Iceland might as well be called Fireland, for all its 40,000 square miles have originally been upheaved from the depths of the waters by volcanic power. First, at some immeasurably distant period of the world’s history, the small nucleus7 of the future island began to struggle into existence against the superincumbent weight of the ocean; then, in the course of ages, cone8 rose after cone, crater9 was formed after crater, eruption10 followed on eruption, and lava-stream on lava-stream, until finally the Iceland of the present day was piled up with her gigantic “jökuls,” or ice-mountains, and her vast promontories11, stretching like huge buttresses12 far out into the sea.
In winter, when an almost perpetual night covers the wastes of this fire-born land, and the waves of a stormy ocean thunder against its shores, imagination can hardly picture a more desolate13 scene; but in summer the rugged14 nature of Iceland invests itself with many a charm. Then the eye reposes15 with delight69 on green valleys and crystal lakes, on the purple hills or snow-capped mountains rising in Alpine16 grandeur17 above the distant horizon, and the stranger might almost be tempted18 to exclaim with her patriotic19 sons, “Iceland is the best land under the sun.” That it is one of the most interesting—through its history, its inhabitants, and, above all, its natural curiosities—no one can doubt. It has all that can please and fascinate the poet, the artist, the geologist20, or the historian; the prosaic21 utilitarian22 alone, accustomed to value a country merely by its productions, might turn with some contempt from a land without corn, without forests, without mineral riches, and covered for about two-thirds of its surface with bogs24, lava-wastes, and glaciers26.
The curse of sterility27 rests chiefly on the south-eastern and central parts of the island. Here nothing is to be seen but deserts of volcanic stone or immense ice-fields, the largest of which—the Klofa Jökul—alone extends over more than 4000 square miles. The interior of this vast region of névè and glacier25 is totally unknown. The highest peaks, the most dreadful volcanoes of the island, rise on the southern and south-western borders of this hitherto inaccessible28 waste; the Oraefa looking down from a height of 6000 feet upon all its rivals—the Skaptar, a name of dreadful significance in the annals of Iceland, and farther on, like the advanced guards of this host of slumbering29 fires, the Katla, the Myrdal, the Eyjafjalla, and the Hecla, the most renowned31, though not the most terrible, of all the volcanoes of Iceland.
As the ice-fields of this northern island far surpass in magnitude those of the Alps, so also the lava-streams of Ætna or Vesuvius are insignificant32 when compared with the enormous masses of molten stone which at various periods have issued from the craters33 of Iceland. From Mount Skjaldebreith, on both sides of the lake of Thingvalla as far as Cape34 Reykjanes, the traveller sees an uninterrupted lava-field more than sixty miles long, and frequently from twelve to fifteen broad; and lava-streams of still more gigantic proportions exist in many other parts of the island, particularly in the interior. In general, these lava-streams have cooled down into the most fantastic forms imaginable. “It is hardly possible,” says Mr. Holland, “to give any idea of the general appearance of these once molten masses. Here a great crag has toppled over into some deep crevasse35, there a huge mass has been upheaved above the fiery36 stream which has seethed37 and boiled around its base. Here is every shape and figure that sculpture could design or imagination picture, jumbled38 together in grotesque39 confusion, whilst everywhere myriads40 of horrid41 spikes42 and sharp shapeless irregularities bristle43 amidst them.”
By the eruptions44 of the Icelandic volcanoes many a fair meadow-land has been converted into a stony45 wilderness46; but if the subterranean47 fires have frequently brought ruin and desolation over the island, they have also endowed it with many natural wonders.
In the “burning mountains” of Krisuvik, on the south-western coast, a whole hill-slope, with a deep narrow gorge48 at its foot, is covered with innumerable boiling springs and fumaroles, whose dense49 exhalations, spreading an intolerable stench, issue out of the earth with a hissing50 noise, and completely hide the view.
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40. EFFIGY51 IN LAVA.
The Námar, or boiling mud-caldrons of Reykjahlid, situated52 among a range of mountains near the Myvatn (Gnat53-Lake), in one of the most solitary54 spots in the north of the island, on the border of enormous lava-fields and of a vast unknown wilderness, exhibit volcanic power on a still more gigantic scale. There are no less than twelve of these seething55 pits, all filled with a disgusting thick slimy gray or black liquid, boiling or simmering with greater or less vehemence56, and emitting dense volumes of steam strongly impregnated with sulphurous gases. Some sputter57 furiously, scattering58 their contents on every side, while in others the muddy soup appears too thick to boil, and after remaining quiescent59 for about half a minute, rises up a few inches in the centre of the basin, emits a puff60 of steam, and then subsides61 into its former state. The diameter of the largest of all the pits can not be less than fifteen feet; and it is a sort of mud Geysir, for at intervals62 a column of its black liquid contents, accompanied with a violent rush of steam, is thrown up to the height of six or eight feet. Professor Sartorius von Waltershausen, one of the few travellers who have visited this remarkable63 spot, says that the witches in Macbeth could not possibly have desired a more fitting place for the preparation of their infernal gruel64 than the mud-caldrons of Reykjahlid.
Among the hot or boiling springs of Iceland, which in hundreds of places gush65 forth66 at the foot of the mountains, some are of a gentle and even flow, and can be used for bathing, washing, or boiling, while others of an intermittent67 nature are mere23 objects of curiosity or wonder. One of the most remarkable of the latter is the Tungo-hver, at Reykholt, in the “valley of smoke,” thus named from the columns of vapor68 emitted by the thermal69 springs which are here scattered70 about with a lavish71 hand. It consists of two fountains within a yard of each other—the larger one vomiting72 a column of boiling water ten feet high for the space of about four minutes, when it entirely73 subsides, and then the smaller one operates for about three minutes, ejecting a column of about five feet. The alternation is perfectly74 regular in time and force, and there are authentic75 accounts of its unfailing exactitude for the last hundred years.
But of all the springs and fountains of Iceland there is none to equal, either in grandeur or renown30, the Great Geysir, which is not merely one of the curiosities71 of the country, but one of the wonders of the earth, as there is nothing to compare to it in any other part of the world.
