The Norse vikings were, as is well known, the boldest of navigators. They possessed7 neither the sextant nor the compass; they had neither charts nor chronometers8 to guide them; but trusting solely9 to fortune, and to their own indomitable courage, they fearlessly launched forth10 into the vast ocean. Many of these intrepid11 corsairs were no doubt lost on their adventurous12 expeditions, but frequently a favorable chance rewarded their temerity13, either with some rich booty or some more glorious discovery.
Thus in the year 861, Naddodr, a Norwegian pirate, while sailing from his native coast to the Faeroe Islands, was drifted by contrary winds far to the90 north. For several days no land was visible—nothing but an interminable waste of waters; when suddenly the snow-clad mountains of Iceland were seen to rise above the mists of the ocean. Soon after Naddodr landed with part of his crew, but discovered no traces of man in the desert country. The viking tarried but a short time on this unpromising coast, on which he bestowed14 the appropriate name of Snowland.
Three years later, Gardar, another northern freebooter, while sailing to the Hebrides, was likewise driven by stormy weather to Iceland. He was the first circumnavigator of the island, which he called, after himself, Gardar’s holm, or the island of Gardar. On his return to his native port, he gave his countrymen so flattering an account of the newly-discovered land, that Floki, a famous viking, resolved to settle there. Trusting to the augury15 of birds, Floki took with him three ravens to direct him on his way. Having sailed a certain distance beyond the Faeroe Islands, he gave liberty to one of them, which immediately returned to the land. Proceeding17 onward18, he loosed the second, which, after circling for a few minutes round the ship, again settled on its cage, as if terrified by the boundless19 expanse of the sea. The third bird, on obtaining his liberty a few days later, proved at length a faithful pilot, and flying direct to the north, conducted Floki to Iceland. As the sea-king entered the broad bay which is bounded on the left by the huge Snäfells Jökul, and on the right by the bold promontory20 of the Guldbringe Syssel, Faxa, one of his companions, remarked that a land with such noble features must needs be of considerable extent. To reward him for this remark, which flattered the vanity or the ambition of his leader, the bay was immediately named Faxa Fiord, as it is still called to the present day. The new colonists21, attracted by the abundance of fish they found in the bay, built their huts on the borders of a small outlet22, still bearing the name of Rafna Fiord, or the Raven2’s Frith; but as they neglected to make hay for the winter, the horses and cattle they had brought with them died of want. Disappointed in his expectations, Floki returned home in the second year, and, as might naturally have been expected from an unsuccessful settler, gave his countrymen but a dismal23 account of Iceland, as he definitely named it.
Yet, in spite of his forbidding description, the political disturbances24 which took place about this time in Norway led to the final colonization25 of the island. Harold Haarfager, or the Fair-haired, a Scandinavian yarl, having by violence and a successful policy reduced all his brother-yarls to subjection, first consolidated26 their independent domains27 into one realm, and made himself absolute master of the whole country. Many of his former equals submitted to his yoke29; but others, animated30 by that unconquerable love of liberty innate31 in men who for many generations have known no superior, preferred seeking a new home across the ocean to an ignominious32 vassalage33 under the detested34 Harold. Ingolfr and his cousin Leif were the first of these high-minded nobles that emigrated (869–870) to Iceland.
On approaching the southern coast, Ingolfr cast the sacred pillars belonging to his former dwelling35 into the water, and vowed36 to establish himself on the spot to which they should be wafted37 by the waves. His pious38 intentions were for the time frustrated39, as a sudden squall separated him from his penates, and91 forced him to locate himself on a neighboring promontory, which to this day bears the name of Ingolfrshofde. Here he sojourned three years, until the followers40 he had sent out in quest of the missing pillars at length brought him the joyful42 news that they had been found on the beach of the present site of Reykjavik, whither, in obedience43 to what he supposed to be the divine summons, he instantly removed. Ingolfr’s friend and relative Leif was shortly after assassinated44 by some Irish slaves whom he had captured in a predatory descent on the Hibernian coast. The surviving chieftain deplored45 the loss of his kinsman46, lamenting47 “that so valiant48 a man should fall by such villains,” but found consolation49 by killing50 the murderers and annexing51 the lands of their victim. When, in course of time, he himself felt his end approaching, he requested to be buried on a hill overlooking the fiord, that from that elevated site his spirit might have a better view of the land of which he was the first inhabitant.
Such are the chronicles related in the “Landnama Bok,” or “Book of Occupation,” one of the earliest records of Icelandic history.
