them. This dreadful disease, which is also found among the fishermen in Norway, in Greenland, in the Faeroes, in Lapland, and, in short, wherever the same mode of life exists, begins with a swelling184 of the hands and feet. The hair falls off; the senses become obtuse185. Tumors appear on the arms and legs, and on the face, which soon loses the semblance186 of humanity. Severe pains shoot through the joints187, an eruption188 covers the whole body, and finally changes into open sores, ending with death. He whom the leprosy has once attacked is doomed189, for it mocks all the efforts of medical art. Fortunately the victims of this shocking complaint are rather objects of pity than of disgust, and as it is not supposed to be contagious190, they are not so cruelly forsaken191 by their relations as their fellow-sufferers in the East. In the hut of the priest of Thingvalla, Marmier saw a leper busy grinding corn. Some of the poorest and most helpless of these unfortunate creatures find a refuge in four small hospitals, where they are provided for at the public expense.
Since a regular steam-boat communication has been opened between Iceland, Denmark, and Scotland, the number of tourists desirous of viewing the111 matchless natural wonders of the island has considerably increased. But travelling in the island itself is still attended with considerable difficulties and no trifling192 expense, to say nothing of the want of all comforts; so that most of its visitors are content with a trip to Thingvalla and the Geysir, which are but a couple of days’ journey from Reykjavik, and very few, like Mr. Holland, make the entire circuit of the island, or, like Mr. Shepherd, plunge193 into the terra incognita of its north-western peninsula. The only mode of travelling is on horseback, as there are no roads, and therefore no carriages in Iceland. The distances between the places are too great, the rivers are too furious, and the bogs194 too extensive to allow of a walking tour being made. Even the tourist with the most modest pretensions requires at least two riding horses for himself, two for his guide, and two packhorses; and when a larger company travels, it always forms a cavalcade195 of from twenty to thirty horses, tied head to tail, the chief guide mounted on the first and leading the string, the other accelerating its motions by gesticulation, sundry196 oaths, and the timely application of the whip. The way, or the path, lies either over beds of lava, so rugged197 that the horses are allowed to pick their way, or over boggy ground, where it is equally necessary to avoid those places into which the animals might sink up to their belly198, but which, when left to themselves, they are remarkably199 skillful in detecting. With the solitary exception of a few planks200 thrown across the Bruera, and a kind of swing bridge, or kláfr, contrived201 for passing the rapid Jökulsa, there are no bridges over the rivers, so that the only way to get across is to ride through them—a feat202 which, considering the usual velocity203 of their current, is not seldom attended with considerable danger, as will be seen by the following account of the crossing of the Skeidara by Mr. Holland.
60. BRIDGE RIVER, ICELAND.
112 “Our guide,” says this intrepid204 traveller, “urged on his horse through the stream, and led the way towards the mid-channel. We followed in his wake, and soon were all stemming the impetuous and swollen205 torrent206. In the course of our journey we had before this crossed a good many rivers more or less deep, but all of them had been mere child’s play compared to that which we were now fording. The angry water rose high against our horses’ sides, at times almost coming over the tops of their shoulders. The spray from their broken crests207 was dashed up into our faces. The stream was so swift that it was impossible to follow the individual waves as they rushed past us, and it almost made us dizzy to look down at it. Now, if ever, is the time for firm hand or rein208, sure seat, and steady eye; not only is the stream so strong, but the bottom is full of large stones, that the horse can not see through the murky209 waters; if he should fall, the torrent will sweep you down to the sea—its white breakers are plainly visible as they run along the shore at scarcely a mile’s distance, and they lap the beach as if they waited for their prey210. Happily, they will be disappointed. Swimming would be of no use, but an Icelandic water-horse seldom makes a blunder or a false step. Not the least of the risks we ran in crossing the Skeidara was from the masses of ice carried down by the stream from the Jökul, many of them being large enough to knock a horse over.