At the foot of the Laugafjall hill, in a green plain, through which several rivers meander76 like threads of silver, and where chains of dark-colored mountains, overtopped here and there by distant snow-peaks, form a grand but melancholy77 panorama78, dense volumes of steam indicate from afar the site of a whole system of thermal springs congregated79 on a small piece of ground which does not exceed twelve acres. In any other spot, the smallest of these boiling fountains would arrest the traveller’s attention, but here his whole mind is absorbed by the Great Geysir. In the course of countless80 ages this monarch81 of springs has formed, out of the silica it deposits, a mound82 which rises to about thirty feet above the general surface of the plain, and slopes on all sides to the distance of a hundred feet or thereabouts from the border of a large circular basin situated in its centre, and measuring about fifty-six feet in the greatest diameter and fifty-two feet in the narrowest. In the middle of this basin, forming as it were a gigantic funnel83, there is a pipe or tube, which at its opening in the basin is eighteen or sixteen feet in diameter, but narrows considerably84 at a little distance from the mouth, and then appears to be not more than ten or twelve feet in diameter. It has been probed to a depth of seventy feet, but it is more than probable that hidden channels ramify farther into the bowels85 of the earth. The sides of the tube are smoothly86 polished, and so hard that it is not possible to strike off a piece of it with a hammer.
Generally the whole basin is found filled up to the brim with sea-green water as pure as crystal, and of a temperature of from 180° to 190°. Astonished at the placid88 tranquillity90 of the pool, the traveller can hardly believe that he is really standing91 on the brink92 of the far-famed Geysir; but suddenly a subterranean thunder is heard, the ground trembles under his feet, the water in the basin begins to simmer, and large bubbles of steam rise from the tube and burst on reaching the surface, throwing up small jets of spray to the height of several feet. Every instant he expects to witness the grand spectacle which has chiefly induced him to visit this northern land, but soon the basin becomes tranquil89 as before, and the dense vapors93 produced by the ebullition are wafted94 away by the breeze. These smaller eruptions are regularly repeated every eighty or ninety minutes, but frequently the traveller is obliged to wait a whole day, or even longer, before he sees the whole power of the Geysir. A detonation95 louder than usual precedes one of these grand eruptions; the water in the basin is violently agitated96; the tube boils vehemently97; and suddenly a magnificent column of water, clothed in vapor of a dazzling whiteness, shoots up into the air with immense impetuosity and noise to the height of seventy or eighty feet, and, radiating at its apex98, showers water and steam in every direction. A second eruption and a third rapidly follow, and after a few minutes the fairy spectacle has passed away like a fantastic vision. The basin is now completely dried up, and on looking down into the shaft99, one is astonished to see the water about six feet from the rim87, and as tranquil as in an ordinary well. After about thirty or forty minutes it again begins to rise, and after a few hours reaches the brim of the basin, whence it flows down the slope of the mound72 into the Hvita, or White River. Soon the subterraneous thunder, the shaking of the ground, the simmering above the tube, and the other phenomena100 which attend each minor101 eruption, begin again, to be followed by a new period of rest, and thus this wonderful play of nature goes on day after day, year after year, and century after century. The mound of the Geysir bears witness to its immense antiquity102, as its water contains but a minute portion of silica.
41. THE STROKKR.
After the Geysir, the most remarkable fountain of these Phlegræan fields is the great Strokkr, situated about four hundred feet from the former. Its tube, the margin103 of which is almost even with the general surface, the small mound and basin being hardly discernible, is funnel-shaped, or resembling the flower of a convolvulus, having a depth of forty-eight feet, and a diameter of six feet at the mouth, but contracting, at twenty-two feet from the bottom, to only eleven inches. The water stands from nine to twelve feet under the brim, and is generally in violent ebullition. A short time before the beginning of the eruptions, which are more frequent than those of the Great Geysir, an enormous mass of steam rushes from the tube, and is followed by a rapid succession of jets, sometimes rising to the height of 120 or 150 feet, and dissolving into silvery mist. A peculiarity104 of the Strokkr is that it can at any time be provoked to an eruption by throwing into the orifice large masses of peat or turf; thus choking the shaft, and preventing the free escape of the steam. After the lapse106 of about ten minutes, the boiling fluid, as if indignant at this attempt upon its liberty, heaves up a column of mud and water, with fragments of peat, as black as ink.
73 About 150 paces from the Great Geysir are several pools of the most beautifully clear water, tinting107 with every shade of the purest green and blue the fantastical forms of the silicious travertin which clothes their sides. The slightest motion communicated to the surface quivers down to the bottom of these crystal grottoes, and imparts what might be called a sympathetic tremor108 of the water to every delicate incrustation and plant-like efflorescence. “Aladdin’s Cave could not be more beautiful,” says Preyer109; and Mr. Holland remarks that neither description nor drawing is capable of giving a sufficient idea of the singularity and loveliness of this spot. In many places it is dangerous to approach within several feet of the margin, as the earth overhangs the water, and is hollow underneath110, supported only by incrustations scarcely a foot thick. A plunge111 into waters of about 200° would be paying rather too dearly for the contemplation of their fairy-like beauty.
42. ENTRANCE TO THE ALMANNAGJA.
The gigantic chasm112 of the Almannagja is another of the volcanic wonders of Iceland. After a long and tedious ride over the vast lava-plain which extends between the Skalafell and the lake of Thingvalla, the traveller suddenly finds himself arrested in his path by an apparently113 insurmountable obstacle, for the74 enormous Almannagja, or Allman’s Rift6, suddenly gapes114 beneath his feet—a colossal115 rent extending above a mile in length, and inclosed on both sides by abrupt116 walls of black lava, frequently upward of a hundred feet high, and separated from about fifty to seventy feet from each other.