Ingolfr and his companions were soon followed by other emigrants52 desirous of escaping from the tyranny of Harold Haarfager, who at first favored a movement that removed far beyond the sea so many of his turbulent opponents, but subsequently, alarmed at the drain of population, or desirous of profiting by the exodus53, levied54 a fine of four ounces of silver on all who left his dominions55 to settle in Iceland. Yet such were the attractions which the island at that time presented, that, in spite of all obstacles, not half a century elapsed before all its inhabitable parts were occupied, not only by Norwegians, but also by settlers from Denmark and Sweden, Scotland and Ireland.
The Norwegians brought with them their language and idolatry, their customs and historical records, which the other colonists, but few in numbers, were compelled to adopt. At first the udal, or free land-hold system of their own country, was in vigor56, but every leader of a band of emigrants being chosen, by force of circumstances, as the acknowledged chief of the district occupied by himself and companions, speedily paved the way for a demi-feudal system of vassalage and subservience57. As the arrival of new settlers rendered the possession of the land more valuable, endless contests between these petty chiefs arose for the better pastures and fisheries. To put an end to this state of anarchy58, so injurious to the common weal, Ulfliot the Wise was commissioned to frame a code of laws, which the Icelanders, by a single simultaneous and peaceful effort, accepted as their future constitution.
The island was now divided into four provinces and twelve districts. Each district had its own judge, and its own popular “Thing,” or assembly; but the national will was embodied59 and represented by the “Althing,” or supreme60 parliament of Iceland, which annually61 met at Thingvalla, under an elective president, or “Logmathurman,” the chief magistrate62 of this northern republic.
On the banks of the river Oxeraa, where the rapid stream, after forming a magnificent cascade63, rushes into the lake of Thingvalla, lies the spot where, for many a century, freemen met to debate, while despotic barbarians64 still reigned65 over the milder regions of Europe. Isolated66 on all sides by deep volcanic67 chasms69, which some great revolution of nature has rent in the vast lava70-field92 around, and embosomed in a wide circle of black precipitous hills, the situation of Thingvalla is extremely romantic, but the naked dark-colored rocks, and the traces of subterranean71 fire visible on every side, impart a stern melancholy72 to the scene. The lake, the largest sheet of water in the island, is about thirty miles in circumference73; its boundaries have undergone many changes, especially during the earthquakes of the past century, when its northern margin74 collapsed75, while the opposite one was raised. The depth of its crystal waters is very great, and in its centre rise two small crater76-islands, the result of some unknown eruption. The mountains on its south bank have a picturesque77 appearance, and large volumes of steam issuing from several hot sources on their sides prove that, though all be tranquil78 now, the volcanic fires are not extinct. Only a few traces of the ancient Althing are left—three small mounds79, where sat in state the chiefs and judges of the land—for as the assembly used to pitch their tents on the borders of the stream, and the deliberations were held in the open air, there are no imposing80 ruins to bear witness to a glorious past. But though all architectural pomp be absent, the scene hallowed by the recollections of a thousand years is one of deep interest to the traveller. The great features of nature are the same as when the freemen of Iceland assembled to settle the affairs of their little world; but the raven now croaks81 where the orator82 appealed to the reason or the passions of his audience, and the sheep of the neighboring pastor83 crop undisturbed the grass of desecrated84 Thingvalla.
53. THINGVALLA, LÖGBERG, AND ALMANNAGJA.
Mr. Ross Browne thus describes the scene: “After a slight repast I walked out to take a look at the Lögberg, or Rock of Laws, which is situated85 about93 half a mile from the church. This is, perhaps, of all the objects of historical association in Iceland, the most interesting. It was here the judges tried criminals, pronounced judgments86, and executed their stern decrees. On a small plateau of lava, separated from the general mass by a profound abyss on every side, save a narrow neck barely wide enough for a foothold, the famous “Thing” assembled once a year, and, secured from intrusion in their deliberations by the terrible chasm68 around, passed laws for the weal or woe87 of the people. It was only necessary to guard the causeway by which they entered; all other sides were well protected by the encircling moat, which varies from thirty to forty feet in width, and is half filled with water. The total depth to the bottom, which is distinctly visible through the crystal pool, must be sixty or seventy feet. Into this yawning abyss the unhappy criminals were cast, with stones around their necks, and many a long day did they lie beneath the water, a ghastly spectacle for the crowd that peered at them over the precipice88. All was now as silent as the grave. Eight centuries had passed, and yet the strange scenes that had taken place here were vividly89 before me. I could imagine the gathering90 crowds, the rising hum of voices; the pause, the shriek91, and plunge92; the low murmur93 of horror, and then the stern warning of the lawgivers and the gradual dispersing94 of the multitude. The dimensions of the plateau are four or five hundred feet in length by an average of sixty or eighty in width. The surface is now covered with a fine coating of sod and grass, and furnishes good pasturage for the sheep belonging to the pastor.”