“Fortunately we found much less ice in the centre and swiftest part of the river, where we where able to see and avoid it, than in the side channels. How the horses were able to stand against such a stream was marvellous; they could not do so unless they were constantly in the habit of crossing swift rivers. The Icelanders who live in this part of the island keep horses known for their qualities in fording difficult rivers, and they never venture to cross a dangerous stream unless mounted on a tried water-horse. The action of the Icelandic horses when crossing a swift river is very peculiar211. They lean all their weight against the stream, so as to resist it as much as possible, and move onward212 with a peculiar side-step. This motion is not agreeable. It feels as if your horse were marking time without gaining ground, and the progress made being really very slow, the shore from which you started seems to recede213 from you, whilst that for which you are making appears as far as ever.
“When we reached the middle of the stream, the roar of the waters was so great that we could scarcely make our voices audible to one another; they were overpowered by the crunching214 sound of the ice, and the bumping of large stones against the bottom. Up to this point a diagonal line, rather down stream, had been cautiously followed; but when we came to the middle, we turned our horses’ heads a little against the stream. As we thus altered our course, the long line of baggage-horses appeared to be swung round altogether, as if swept off their legs. None of them, however, broke away, and they continued their advance without accident, and at length we all reached the shore in safety.”
61. ICELANDIC BOG57.
After a day’s journey in Iceland, rest, as may well be supposed, is highly acceptable. Instead of passing the night in the peasant’s hut, the traveller, when no church is at hand, generally prefers pitching his tent near a running113 stream on a grassy plain; but sometimes, in consequence of the great distance from one habitable place to another, he is obliged to encamp in the midst of a bog where the poor horses find either bad herbs, scarcely fit to satisfy their hunger, or no food at all. After they have been unloaded, their fore24 legs are bound together above their hoofs, so as to prevent them straying too far, while their masters arrange themselves in the tent as comfortably as they can.
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1
clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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replete
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| adj.饱满的，塞满的；n.贮蜜蚁 | |
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3
bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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orators
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| n.演说者，演讲家( orator的名词复数 ) | |
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spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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philologian
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| n.语言学家 | |
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renowned
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| adj.著名的，有名望的，声誉鹊起的 | |
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rhetoric
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| n.修辞学，浮夸之言语 | |
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10
pastor
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| n.牧师，牧人 | |
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injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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13
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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bereft
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| adj.被剥夺的 | |
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junction
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| n.连接，接合；交叉点，接合处，枢纽站 | |
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17
metropolis
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| n.首府；大城市 | |
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pretensions
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| 自称( pretension的名词复数 )； 自命不凡； 要求； 权力 | |
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lava
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| n.熔岩，火山岩 | |
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desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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21
gateway
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| n.大门口，出入口，途径，方法 | |
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22
hissing
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| n. 发嘶嘶声, 蔑视 动词hiss的现在分词形式 | |
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dreariness
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| 沉寂，可怕，凄凉 | |
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24
fore
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| adv.在前面；adj.先前的；在前部的；n.前部 | |
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desecrated
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| 毁坏或亵渎( desecrate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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28
elegance
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| n.优雅；优美，雅致；精致，巧妙 | |
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29
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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cargoes
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| n.（船或飞机装载的）货物( cargo的名词复数 )；大量，重负 | |
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wares
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| n. 货物, 商品 | |
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dreary
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| adj.令人沮丧的，沉闷的，单调乏味的 | |
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33
animates
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| v.使有生气( animate的第三人称单数 )；驱动；使栩栩如生地动作；赋予…以生命 | |
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34
solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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35
intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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hip
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| n.臀部，髋；屋脊 | |
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slung
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| 抛( sling的过去式和过去分词 )； 吊挂； 遣送； 押往 | |
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barter
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| n.物物交换，以货易货，实物交易 | |
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39
derives
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| v.得到( derive的第三人称单数 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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40
debentures
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| n.公司债券( debenture的名词复数 ) | |
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41
caravan
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| n.大蓬车；活动房屋 | |
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negligently
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43
intemperate
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| adj.无节制的，放纵的 | |
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44
incumbent
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| adj.成为责任的，有义务的；现任的，在职的 | |
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45
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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46
lame
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| adj.跛的，(辩解、论据等)无说服力的 | |
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47