43. THE ALMANNAGJA.
A corresponding chasm, but of inferior dimensions, the Hrafnagja, or Raven’s Rift, opens its black rampart to the east, about eight miles farther on; and both form the boundaries of the verdant117 plain of Thingvalla, which by a grand convulsion of nature has itself been shattered into innumerable small parallel crevices118 and fissures120 fifty or sixty feet deep.
44. THE HRAFNAGJA.
Of the Hrafnagja Mr. Ross Browne says: “A toilsome ride of eight miles brought us to the edge of the Pass, which in point of rugged grandeur far surpasses the Almannagja, though it lacks the extent and symmetry which give the latter such a remarkable effect. Here was a tremendous gap in the earth, over a hundred feet deep, hacked121 and shivered into a thousand fantastic shapes; the sides a succession of the wildest accidents; the bottom a chaos122 of broken lava, all tossed about in the most terrific confusion. It is not, however, the extraordinary desolation of the scene that constitutes its principal interest. The resistless power which had rent the great lava-bed asunder123, as if touched with pity at the ruin, had also flung from the tottering124 cliffs a causeway across the gap, which now forms the only means of passing over the great Hrafnagja. No human hands could have created such a colossal work as this; the imagination is lost in its massive grandeur; and when we reflect that miles of an almost impassable country would otherwise have to be traversed in order to75 reach the opposite side of the gap, the conclusion is irresistible125 that in the battle of the elements Nature still had a kindly126 remembrance of man.
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45. THE TINTRON ROCK.
“Five or six miles beyond the Hrafnagja, near the summit of a dividing ridge127, we came upon a very singular volcanic formation, called the Tintron. It stands, a little to the right of the trail, on a rise of scoria and burnt earth, from which it juts128 up in rugged relief to the height of twenty or thirty feet. This is, strictly129 speaking, a huge clinker, not unlike what comes out of a grate—hard, glassy in spots, and scraggy all over. The top part is shaped like a shell; in the centre is a hole about three feet in diameter, which opens into a vast subterranean cavity of unknown depth. Whether the Tintron is an extinct crater, through which fires shot out of the earth in by-gone times, or an isolated130 mass of lava, whirled through the air out of some distant volcano, is a question that geologists131 must determine. The probability is that it is one of those natural curiosities so common in Iceland which defy research. The whole country is full of anomalies—bogs where one would expect to find dry land, and parched132 deserts where it would not seem strange to see bogs; fire where water ought to be, and water in the place of fire.”
46. FALL OF THE OXERAA.
“Ages ago,” says Lord Dufferin, “some vast commotion133 shook the foundations of the island; and bubbling up from sources far away amid the inland hills, a fiery deluge134 must have rushed down between their ridges135, until, escaping from the narrower gorges136, it found space to spread itself into one broad sheet of molten stone over an entire district of country, reducing its varied137 surface to one vast blackened level. One of two things then occurred: either, the vitrified mass contracting as it cooled, the centre area of fifty square miles (the present plain of Thingvalla) burst asunder at either side from the adjoining plateau, and sinking down to its present level, left two parallel gjas, or chasms138, which form its lateral139 boundaries, to mark the limits of the disruption; or else, while the pith or marrow140 of the lava was still in a fluid state, its upper surface became solid, and formed a77 roof, beneath which the molten stream flowed on to lower levels, leaving a vast cavern141 into which the upper crust subsequently plumped down.” In the lapse of years, the bottom of the Almannagja has become gradually filled up to an even surface, covered with the most beautiful turf, except where the river Oxeraa, bounding in a magnificent cataract142 from the higher plateau over the precipice143, flows for a certain distance between its walls. At the foot of the fall the waters linger for a moment in a dark, deep, brimming pool, hemmed144 in by a circle of ruined rocks, in which anciently all women convicted of capital crimes were immediately drowned. Many a poor crone, accused of witchcraft145, has thus ended her days in the Almannagja. As may easily be imagined, it is rather a nerve-trying task to descend146 into the chasm over a rugged lava-slope, where the least false step may prove fatal; but the Icelandic horses are so sure-footed that they can safely be trusted. From the bottom it is easy to distinguish on the one face marks and formations exactly corresponding, though at a different level, with those on the face opposite, and evidently showing that they once had dovetailed into each other, before the igneous147 mass was rent asunder.
Two leagues from Kalmanstunga, in an immense lava-field, which probably originated in the Bald Jökul, are situated the renowned Surts-hellir, or caves of Surtur, the prince of darkness and fire of the ancient Scandinavian mythology148. The principal entrance to the caves is an extensive chasm formed by the falling in of a part of the lava-roof; so that, on descending149 into it, the visitor finds himself right in the mouth of the main cavern, which runs in an almost straight line, and is nearly a mile in length. Its average height is about forty, and its breadth fifty feet. The lava-crust which forms its roof is about twelve feet thick, and has the appearance of being stratified and columnar, like basaltic pillars, in its formation. Many of the blocks of lava thus formed have become detached and fallen into the cavern, where they lie piled up in great heaps, and heavily tax the patience of the traveller, who has to scramble150 over the rugged stones, and can hardly avoid slipping and stumbling into the holes between them, varied by pools of water and masses of snow. But after having toiled151 and plodded152 to the extremity153 of this dismal154 cavern, his perseverance155 is amply rewarded by the sight of an ice-grotto, whose fairy beauty appears still more charming, in contrast with its gloomy vestibule. From the crystal floor rises group after group of transparent156 pillars tapering157 to a point, while from the roof brilliant icy pendants hang down to meet them. Columns and arches of ice are ranged along the crystalline walls, and the light of the candles is reflected back a hundred-fold from every side, till the whole cavern shines with astonishing lustre158. Mr. Holland, the latest visitor of the Surts-hellir, declares he never saw a more brilliant spectacle; and the German naturalist159, Preyer, pronounces it one of the most magnificent sights in nature, reminding him of the fairy grottoes of the Arabian Nights’ Tales.