Christianity was first preached in Iceland about the year 981, by Friedrich, a Saxon bishop95, to whom Thorwald the traveller, an Icelander, acted as interpreter. Thorwald having been treated with great severity by his father, Kodran, had fled to Denmark, where he had been converted by Friedrich. He returned with the pious bishop to his paternal96 home, where the solemn service of the Christians97 made some impression on Kodran, but still the obstinate98 pagan could not be prevailed upon to renounce99 his ancient gods. “He must believe,” said he, “the word of his own priest, who was wont100 to give him excellent advice.” “Well, then,” replied Thorwald, “this venerable man whom I have brought to thy dwelling is weak and infirm, while thy well-fed priest is full of vigor. Wilt101 thou believe in the power of our God if the bishop drives him hence?” Friedrich now cast a few drops of holy water on the priest, which immediately burnt deep holes into his skin, so that he fled, uttering dreadful curses. After this convincing proof, Kodran adopted the Christian3 faith. But persuasion102 and miracles acted too slowly for the fiery103 Thorwald, who would willingly have converted all Iceland at once with fire and sword. His sermons were imprecations, and the least contradiction roused him to fury. Unable to bear so irascible an associate, the good bishop Friedrich, giving up his missionary104 labors105, returned to Saxony. As to Thorwald, his restless disposition106 led him to far-distant lands. He visited Greece and Syria, Jerusalem and Constantinople, and ultimately founded a convent in Russia, where he died in the odor of sanctity.
Soon after Thangbrand was sent by the Norwegian king, Olaf Truggeson, as94 missionary to Iceland. His method of conversion107 appears to have been very like that of his erratic108 predecessor109; for while he held the cross in one hand, he grasped the sword with the other. “Thangbrand,” says an ancient chronicler, “was a passionate110, ungovernable person, and a great manslayer, but a good scholar and clever. He was two years in Iceland, and was the death of three men before he left it.”
Other missionaries111 of a more evangelical character took his place, and proved by their success that mild reasoning is frequently a far more effectual means of persuasion than brutal112 violence. They made a great number of proselytes, and the whole island was now divided into two factions114 ready to appeal to the sword for the triumph of Christ or of Odin. But before coming to this dreadful extremity115, the voice of reason was heard, and the contending parties agreed to submit the question to the decision of the Althing.
The assembly met, and the momentous116 debate was proceeding, when suddenly a loud crash of subterranean thunder was heard, and the earth shook under their feet. “Listen!” exclaimed a follower41 of Odin, “and beware of the anger of our gods: they will consume us with their fires, if we venture to question their authority.” The Christian party hesitated; but their confidence was soon restored by the presence of mind of their chief orator, Thorgeir, who, pointing to the lava-fields around, asked with whom the gods were angry when these rocks were melted: a burst of eloquence117 which at once decided118 the question in favor of the Cross.
The new faith brought with it a new spirit of intellectual development, which attained119 its highest splendor121 in the twelfth century. Classical studies were pursued with the utmost zeal122, and learned Icelanders travelled to Germany and France to extend their knowledge in the schools of Paris or Cologne. The Icelandic bards123, or scalds, were renowned124 throughout all Scandinavia; they frequented the courts of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, and were everywhere received with the highest honors.
The historians, or sagamen, of Iceland were no less renowned than its scalds. They became the annalists of the whole Scandinavian world, and the simplicity125 and truth by which their works are distinguished126 fully127 justify128 their high reputation. Among the many remarkable129 men who at that time graced the literature of the Arctic isle130, Sämund Frode, the learned author of the “Voluspa” (a work on the ancient Icelandic mythology) and the “Havamal” (a general chronicle of events from the beginning of the world); Are Thorgilson, whose “Landnama Bok” relates with the utmost accuracy the annals of his native land; and Gissur, who about the year 1180 described his voyages to the distant Orient, deserve to be particularly mentioned; but great above all in genius and fame was Snorri Sturleson, the Herodotus of the North, whose eventful life and tragic131 end would well deserve to be recounted at greater length.