fodder
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| n.草料；炮灰 | |
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48
turnips
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| 芜青( turnip的名词复数 )； 芜菁块根； 芜菁甘蓝块根； 怀表 | |
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49
nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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50
wielding
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| 手持着使用（武器、工具等）( wield的现在分词 )； 具有； 运用（权力）； 施加（影响） | |
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51
scythe
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| n. 长柄的大镰刀，战车镰； v. 以大镰刀割 | |
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52
bestows
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的第三人称单数 ) | |
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53
paramount
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| a.最重要的，最高权力的 | |
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54
nutritious
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| adj.有营养的，营养价值高的 | |
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55
mounds
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| 土堆，土丘( mound的名词复数 )； 一大堆 | |
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56
gutter
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| n.沟，街沟，水槽，檐槽，贫民窟 | |
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57
bog
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| n.沼泽；室...陷入泥淖 | |
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58
boggy
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| adj.沼泽多的 | |
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59
scythes
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| n.（长柄）大镰刀( scythe的名词复数 )v.（长柄）大镰刀( scythe的第三人称单数 ) | |
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60
unevenness
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| n. 不平坦，不平衡，不匀性 | |
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61
thongs
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| 的东西 | |
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ponies
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| 矮种马，小型马( pony的名词复数 )； ￡25 25 英镑 | |
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63
enveloped
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| v.包围，笼罩，包住( envelop的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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64
hoofs
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| n.（兽的）蹄，马蹄( hoof的名词复数 )v.（兽的）蹄，马蹄( hoof的第三人称单数 ) | |
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65
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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66
labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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67
laborers
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| n.体力劳动者，工人( laborer的名词复数 )；（熟练工人的）辅助工 | |
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68
laborer
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| n.劳动者，劳工 | |
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69
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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70
placid
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| adj.安静的，平和的 | |
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71
serenity
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| n.宁静，沉着，晴朗 | |
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72
boisterous
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| adj.喧闹的，欢闹的 | |
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73
mantle
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| n.斗篷，覆罩之物，罩子；v.罩住，覆盖，脸红 | |
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74
moor
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| n.荒野，沼泽；vt.(使)停泊；vi.停泊 | |
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75
filthy
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| adj.卑劣的；恶劣的，肮脏的 | |
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76
regularity
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| n.规律性，规则性；匀称，整齐 | |
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77
mortar
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| n.灰浆，灰泥；迫击炮；v.把…用灰浆涂接合 | |
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surmounted
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| 战胜( surmount的过去式和过去分词 )； 克服（困难）； 居于…之上； 在…顶上 | |
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79
conglomeration
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| n.团块，聚集，混合物 | |
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80
hearth
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| n.壁炉炉床，壁炉地面 | |
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81
disorder
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| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
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82
utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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83
bunks
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| n.（车、船等倚壁而设的）铺位( bunk的名词复数 )；空话，废话v.（车、船等倚壁而设的）铺位( bunk的第三人称单数 )；空话，废话 | |
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84
sleepers
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| n.卧铺（通常以复数形式出现）；卧车( sleeper的名词复数 )；轨枕；睡觉（呈某种状态）的人；小耳环 | |
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85
dwellings
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| n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 ) | |
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86
isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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87
congregated
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| （使）集合，聚集( congregate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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88
grassy
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| adj.盖满草的；长满草的 | |
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dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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constable
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| n.(英国)警察，警官 | |
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91
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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92
pane
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| n.窗格玻璃，长方块 | |
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93
considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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94
aisle
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| n.（教堂、教室、戏院等里的）过道，通道 | |
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lodging
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| n.寄宿，住所；(大学生的)校外宿舍 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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homely
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| adj.家常的，简朴的；不漂亮的 | |
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pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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99
huddled
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| 挤在一起（huddle的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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100
latitude
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| n.纬度，行动或言论的自由(范围)，(pl.)地区 | |
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101
longitude
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| n.经线，经度 | |
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102
crooked
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| adj.弯曲的；不诚实的，狡猾的，不正当的 | |
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103
alleys