From the mountains and the vast plateau which occupies the centre of the island, numerous rivers descend on all sides, which, fed in summer by the melting glaciers, pour enormous quantities of turbid160 water into the sea, or convert large alluvial161 flats into morasses162. Though of a considerable breadth, their78 course is frequently very short, particularly along the southern coast, where the jokuls from which they derive163 their birth are only separated from the sea by a narrow foreland. In their impetuous flow, they not seldom bear huge blocks of stone along with them, and cut off all communication between the inhabitants of their opposite banks.
The chief rivers of Iceland are, in the south, the Thiorsa and the Hvita, which are not inferior in width to the Rhine in the middle part of its course; in the north, the Skjalfandafljot and the Jökulsa and the Jökulsa i Axarfirdi, large and rapid streams above a hundred miles long; and in the east the Lagarfliot. As may be expected in a mountainous country, containing many glacier-fed rivers, Iceland has numerous cascades164, many of them rivalling or surpassing in beauty the far-famed falls of Switzerland.
One of the most celebrated165 of these gems166 of nature is the Goda-foss, in the northern part of the island, formed by the deep and rapid Skjalfandafljot, as it rushes with a deafening167 roar over rocks fifty feet high into the caldron below; but it is far surpassed in magnificence by the Dettifoss, a fall of the Jökulsa i Axarfirdi.
“In some of old earth’s convulsions,” says its discoverer, Mr. Gould,—for from its remote situation, deep in the northern wilds of Iceland, it had escaped the curious eye of previous travellers—“the crust of rock has been rent, and a frightful168 fissure119 formed in the basalt, about 200 feet deep, with the sides columnar and perpendicular169. The gash170 terminates abruptly171 at an acute angle, and at this spot the great river rolls in. The wreaths of water sweeping172 down; the frenzy173 of the confined streams where they meet, shooting into each other from either side at the apex of an angle; the wild rebound174 when they strike a head of rock, lurching out half way down; the fitful gleam of battling torrents175, obtained through a veil of eddying176 vapor; the Geysir-spouts which blow up about seventy feet from holes whence basaltic columns have been shot by the force of the descending water; the blasts of spray which rush upward and burst into fierce showers on the brink, feeding rills which plunge over the edge as soon as they are born; the white writhing177 vortex below, with now and then an ice-green wave tearing through the foam178 to lash179 against the walls; the thunder and bellowing180 of the water, which make the rock shudder181 under foot, are all stamped on my mind with a vividness which it will take years to efface182. The Almannagja is nothing to this chasm, and Schaffhausen is dwarfed184 by Dettifoss.”
The ocean-currents which wash the coasts of Iceland from opposite directions have a considerable influence on its climate. The south and west coasts, fronting the Atlantic, and exposed to the Gulf185 Stream, remain ice-free even in winter, and enjoy a comparatively mild temperature, while the cold Polar current, flowing in a south-western direction from Spitzbergen to Jan Mayen and Iceland, conveys almost every year to the eastern and northern shores of the island large masses of drift-ice, which sometimes do not disappear before July or even August. According to Dr. Thorstensen, the mean annual temperature of the air at Reykjavik is +40°, and that of the sea +42°, while according to Herr von Scheele the mean annual temperature at Akureyre, on the north coast,79 is only +33°, though even this shows a comparatively mild climate in so high a latitude186. But if Iceland, thanks to its insular187 position and to the influence of the Gulf Stream, remains188 free from the excessive winter cold of the Arctic continents, its summer, on the other hand, is inferior in warmth to that which reigns189 in the interior of Siberia, or of the Hudson’s Bay territories.
The mean summer temperature at Reykjavik is not above +54°; during many years the thermometer never rises a single time above +80°; sometimes even its maximum is not higher than +59°; and, on the northern coast, snow not seldom falls even in the middle of summer. Under such circumstances, the cultivation190 of the cereals is of course impossible; and when the drift-ice remains longer than usual on the northern coasts, it prevents even the growth of the grass, and want and famine are the consequence.
The Icelandic summer is characterized by constant changes in the weather, rain continually alternating with sunshine, as with us in April. The air is but seldom tranquil, and storms of terrific violence are of frequent occurrence. Towards the end of September winter begins, preceded by mists, which finally descend in thick masses of snow. Travelling over the mountain-tracks is at this time particularly dangerous, although cairns or piles of stone serve to point out the way, and here and there, as over the passes of the Alps, small huts have been erected192 to serve as a refuge for the traveller.
In former times Iceland could boast of forests, so that houses and even ships used to be built of indigenous193 timber; at present it is almost entirely destitute194 of trees, for the dwarf183 shrubberies here and there met with, where the birch hardly attains195 the height of twenty feet, are not to be dignified197 with the name of woods. A service-tree (Sorbus ancuparia) fourteen feet high, and measuring three inches in diameter at the foot, is the boast of the governor’s garden at Reykjavik; it is, however, surpassed by another at Akureyre, which spreads a full crown twenty feet from the ground, but never sees its clusters of berries ripen198 into scarlet199.
The damp and cool Icelandic summer, though it prevents the successful cultivation of corn, is favorable to the growth of grasses, so that in some of the better farms the pasture-grounds are hardly inferior to the finest meadows in England. About one-third of the surface of the country is covered with vegetation of some sort or other fit for the nourishment200 of cattle; but, as yet, art has done little for its improvement—ploughing, sowing, drainage, and levelling being things undreamt of. With the exception of the grasses, which are of paramount201 importance, and the trees, which, in spite of their stunted202 proportions, are of great value, as they supply the islanders with the charcoal203 needed for shoeing their horses, few of the indigenous plants of Iceland are of any use to man. The Angelica archangelica is eaten raw with butter; the matted roots or stems of the Menyanthes trifoliata serve to protect the backs of the horses against the rubbing of the saddle; and the Icelandic moss204, which is frequently boiled in milk, is likewise an article of exportation. The want of better grain frequently compels the poor islanders to bake a kind of bread from the seeds of the sand-reed (Elymus arenarius), which on our dunes205 are merely picked by the birds of passage; and the oarweed or tangle206 (Laminaria saccharina)80 is prized as a vegetable in a land where potatoes and turnips207 are but rarely cultivated.