Gifted with the rarest talents, and chief of the most powerful family of the island, Snorri was elected in 1215 to the high office of Logmathurman; but disgusting his sturdy countrymen by his excessive haughtiness132, he was obliged to retire to the court of Hakon, king of Norway. During this exile he collected the materials for his justly celebrated133 “Heimskringla,” or Chronicle of the95 Kings of Norway. Returning home in 1221, he was again named Logmathurman; but as he endeavored to pave the way for the annexation134 of his native country to the Norwegian realm, his foreign intrigues135 caused a rising against his authority, and he was once more compelled to take refuge in Norway. Here he remained several years, until the triumph of his own faction113 allowed him to return to his family estate at Reikholt, where he was murdered on a dark September night in the year 1241. Thus perished the most remarkable man Iceland ever has produced. The republic itself did not long survive his fall; for, weary of the interminable feuds136 of their chiefs, the people voluntarily submitted to Hakon in 1254, and the middle of the thirteenth century was signalized by the transfer of the island to the Norwegian crown, after three hundred and forty years of a turbulent but glorious independence.
From that time the political history of the Icelanders offers but little interest. With their annexation to a European monarchy137 perished the vigor, restlessness, and activity which had characterized their forefathers138; and though the Althing still met at Thingvalla, the national spirit had fled. It was still further subdued139 by a long chain of calamities—plagues, famines, volcanic eruptions140, and piratical invasions—which, following each other in rapid succession, devastated141 the land and decimated its unfortunate inhabitants.
In 1402 that terrible plague, the memory of which is still preserved under the name of the “Black Death,” carried off nearly two-thirds of the whole population, and was followed by such an inclement142 winter that nine-tenths of the cattle in the island died. The miseries143 of a people suffering from pestilence144 and famine were aggravated145 by the English fishermen, who, in spite of the remonstrances146 of the Danish government, frequented the defenseless coast in considerable numbers, and were in fact little better than the old sea-robbers who first colonized147 the island, plundering148 and burning on the main, and holding the wealthy inhabitants to ransom149. Their predatory incursions were frequently repeated during the seventeenth century, and even the distant Mediterranean150 sent its Algerine pirates to add to the calamities of Iceland.
The eighteenth century was ushered151 in by the small-pox, which carried off sixteen thousand of the inhabitants. In the middle of the century—severe winters following in rapid succession—vast numbers of cattle died, inducing a famine that again swept away ten thousand inhabitants.
Since the first colonization of Iceland, its numerous volcanoes had frequently brought ruin upon whole districts—twenty-five times had Hecla, eleven times Kötlugiá, six times Trölladyngja, five times Oraefa, vomited152 forth their torrents154 of molten stone, without counting a number of submarine volcanic explosions, or where the plain was suddenly rent and flames and ashes burst out of the earth; but the eruption of Skaptar Jökul in 1783 was the most frightful155 visitation ever known to have desolated156 the island. The preceding winter and spring had been unusually mild, and the islanders looked forward to a prosperous summer; but in the beginning of June repeated tremblings of the earth, increasing in violence from day to day, announced that the subterranean powers that had long been slumbering157 under the icy mantle158 of the Skaptar were ready to awake. All the neighboring peasants abandoned their huts and erected96 tents in the open field, anxiously awaiting the result of these terrific warnings. On the 9th, immense pillars of smoke collected over the hill country toward the north, and, rolling down in a southerly direction, covered the whole district of Sitha with darkness. Loud subterranean thunders followed in rapid succession, and innumerable fire-spouts were seen leaping and flaring159 through the dense160 canopy161 of smoke and ashes that enveloped162 the land. The heat raging in the interior of the volcano melted enormous masses of ice and snow, which caused the river Skapta to rise to a prodigious163 height; but on the 11th torrents of fire usurped164 the place of water, for a vast lava-stream breaking forth from the mountains, flowed down in a southerly direction, until reaching the river, a tremendous conflict arose between the two hostile elements. Though the channel was six hundred feet deep and two hundred feet wide, the lava-flood pouring down one fiery wave after another into the yawning abyss, ultimately gained the victory, and, blocking up the stream, overflowed165 its banks. Crossing the low country of Medalland, it poured into a great lake, which after a few days was likewise completely filled up, and having divided into two streams, the unexhausted torrent153 again poured on, overflowing166 in one direction some ancient lava-fields, and in another re-entering the channel of the Skapta and leaping down the lofty cataract167 of Stapafoss. But this was not all, for while one lava-flood had chosen the Skapta for its bed, another, descending168 in a different direction, was working similar ruin along the banks of the Hverfisfliot. Whether the same crater gave birth to both, it is impossible to say, as even the extent of the lava-flow can only be measured from the spot where it entered the inhabited districts. The stream which followed the direction of Skapta is calculated to have been about fifty miles in length by twelve or fifteen at its greatest breadth; that which rolled down the Hverfisfliot, at forty miles in length by seven in breadth.