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| 胡同，小巷( alley的名词复数 )； 小径 | |
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104
premises
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| n.建筑物，房屋 | |
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105
abode
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| n.住处，住所 | |
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106
exterior
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| adj.外部的，外在的；表面的 | |
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107
doorway
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| n.门口，(喻)入门；门路，途径 | |
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108
ornamented
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| adj.花式字体的v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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109
pegs
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| n.衣夹( peg的名词复数 )；挂钉；系帐篷的桩；弦钮v.用夹子或钉子固定( peg的第三人称单数 )；使固定在某水平 | |
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110
crevices
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| n.（尤指岩石的）裂缝，缺口( crevice的名词复数 ) | |
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111
bridles
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| 约束( bridle的名词复数 )； 限动器； 马笼头； 系带 | |
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112
twigs
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| 细枝，嫩枝( twig的名词复数 ) | |
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113
scraps
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| 油渣 | |
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114
puddles
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| n.水坑， （尤指道路上的）雨水坑( puddle的名词复数 ) | |
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115
unctuous
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| adj.油腔滑调的，大胆的 | |
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116
foul
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| adj.污秽的；邪恶的；v.弄脏；妨害；犯规；n.犯规 | |
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117
dense
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| a.密集的，稠密的，浓密的；密度大的 | |
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118
variegated
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| adj.斑驳的，杂色的 | |
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119
specimen
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| n.样本，标本 | |
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120
nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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121
stipend
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| n.薪贴；奖学金；养老金 | |
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122
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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123
pittance
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| n.微薄的薪水，少量 | |
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124
pastors
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| n.（基督教的）牧师( pastor的名词复数 ) | |
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125
miserably
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| adv.痛苦地；悲惨地；糟糕地；极度地 | |
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126
penury
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| n.贫穷，拮据 | |
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127
apron
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| n.围裙；工作裙 | |
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128
charcoal
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| n.炭，木炭，生物炭 | |
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129
labors
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| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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130
thicket
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| n.灌木丛，树林 | |
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131
thither
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| adv.向那里；adj.在那边的，对岸的 | |
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132
charred
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| v.把…烧成炭( char的过去式)；烧焦 | |
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133
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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134
withhold
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| v.拒绝，不给；使停止，阻挡 | |
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135
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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136
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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137
condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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138
drudgery
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| n.苦工，重活，单调乏味的工作 | |
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139
previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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140
touchingly
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| adv.令人同情地，感人地，动人地 | |
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141
alludes
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| 提及，暗指( allude的第三人称单数 ) | |
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142
wedded
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| adj.正式结婚的；渴望…的，执著于…的v.嫁，娶，（与…）结婚( wed的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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143
bosom
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| n.胸，胸部；胸怀；内心；adj.亲密的 | |
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144
providence
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| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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145
ushered
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| v.引，领，陪同( usher的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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146
humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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147
muse
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| n.缪斯（希腊神话中的女神），创作灵感 | |
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148
bard
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| n.吟游诗人 | |
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149
gratitude
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| adj.感激，感谢 | |
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150
generosity
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| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
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151
stipends
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| n.（尤指牧师的）薪俸( stipend的名词复数 ) | |
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152
splendor
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| n.光彩；壮丽，华丽；显赫，辉煌 | |
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153
ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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154
banished
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| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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155
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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156
diffused
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| 散布的，普及的，扩散的 | |
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157
sordid
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| adj.肮脏的，不干净的，卑鄙的，暗淡的 | |
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158
savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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159
implements