When the first settlers came to Iceland, they found but two indigenous land-quadrupeds: a species of field-vole (Arvicola œconomus) and the Arctic fox; but the seas and shores were no doubt tenanted by a larger number of whales, dolphins, and seals than at the present day.
The ox, the sheep, and the horse which accompanied the Norse colonists208 to their new home, form the staple209 wealth of their descendants; for the number of those who live by breeding cattle is as three to one, compared with those who chiefly depend on the sea for their subsistence. Milk and whey are almost the only beverages210 of the Icelanders. Without butter they will eat no fish; and curdled211 milk, which they eat fresh in summer and preserve in a sour state during the winter, is their favorite repast. Thus they set the highest value on their cattle, and tend them with the greatest care. In the preservation212 of their sheep, they are much hampered213 by the badness of the climate, by the scantiness214 of winter food, and by the attacks of the eagles, the ravens215, and the foxes, more particularly at the lambing season, when vast numbers of the young animals are carried off by all of them. The wool is not sheared216 off, but torn from the animal’s back, and woven by the peasantry, during the long winter evenings, into a kind of coarse cloth, or knit into gloves and stockings, which form one of the chief articles of export.
“While at breakfast,” says Mr. Shepherd, “we witnessed the Icelandic method of sheep-shearing. Three or four powerful young women seized, and easily threw on their backs the struggling victims. The legs were then tied, and the wool pulled off by main force. It seemed, from the contortions217 of some of the wretched animals, to be a cruel method; but we were told that there is a period in the year when the young wool, beginning to grow, pushes the old out before it, so that the old coat is easily pulled out.” The number of heads of cattle in the island is about 40,000, that of the sheep 500,000.
The horses, which number from 50,000 to 60,000, though small, are very robust218 and hardy219. There being no wheel carriages on the island, they are merely used for riding and as beasts of burden. Their services are indispensable, as without them the Icelanders would not have the means of travelling and carrying their produce to the fishing villages or ports at which the annual supplies arrive from Copenhagen. In winter the poor animals must find their own food, and are consequently mere skeletons in spring; they, however, soon recover in summer, though even then they have nothing whatever but the grass and small plants which they can pick up on the hills.
The dogs are very similar to those of Lapland and Greenland. Like them, they have long hair, forming a kind of collar round the neck, a pointed220 nose, pointed ears, and an elevated curled tail, with a temper which may be characterized as restless and irritable221. Their general color is white.
In the year 1770 thirteen reindeer were brought from Norway. Ten of them died during the passage, but the three that survived have multiplied so fast that large herds222 now roam over the uninhabited wastes. During the winter, when hunger drives them into the lower districts, they are frequently shot;81 but no attempts have been made to tame them: for, though indispensable to the Laplander, they are quite superfluous223 in Iceland, which is too rugged and too much intersected by streams to admit of sledging224. They are, in fact, generally considered as a nuisance, as they eat away the Icelandic moss, which the islanders would willingly keep for their own use.
47. ICELANDIC HORSES.
The Polar bear is but a casual visitor in Iceland. About a dozen come drifting every year with the ice from Jan Mayen, or Spitzbergen, to the northern shores. Ravenous225 with hunger, they immediately attack the first herds they meet with; but their ravages226 do not last long, for the neighborhood, arising in arms, soon puts an end to their existence.
In Iceland the ornithologist227 finds a rich field for his favorite study, as there are no less than eighty-two different species of indigenous birds, besides twenty-one that are only casual visitors, and six that have been introduced by man.
The swampy228 grounds in the interior of the country are peopled with legions of golden and king plovers229, of snipes and red-shanks; the lakes abound230 with swans, ducks, and geese of various kinds; the snow-bunting enlivens the solitude231 of the rocky wilderness with his lively note, and, wherever grass grows, the common pipit (Anthus pratensis) builds its neat little nest, well lined with horsehair. Like the lark232, he rises singing from the ground, and frequently surprises the traveller with his melodious233 warbling, which sounds doubly sweet in the lifeless waste.
48. SHOOTING REINDEER.
The eider-duck holds the first rank among the useful birds of Iceland. Its chief breeding-places are small flat islands on various parts of the coast, where it is safe from the attacks of the Arctic fox, such as Akurey, Flatey, and Videy,82 which, from its vicinity to Reykjavik, is frequently visited by travellers. All these breeding-places are private property, and several have been for centuries in the possession of the same families, which, thanks to the birds, are among the wealthiest of the land. It may easily be imagined that the eider-ducks are guarded with the most sedulous234 care. Whoever kills one is obliged to pay a83 fine of thirty dollars; and the secreting235 of an egg, or the pocketing of a few downs, is punished with all the rigor236 of the law. The chief occupation of Mr. Stephenson, the aged237 proprietor238 of Videy, who dwells alone on the islet, is to examine through his telescope all the boats that approach, so as to be sure that there are no guns on board. During the breeding season no one is allowed to land without his special permission, and all noise, shouting, or loud speaking is strictly prohibited. But, in spite of these precautions, we are informed by recent travellers that latterly the greater part of the ducks of Videy have been tempted to leave their old quarters for the neighboring Engey, whose proprietor hit upon the plan of laying hay upon the strand239, so as to afford them greater facilities for nest-building. The eider-down is easily collected, as the birds are quite tame. The female having laid five or six pale greenish-olive eggs, in a nest thickly lined with her beautiful down, the collectors, after carefully removing the bird, rob the nest of its contents, after which they replace her. She then begins to lay afresh, though this time only three or four eggs, and again has recourse to the down on her body. But her greedy persecutors once more rifle her nest, and oblige her to line it for the third time. Now, however, her own stock of down is exhausted240, and with a plaintive241 voice she calls her mate to her assistance, who willingly plucks the soft feathers from his breast to supply the deficiency. If the cruel robbery be again repeated, which in former times was frequently the case, the poor eider-duck abandons the spot, never to return, and seeks for a new home where she may indulge her maternal242 instinct undisturbed.