Where it was inclosed between the precipitous banks of the Skapta, the lava is five or six hundred feet thick, but as soon as it spread out into the plain its depth never exceeded one hundred feet. The eruption of sand, ashes, pumice, and lava continued till the end of August, when at length the vast subterranean tumult169 subsided170.
But its direful effects were felt for a long time after, not only in its immediate16 vicinity, but over the whole of Iceland, and added many a mournful page to her long annals of sorrow. For a whole year a dun canopy of cinder-laden clouds hung over the unhappy island. Sand and ashes, carried to an enormous height into the atmosphere, spread far and wide, and overwhelmed thousands of acres of fertile pasturage. The Faeroes, the Shetlands, and the Orkneys were deluged171 with volcanic dust which perceptibly contaminated even the skies of England and Holland. Mephitic vapors172 obscured the rays of the sun, and the sulphurous exhalations tainted173 both the grass of the field and the waters of the lake, the river, and the sea, so that not only the cattle died by thousands, but the fish also perished in their poisoned element. The unhealthy air, and the want of food—for hunger at last drove them to have recourse to untanned hides and old leather—gave rise to a disease resembling scurvy174 among the unfortunate Icelanders. The head and limbs began to swell175, the bones seemed97 to be distending176. Dreadful cramps177 forced the patient to strange contortions178. The gums loosened, the decomposed179 blood oozed180 from the mouth and the ulcerous181 skin, and a few days of torment182 and prostration183 were followed by death.
In many a secluded184 vale whole families were swept away, and those that escaped the scourge185 had hardly strength sufficient to bury the dead.
So great was the ruin caused by this one eruption that in the short space of two years no less than 9336 men, 28,000 horses, 11,461 cattle, and 190,000 sheep—a large proportion of the wealth and population of the island—were swept away.
After this dreadful catastrophe186 followed a long period of volcanic rest, for the next eruption of the Eyjafialla did not take place before 1821. A twelfth eruption of Kötlugja occurred in 1823, the twenty-sixth of Hecla in 1845–46; and ultimately the thirteenth of Kötlugja in 1860. Since then there has been repose187; but who knows what future disasters may be preparing beneath those icy ridges188 and fields of snow of Skapta and his frowning compeers, where no human foot has ever wandered, or how soon they may awaken189 their dormant190 thunders?
Besides the sufferings caused by the elements, the curse of monopoly weighed for many a long year upon the miserable191 Icelanders. The Danish kings, to whom on the amalgamation192 of the three Scandinavian monarchies193 the allegiance of the people of Iceland was passively transferred, considered their poor dependency as a private domain28, to be farmed out to the highest bidder194. In the 16th century the Hanseatic Towns purchased the exclusive privilege of trading with Iceland; and in 1594 a Danish company was favored with the monopoly, for which it had to pay the paltry195 sum of 16 rix-dollars for each of the ports of the island.
In the year 1862 a new company paid 4000 dollars for the Icelandic monopoly; but at the expiration196 of the contract, each of the ports were farmed out to the highest bidder—a financial improvement which raised the revenue to 16,000 dollars a year, and ultimately to 22,000. The incalculable misery197 produced by the eruption of the Skapta had at least the beneficial consequence that it somewhat loosened the bonds of monopoly, as it now became free to every Danish merchant to trade with the island; but it is only since April, 1855, that the last restrictions198 have fallen and the ports of Iceland been opened to the merchants of all nations. It is to be hoped that the beneficial effects of free trade will gradually heal the wounds caused by centuries of neglect and misfortune; but great progress must be made before Iceland can attain120 the degree of prosperity which she enjoyed in the times of her independence.
Then she had above a hundred thousand inhabitants, now she has scarcely half that number; then she had many rich and powerful families, now mediocrity or poverty is the universal lot; then she was renowned all over the North as the seat of learning and the cradle of literature, now, were it not for her remarkable physical features, no traveller would ever think of landing on her rugged199 shores.