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| n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效 | |
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160
utensils
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| 器具，用具，器皿( utensil的名词复数 )； 器物 | |
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161
chiselling
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| n.錾v.凿，雕，镌( chisel的现在分词 ) | |
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162
ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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163
dubious
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| adj.怀疑的，无把握的；有问题的，靠不住的 | |
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164
sagas
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| n.萨迦（尤指古代挪威或冰岛讲述冒险经历和英雄业绩的长篇故事）( saga的名词复数 )；（讲述许多年间发生的事情的）长篇故事；一连串的事件（或经历）；一连串经历的讲述（或记述） | |
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165
itinerant
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| adj.巡回的；流动的 | |
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166
scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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167
livelihood
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| n.生计，谋生之道 | |
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168
patriotic
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| adj.爱国的，有爱国心的 | |
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169
cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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170
functionaries
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| n.公职人员，官员( functionary的名词复数 ) | |
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171
astonishment
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| n.惊奇，惊异 | |
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172
abject
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| adj.极可怜的，卑屈的 | |
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173
conversant
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| adj.亲近的，有交情的，熟悉的 | |
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174
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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175
accosted
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| v.走过去跟…讲话( accost的过去式和过去分词 )；跟…搭讪；（乞丐等）上前向…乞讨；（妓女等）勾搭 | |
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176
specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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177
laborious
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| adj.吃力的，努力的，不流畅 | |
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178
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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179
boon
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| n.恩赐，恩物，恩惠 | |
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180
rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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181
enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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182
entailed
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| 使…成为必要( entail的过去式和过去分词 )； 需要； 限定继承； 使必需 | |
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183
attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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184
swelling
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| n.肿胀 | |
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185
obtuse
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| adj.钝的；愚钝的 | |
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186
semblance
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| n.外貌，外表 | |
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187
joints
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| 接头( joint的名词复数 )； 关节； 公共场所（尤指价格低廉的饮食和娱乐场所） （非正式）； 一块烤肉 （英式英语） | |
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188
eruption
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| n.火山爆发；（战争等）爆发；（疾病等）发作 | |
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189
doomed
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| 命定的 | |
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190
contagious
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| adj.传染性的，有感染力的 | |
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191
Forsaken
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| adj. 被遗忘的, 被抛弃的 动词forsake的过去分词 | |
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192
trifling
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| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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193
plunge
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| v.跳入，(使)投入，(使)陷入；猛冲 | |
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194
bogs
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| n.沼泽，泥塘( bog的名词复数 )；厕所v.（使）陷入泥沼， （使）陷入困境( bog的第三人称单数 )；妨碍，阻碍 | |
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195
cavalcade
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| n.车队等的行列 | |
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196
sundry
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| adj.各式各样的，种种的 | |
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197
rugged
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| adj.高低不平的，粗糙的，粗壮的，强健的 | |
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198
belly
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| n.肚子，腹部；(像肚子一样)鼓起的部分，膛 | |
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199
remarkably
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| ad.不同寻常地，相当地 | |
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200
planks
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| （厚）木板( plank的名词复数 )； 政纲条目，政策要点 | |
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201
contrived
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| adj.不自然的，做作的；虚构的 | |
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202
feat
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| n.功绩；武艺，技艺；adj.灵巧的，漂亮的，合适的 | |
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203
velocity
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| n.速度，速率 | |
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204
intrepid
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| adj.无畏的，刚毅的 | |
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205
swollen
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| adj.肿大的，水涨的；v.使变大，肿胀 | |
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206
torrent
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| n.激流，洪流；爆发，(话语等的)连发 | |
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207
crests
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| v.到达山顶（或浪峰）( crest的第三人称单数 )；到达洪峰，达到顶点 | |
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208
rein
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| n.疆绳，统治，支配；vt.以僵绳控制，统治 | |
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209
murky
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| adj.黑暗的，朦胧的；adv.阴暗地，混浊地；n.阴暗；昏暗 | |
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210
prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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211
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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212
onward
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| adj.向前的，前进的；adv.向前，前进，在先 | |
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213
recede
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| vi.退(去)，渐渐远去；向后倾斜，缩进 | |
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214
crunching
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| v.嘎吱嘎吱地咬嚼( crunch的现在分词 )；嘎吱作响；（快速大量地）处理信息；数字捣弄 | |
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