49. EIDER-DUCK.
Mr. Shepherd thus describes his visit to Vigr, in the Isafjardardjup, one of the head-quarters of the eider-duck in the north of Iceland: “As the island was approached, we could see flocks upon flocks of the sacred birds, and could hear their cooings at a great distance. We landed on a rocky wave-worn shore, against which the waters scarcely rippled243, and set off to investigate the island. The shore was the most wonderful ornithological244 sight conceivable. The ducks and their nests were everywhere in a manner that was quite alarming. Great brown ducks sat upon their nests in masses, and at every step started up from under our feet. It was with difficulty that we avoided treading on some of the nests. The island being but three-quarters of a mile in width, the opposite shore was soon reached. On the coast was a wall built of large stones, just above the high-water level, about three feet in height, and of considerable thickness. At the bottom, on both sides of it, alternate stones had been left out, so as to form a series of square compartments245 for the ducks to make their nests in. Almost every compartment246 was occupied; and, as we walked along the shore, a long line of ducks flew out one after another. The surface of the water also was perfectly white with drakes, who welcomed their brown wives with loud and clamorous247 cooing. When we arrived at the farmhouse248 we were84 cordially welcomed by its mistress. The house itself was a great marvel249. The earthern wall that surrounded it and the window embrasures were occupied by ducks. On the ground, the house was fringed with ducks. On the turf slopes of the roof we could see ducks; and a duck sat in the scraper.
“A grassy250 bank close by had been cut into square patches like a chessboard (a square of turf of about eighteen inches being removed, and a hollow made), and all were filled with ducks. A windmill was infested251, and so were all the outhouses, mounds252, rocks, and crevices. The ducks were everywhere. Many of them were so tame that we could stroke them on their nests; and the good lady told us that there was scarcely a duck on the island which would not allow her to take its eggs without flight or fear. When she first became possessor of the island, the produce of down from the ducks was not more than fifteen pounds’ weight in the year, but, under her careful nurture253 of twenty years, it had risen to nearly one hundred pounds annually254. It requires about one pound and a half to make a coverlet for a single bed, and the down is worth from twelve to fifteen shillings per pound. Most of the eggs are taken and pickled for winter consumption, one or two only being left to hatch.”
Though not so important as the eider, the other members of the duck family which during the summer season enliven the lakes and swamps of Iceland are very serviceable. On the Myvatn, or Gnat Lake, one of their chief places of resort, the eggs of the long-tailed duck, the wild duck, the scoter, the common goosander, the red-breasted merganser, the scaup-duck, etc., and other anserines are carefully gathered and preserved in enormous quantities for the winter, closely packed in a fine gray volcanic sand.
The wild swan is frequently shot or caught for his feathers, which bring in many a dollar to the fortunate huntsman. This noble bird frequents both the salt and brackish255 waters along the coast and the inland lakes and rivers, where it is seen either in single pairs or congregated in large flocks. To build its nest, which is said to resemble closely that of the flamingo256, being a large mound, composed of mud, rushes, grass, and stones, with a cavity at top lined with soft down, it retires to some solitary, uninhabited spot. Much has been said in ancient times of the singing of the swan, and the beauty of its dying notes; but, in truth, the voice of the swan is very loud, shrill257, and harsh, though when high in the air, and modulated258 by the winds, the note or whoop259 of an assemblage of them is not unpleasant to the ear. It has a peculiar105 charm in the unfrequented wastes of Iceland, where it agreeably interrupts the profound silence that reigns around.
The raven, one of the commonest land-birds in Iceland, is an object of aversion to the islanders, as it not only seizes on their young lambs and eider-ducks, but also commits great depredations260 among the fishes laid out to dry upon the shore. Poles to which dead ravens are attached, to serve as a warning to the living, are frequently seen in the meadows; and the Icelander is never so happy as when he has succeeded in shooting a raven. This, however, is no easy task, as no bird is more cautious, and its eyes are as sharp as those of the eagle. Of all Icelandic birds, the raven breeds the earliest, laying about the middle of March its five or six pale-green eggs, spotted261 with brown, in the inaccessible85 crevices of rocks. Towards the end of June, Preyer saw many young ravens grown to a good size, and but little inferior to the old ones in cunning.
In the gloomy Scandinavian mythology the raven occupies a rank equal to that of the eagle in the more cheerful fables262 of ancient Greece. It was dedicated263 to Odin, who, as the traditional history of Iceland informs us, had two ravens, which were let loose every morning to gather tidings of what was going on in the world, and which on returning in the evening perched upon Odin’s shoulders to whisper the news in his ear; the name of one was Hugin, or spirit; of the other, Mumin, or memory. Even now many superstitious264 notions remain attached to the raven; for the Icelanders believe this bird to be not only acquainted with what is going on at a distance, but also with what is to happen in future, and are convinced that it foretells265 when any of the family is about to die, by perching on the roof of the house, or wheeling round in the air with a continual cry, varying its voice in a singular and melodious manner.
The white-tailed sea-eagle is not uncommon266 in Iceland, where he stands in evil repute as a kidnapper267 of lambs and eider-ducks. He is sometimes found dead in the nets of the fishermen; for, pouncing268 upon a haddock or salmon269, he gets entangled270 in the meshes271, and is unable to extricate272 himself. The skins of the bird, which seems to attain196 a larger size than in Great Britain, most likely from being less disturbed by man, are sold at Reykjavik and Akureyre for from three to six rix-dollars.
50. THE JYRFALCON.
The jyrfalcon (Falco gyrfalco), generally considered as the boldest and most beautiful of the falcon5 tribe, has its head-quarters in Iceland. As long as the noble sport of falconry was in fashion, for which it was highly esteemed273, the trade in falcons274 was worth from 2000 to 3000 rix-dollars annually to the islanders, and even now high prices are paid for it by English amateurs.