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1
ravens
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| n.低质煤；渡鸦( raven的名词复数 ) | |
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raven
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| n.渡鸟，乌鸦；adj.乌亮的 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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calamities
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| n.灾祸，灾难( calamity的名词复数 )；不幸之事 | |
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eruption
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| n.火山爆发；（战争等）爆发；（疾病等）发作 | |
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prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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chronometers
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| n.精密计时器，航行表( chronometer的名词复数 ) | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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intrepid
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| adj.无畏的，刚毅的 | |
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adventurous
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| adj.爱冒险的；惊心动魄的，惊险的，刺激的 | |
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temerity
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| n.鲁莽，冒失 | |
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bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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augury
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| n.预言，征兆，占卦 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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onward
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| adj.向前的，前进的；adv.向前，前进，在先 | |
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boundless
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| adj.无限的；无边无际的；巨大的 | |
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promontory
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| n.海角；岬 | |
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colonists
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| n.殖民地开拓者，移民，殖民地居民( colonist的名词复数 ) | |
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outlet
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| n.出口/路；销路；批发商店；通风口；发泄 | |
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dismal
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| adj.阴沉的，凄凉的，令人忧郁的，差劲的 | |
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disturbances
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| n.骚乱( disturbance的名词复数 )；打扰；困扰；障碍 | |
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colonization
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| 殖民地的开拓，殖民，殖民地化； 移殖 | |
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consolidated
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| a.联合的 | |
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domains
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| n.范围( domain的名词复数 )；领域；版图；地产 | |
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domain
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| n.(活动等)领域，范围；领地，势力范围 | |
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yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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animated
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| adj.生气勃勃的，活跃的，愉快的 | |
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innate
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| adj.天生的，固有的，天赋的 | |
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ignominious
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| adj.可鄙的，不光彩的，耻辱的 | |
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vassalage
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| n.家臣身份，隶属 | |
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detested
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| v.憎恶，嫌恶，痛恨( detest的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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36
vowed
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| 起誓，发誓（vow的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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37
wafted
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| v.吹送，飘送，（使）浮动( waft的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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38
pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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39
frustrated
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| adj.挫败的，失意的，泄气的v.使不成功( frustrate的过去式和过去分词 )；挫败；使受挫折；令人沮丧 | |
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40
followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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41
follower
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| n.跟随者；随员；门徒；信徒 | |
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42
joyful
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| adj.欢乐的，令人欢欣的 | |
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43
obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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44
assassinated
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| v.暗杀( assassinate的过去式和过去分词 )；中伤；诋毁；破坏 | |
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45
deplored
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| v.悲叹，痛惜，强烈反对( deplore的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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46
kinsman
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| n.男亲属 | |
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47
lamenting
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| adj.悲伤的，悲哀的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的现在分词 ) | |
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48
valiant
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| adj.勇敢的，英勇的；n.勇士，勇敢的人 | |
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49
consolation
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| n.安慰，慰问 | |
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50
killing
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| n.巨额利润；突然赚大钱，发大财 | |
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51
annexing
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| 并吞( annex的现在分词 )； 兼并； 强占； 并吞（国家、地区等） | |
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52
emigrants
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| n.（从本国移往他国的）移民( emigrant的名词复数 ) | |
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53
exodus
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| v.大批离去，成群外出 | |
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54
levied
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| 征（兵）( levy的过去式和过去分词 )； 索取； 发动（战争）； 征税 | |
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55
dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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56
vigor
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| n.活力，精力，元气 | |
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57
subservience
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| n.有利，有益；从属（地位），附属性；屈从，恭顺；媚态 | |
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58
anarchy
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| n.无政府状态；社会秩序混乱，无秩序 | |
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59
embodied
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| v.表现( embody的过去式和过去分词 )；象征；包括；包含 | |
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60
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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61
annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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62
magistrate
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| n.地方行政官，地方法官，治安官 | |
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63
cascade
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| n.小瀑布，喷流；层叠；vi.成瀑布落下 | |
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64
barbarians
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| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
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65
reigned
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| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
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66
isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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67
volcanic
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| adj.火山的；象火山的；由火山引起的 | |
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68
chasm
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| n.深坑，断层，裂口，大分岐，利害冲突 | |
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69
chasms
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| 裂缝( chasm的名词复数 )； 裂口； 分歧； 差别 | |
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70
lava
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| n.熔岩，火山岩 | |
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71
subterranean
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| adj.地下的，地表下的 | |
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72