The rarest bird of Iceland, if not entirely extinct, is the Giant-auk, or Geirfugl. The last pair was caught about seventeen years ago near the Geirfuglaskers, a group of solitary rocks to the south of the Westman Isles275, its only known habitat besides some similar cliffs on the north-eastern coast. Since that time it is said to have been seen by some fishermen; but this testimony276 is extremely doubtful, and the question of its existence can only be solved by a visit to the Geirfuglaskers themselves—an undertaking277 which, if practicable at all, is attended with extreme difficulty and danger, as these rocks are completely isolated in the sea, which even in calm weather breaks with such violence against their abrupt declivities that for years it must be absolutely impossible to approach them.
In 1858 two English naturalists278 determined279 at least to make the attempt, and settled for a season in a small hamlet on the neighboring coast, eager to86 seize the first opportunity for storming the Geirfugl’s stronghold. They waited for several months, but in vain, the stormy summer being more than usually unfavorable for their undertaking; and they were equally unsuccessful in the north, whither they had sent an Icelandic student specially280 instructed for the purpose. The giant-auk is three feet high, and has a black bill four inches and a quarter long, both mandibles being crossed obliquely281 with several ridges and furrows282. Its wings are mere stumps283, like those of the Antarctic penguins284. Thirty pounds have been paid for its egg, which is larger than that of any other European bird; and there is no knowing the price the Zoological Society would pay for a live bird, if this truly “rara avis” could still be found.
51. THE GIANT-AUK.
The waters of Iceland abound with excellent fish, which not only supply the islanders with a great part of their food and furnish them with one of their chief articles of exportation, but also attract a number of foreign seamen285. Thus about 300 French, Dutch, and Belgian fishing-sloops, manned with crews amounting in all to 7000 men, annually make their appearance on the southern and western coasts of Iceland, particularly those of the Guldbringe Syssel, or gold-bringing country: thus named, not from any evidence of the precious metal, but from the golden cod286-harvests reaped on its shores. Between thirty and forty English fishing-smacks yearly visit the northern coast. When they have obtained a good cargo287 they run to Shetland to discharge it, and return again for more.
The Icelandic fishing-season, which begins in February and ends in June, occupies one-half of the male inhabitants of the island, who come flocking to the west, even from the remotest districts of the north and east, to partake of the rich harvest of the seas. Many thus travel for more than 200 miles in the midst of winter, while the storm howls over the naked waste, and the pale sun scarcely dispels288 for a few hours the darkness of the night. In every hut where they tarry on the road they are welcome, and have but rarely to pay for their87 entertainment, for hospitality is still reckoned a duty in Iceland. On reaching the fishing-station, an agreement is soon made with the proprietor of a boat. They usually engage to assist in fishing from February 12 to May 12, and receive in return a share of the fish which they help to catch, besides forty pounds of flour and a daily allowance of sour curds289, or “skier290.”
All the men belonging to a boat generally live in the same damp and narrow hut. At daybreak they launch forth, to brave for many hours the inclemencies of the weather and the sea, and while engaged in their hard day’s work their sole refreshment291 is the chewing of tobacco or a mouthful of skier. On returning to their comfortless hut, their supper consists of the fishes of inferior quality they may have caught, or of the heads of the cod or ling, which are too valuable for their own consumption. These are split open and hung upon lines, or exposed on the shore to the cold wind and the hot sun; this renders them perfectly hard, and they keep good for years. In this dried state the cod is called stockfish. About the middle of May the migratory292 fishermen return to their homes, leaving their fish which are not yet quite dry to the care of the fishermen dwelling293 on the spot. Towards the middle of June, when the horses have so far recovered from their long winter’s fast as to be able to bear a load, they come back to fetch their stockfish, which they convey either to their own homes for the consumption of their own families, or to the nearest port for the purpose of bartering294 it against other articles. Haddocks, flatfish, and herrings are also very abundant in the Icelandic seas; and along the northern and north-western coasts the basking295 shark is largely fished for all the summer. Strong hooks baited with mussels or pieces of fish, and attached to chains anchored at a short distance from the shore, serve for the capture of this monster, which is scarcely, if at all, inferior in size to the white shark, though not nearly so formidable, as it rarely attacks man. The skin serves for making sandals; the coarse flesh is eaten by the islanders, whom necessity has taught not to be over-nice in their food; and the liver, the most valuable part, is stewed296 for the sake of its oil.
“We had observed,” says Mr. Shepherd, “that the horrible smell which infested Jsa-fjordr varied in intensity297 as we approached or receded191 from a certain black-looking building at the northern end of the town. On investigating this building, we discovered that the seat of the smell was to be found in a mass of putrid298 sharks’ livers, part of which were undergoing a process of stewing299 in a huge copper300. It was a noisome301 green mass, fearful to contemplate302. The place was endurable only for a few seconds; yet dirty-looking men stirred up the mass with long poles, and seemed to enjoy the reeking303 vapors.”
The salmon of Iceland, which formerly304 remained undisturbed by the phlegmatic305 inhabitants, are now caught in large numbers for the British market. A small river bearing the significant name of Laxaa, or Salmon River, has been rented for the trifling306 sum of £100 a year by an English company, which sends every spring its agents to the spot well provided with the best fishing apparatus307. The captured fish are immediately boiled, and hermetically packed in tin boxes, so that they can be eaten in London almost as fresh as if they had just been caught.
88 The mineral kingdom contributes but little to the prosperity of Iceland. It affords neither metals, nor precious stones, nor rock-salt, nor coal; for the seams of “surturbrand”, or “lignite”, found here and there, are too unimportant to be worked. The solfataras of Krisuvik and Husavik, though extremely interesting to the geologist, likewise furnish sulphur in too impure308 a condition or too thinly scattered to afford any prospect309 of being worked with success, not to mention the vast expense of transport over the almost impassable lava-tracks that separate them from the nearest ports. In 1839–40, when, in consequence of the monopoly granted by the Neapolitan Government to a French company, sulphur had risen to more than three times its usual price, Mr. Knudsen, an enterprising Danish merchant, undertook to work the mines of Krisuvik, but even then it would not answer.