melancholy
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| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
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73
circumference
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| n.圆周，周长，圆周线 | |
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74
margin
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| n.页边空白；差额；余地，余裕；边，边缘 | |
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75
collapsed
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| adj.倒塌的 | |
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76
crater
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| n.火山口，弹坑 | |
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77
picturesque
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| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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78
tranquil
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| adj. 安静的, 宁静的, 稳定的, 不变的 | |
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79
mounds
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| 土堆，土丘( mound的名词复数 )； 一大堆 | |
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80
imposing
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| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
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81
croaks
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| v.呱呱地叫( croak的第三人称单数 )；用粗的声音说 | |
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82
orator
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| n.演说者，演讲者，雄辩家 | |
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83
pastor
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| n.牧师，牧人 | |
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84
desecrated
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| 毁坏或亵渎( desecrate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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85
situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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86
judgments
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| 判断( judgment的名词复数 )； 鉴定； 评价； 审判 | |
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87
woe
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| n.悲哀，苦痛，不幸，困难；int.用来表达悲伤或惊慌 | |
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88
precipice
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| n.悬崖，危急的处境 | |
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89
vividly
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| adv.清楚地，鲜明地，生动地 | |
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90
gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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91
shriek
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| v./n.尖叫，叫喊 | |
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92
plunge
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| v.跳入，(使)投入，(使)陷入；猛冲 | |
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93
murmur
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| n.低语，低声的怨言；v.低语，低声而言 | |
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94
dispersing
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| adj. 分散的 动词disperse的现在分词形式 | |
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95
bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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96
paternal
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| adj.父亲的，像父亲的，父系的，父方的 | |
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97
Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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98
obstinate
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| adj.顽固的，倔强的，不易屈服的，较难治愈的 | |
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99
renounce
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| v.放弃；拒绝承认，宣布与…断绝关系 | |
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100
wont
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| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
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101
wilt
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| v.(使)植物凋谢或枯萎；(指人)疲倦，衰弱 | |
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102
persuasion
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| n.劝说；说服；持有某种信仰的宗派 | |
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103
fiery
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| adj.燃烧着的，火红的；暴躁的；激烈的 | |
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104
missionary
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| adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士 | |
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105
labors
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| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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106
disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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107
conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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108
erratic
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| adj.古怪的，反复无常的，不稳定的 | |
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109
predecessor
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| n.前辈，前任 | |
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110
passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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111
missionaries
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| n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 ) | |
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112
brutal
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| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
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113
faction
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| n.宗派，小集团；派别；派系斗争 | |
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114
factions
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| 组织中的小派别，派系( faction的名词复数 ) | |
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115
extremity
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| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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116
momentous
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| adj.重要的，重大的 | |
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117
eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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118
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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119
attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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120
attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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121
splendor
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| n.光彩；壮丽，华丽；显赫，辉煌 | |
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122
zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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123
bards
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| n.诗人( bard的名词复数 ) | |
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124
renowned
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| adj.著名的，有名望的，声誉鹊起的 | |
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125
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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126
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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127
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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128
justify
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| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
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129
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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130
isle
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| n.小岛，岛 | |
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131
tragic
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| adj.悲剧的，悲剧性的，悲惨的 | |
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132
haughtiness
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| n.傲慢；傲气 | |
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133
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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134
annexation
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| n.吞并，合并 | |
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135
intrigues
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| n.密谋策划( intrigue的名词复数 )；神秘气氛；引人入胜的复杂情节v.搞阴谋诡计( intrigue的第三人称单数 )；激起…的好奇心 | |
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136
feuds
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| n.长期不和，世仇( feud的名词复数 ) | |
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137
monarchy
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| n.君主，最高统治者；君主政体，君主国 | |
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138
forefathers
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| n.祖先，先人；祖先，祖宗( forefather的名词复数 )；列祖列宗；前人 | |
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139
subdued
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| adj. 屈服的，柔和的，减弱的 动词subdue的过去式和过去分词 | |
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140
eruptions
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| n.喷发，爆发( eruption的名词复数 ) | |
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141
devastated
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| v.彻底破坏( devastate的过去式和过去分词)；摧毁；毁灭；在感情上（精神上、财务上等）压垮adj.毁坏的；极为震惊的 | |
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142
inclement
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| adj.严酷的，严厉的，恶劣的 | |
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143
miseries
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| n.痛苦( misery的名词复数 )；痛苦的事；穷困；常发牢骚的人 | |
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144
pestilence
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| n.瘟疫 | |
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145
aggravated
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| 使恶化( aggravate的过去式和过去分词 )； 使更严重； 激怒； 使恼火 | |
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146
remonstrances
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| n.抱怨，抗议( remonstrance的名词复数 ) | |
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147
colonized
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| 开拓殖民地，移民于殖民地( colonize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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148
plundering
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| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的现在分词 ) | |
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149
ransom
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| n.赎金，赎身；v.赎回，解救 | |
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150
Mediterranean
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| adj.地中海的；地中海沿岸的 | |
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151
ushered
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| v.引，领，陪同( usher的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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152
vomited
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153
torrent
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| n.激流，洪流；爆发，(话语等的)连发 | |
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154
torrents
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| n.倾注；奔流( torrent的名词复数 )；急流；爆发；连续不断 | |
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155
frightful
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| adj.可怕的；讨厌的 | |
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156
desolated
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| adj.荒凉的，荒废的 | |
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157
slumbering
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| 微睡，睡眠（slumber的现在分词形式） | |
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158
mantle
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| n.斗篷，覆罩之物，罩子；v.罩住，覆盖，脸红 | |
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159
flaring
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| a.火焰摇曳的，过份艳丽的 | |
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160
dense
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| a.密集的，稠密的，浓密的；密度大的 | |
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161
canopy
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| n.天篷，遮篷 | |
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162
enveloped
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| v.包围，笼罩，包住( envelop的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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163
prodigious
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| adj.惊人的，奇妙的；异常的；巨大的；庞大的 | |
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164
usurped
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| 篡夺，霸占( usurp的过去式和过去分词 )； 盗用； 篡夺，篡权 | |
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165
overflowed
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| 溢出的 | |
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166
overflowing
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| n. 溢出物,溢流 adj. 充沛的，充满的 动词overflow的现在分词形式 | |
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167
cataract
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| n.大瀑布，奔流，洪水，白内障 | |
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168
descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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169
tumult
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| n.喧哗；激动，混乱；吵闹 | |
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170
subsided
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| v.（土地）下陷（因在地下采矿）( subside的过去式和过去分词 )；减弱；下降至较低或正常水平；一下子坐在椅子等上 | |
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171
deluged
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| v.使淹没( deluge的过去式和过去分词 )；淹没；被洪水般涌来的事物所淹没；穷于应付 | |
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172
vapors
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| n.水汽，水蒸气，无实质之物( vapor的名词复数 )；自夸者；幻想 [药]吸入剂 [古]忧郁（症）v.自夸，（使）蒸发( vapor的第三人称单数 ) | |
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173
tainted
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| adj.腐坏的；污染的；沾污的；感染的v.使变质( taint的过去式和过去分词 )；使污染；败坏；被污染，腐坏，败坏 | |
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174
scurvy
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| adj.下流的，卑鄙的，无礼的；n.坏血病 | |
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175
swell
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| vi.膨胀，肿胀；增长，增强 | |
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176
distending
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| v.（使）膨胀，肿胀( distend的现在分词 ) | |
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177
cramps
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| n. 抽筋, 腹部绞痛, 铁箍 adj. 狭窄的, 难解的 v. 使...抽筋, 以铁箍扣紧, 束缚 | |
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178
contortions
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| n.扭歪，弯曲；扭曲，弄歪，歪曲( contortion的名词复数 ) | |
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179
decomposed
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| 已分解的，已腐烂的 | |
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180
oozed
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| v.（浓液等）慢慢地冒出，渗出( ooze的过去式和过去分词 )；使（液体）缓缓流出；（浓液）渗出，慢慢流出 | |
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181
ulcerous
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| adj.溃疡性的，患溃疡的 | |
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182
torment
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| n.折磨；令人痛苦的东西(人)；vt.折磨；纠缠 | |
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183
prostration
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| n. 平伏, 跪倒, 疲劳 | |
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184
secluded
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| adj.与世隔绝的；隐退的；偏僻的v.使隔开，使隐退( seclude的过去式和过去分词) | |
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185
scourge
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| n.灾难，祸害；v.蹂躏 | |
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186
catastrophe
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| n.大灾难，大祸 | |
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187
repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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188
ridges
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| n.脊( ridge的名词复数 )；山脊；脊状突起；大气层的)高压脊 | |
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189
awaken
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| vi.醒，觉醒；vt.唤醒，使觉醒，唤起，激起 | |
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190
dormant
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| adj.暂停活动的；休眠的；潜伏的 | |
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191
miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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192
amalgamation
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| n.合并，重组；；汞齐化 | |
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193
monarchies
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| n. 君主政体, 君主国, 君主政治 | |
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194
bidder
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| n.(拍卖时的)出价人，报价人，投标人 | |
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195
paltry
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| adj.无价值的，微不足道的 | |
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196
expiration
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| n.终结，期满，呼气，呼出物 | |
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197
misery
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| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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198
restrictions
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| 约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则） | |
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199
rugged
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| adj.高低不平的，粗糙的，粗壮的，强健的 | |
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