In 1859, a London company, founded by Mr. Bushby,—who having explored the sulphur districts, had raised great expectations on what he considered their dormant310 wealth,—renewed the attempt, but after a year’s trial it was abandoned as perfectly hopeless. The “solfataras of Iceland”, says Professor Sartorius of Waltershausen, “can not compete with those of Sicily, where more sulphur is wantonly wasted and trodden under foot than all Iceland possesses. While the “Namars” of the north, which are far richer than those of Krisuvik, annually furnish scarcely more than ten tons, the sulphur mines of Sicily produce at least 50,000, and, if necessary, could easily export double the quantity.”
As coal is too expensive a fuel for any but the rich in the small sea-port towns, and peat, though no doubt abundantly scattered over the island, is dug only in a few places, the majority of the people make use of singular substitutes. The commonest is dried cow’s and sheep’s dung; but many a poor fisherman lacks even this “spicy” material, and is fain to use the bones of animals, the skeletons of fishes or dried sea-birds, which, with a stoical contempt for his olfactory311 organs, he burns, feathers and all. There is, however, no want of fuel in those privileged spots where drift-wood is found, and here the lava hearth312 of the islander cheerfully blazes either with the pine conveyed to him by the kindly Polar currents from the Siberian forests, or with some tropical trunk, wafted by the Gulf Stream over the Atlantic to his northern home.
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1
volcanic
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| adj.火山的；象火山的；由火山引起的 | |
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lava
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| n.熔岩，火山岩 | |
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reindeer
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| n.驯鹿 | |
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raven
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| n.渡鸟，乌鸦；adj.乌亮的 | |
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falcon
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| n.隼，猎鹰 | |
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rift
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| n.裂口，隙缝，切口；v.裂开，割开，渗入 | |
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nucleus
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| n.核，核心，原子核 | |
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cone
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| n.圆锥体，圆锥形东西，球果 | |
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crater
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| n.火山口，弹坑 | |
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eruption
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| n.火山爆发；（战争等）爆发；（疾病等）发作 | |
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promontories
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| n.岬，隆起，海角( promontory的名词复数 ) | |
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buttresses
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| n.扶壁，扶垛( buttress的名词复数 )v.用扶壁支撑，加固( buttress的第三人称单数 ) | |
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desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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rugged
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| adj.高低不平的，粗糙的，粗壮的，强健的 | |
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reposes
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| v.将（手臂等）靠在某人（某物）上( repose的第三人称单数 ) | |
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alpine
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| adj.高山的；n.高山植物 | |
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grandeur
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| n.伟大，崇高，宏伟，庄严，豪华 | |
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tempted
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| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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patriotic
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| adj.爱国的，有爱国心的 | |
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geologist
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| n.地质学家 | |
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prosaic
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| adj.单调的，无趣的 | |
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utilitarian
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| adj.实用的，功利的 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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bogs
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| n.沼泽，泥塘( bog的名词复数 )；厕所v.（使）陷入泥沼， （使）陷入困境( bog的第三人称单数 )；妨碍，阻碍 | |
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glacier
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| n.冰川，冰河 | |
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glaciers
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| 冰河，冰川( glacier的名词复数 ) | |
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sterility
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| n.不生育，不结果，贫瘠，消毒，无菌 | |
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inaccessible
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| adj.达不到的，难接近的 | |
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slumbering
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| 微睡，睡眠（slumber的现在分词形式） | |
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renown
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| n.声誉，名望 | |
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renowned
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| adj.著名的，有名望的，声誉鹊起的 | |
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insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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craters
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| n.火山口( crater的名词复数 )；弹坑等 | |
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cape
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| n.海角，岬；披肩，短披风 | |
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crevasse
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| n. 裂缝，破口；v.使有裂缝 | |
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fiery
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| adj.燃烧着的，火红的；暴躁的；激烈的 | |
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seethed
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| （液体）沸腾( seethe的过去式和过去分词 )； 激动，大怒； 强压怒火； 生闷气(~with sth|~ at sth) | |
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jumbled
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| adj.混乱的；杂乱的 | |
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grotesque
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| adj.怪诞的，丑陋的；n.怪诞的图案，怪人（物） | |
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myriads
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| n.无数，极大数量( myriad的名词复数 ) | |
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horrid
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| adj.可怕的；令人惊恐的；恐怖的；极讨厌的 | |
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spikes
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| n.穗( spike的名词复数 )；跑鞋；（防滑）鞋钉；尖状物v.加烈酒于( spike的第三人称单数 )；偷偷地给某人的饮料加入（更多）酒精（ 或药物）；把尖状物钉入；打乱某人的计划 | |
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43
bristle
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| v.（毛发）直立，气势汹汹，发怒；n.硬毛发 | |
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eruptions
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| n.喷发，爆发( eruption的名词复数 ) | |
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stony
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| adj.石头的，多石头的，冷酷的，无情的 | |
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wilderness
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| n.杳无人烟的一片陆地、水等，荒漠 | |
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subterranean
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| adj.地下的，地表下的 | |
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48
gorge
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| n.咽喉，胃，暴食，山峡；v.塞饱，狼吞虎咽地吃 | |
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dense
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| a.密集的，稠密的，浓密的；密度大的 | |
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50
hissing
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| n. 发嘶嘶声, 蔑视 动词hiss的现在分词形式 | |
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51
effigy
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| n.肖像 | |
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52
situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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53
gnat
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| v.对小事斤斤计较，琐事 | |
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solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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55
seething
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| 沸腾的，火热的 | |
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56
vehemence
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| n.热切；激烈；愤怒 | |
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57
sputter
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| n.喷溅声；v.喷溅 | |
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58
scattering
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| n.[物]散射；散乱，分散；在媒介质中的散播adj.散乱的；分散在不同范围的；广泛扩散的；（选票）数量分散的v.散射(scatter的ing形式)；散布；驱散 | |
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59
quiescent
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| adj.静止的，不活动的，寂静的 | |
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60
puff
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| n.一口(气)；一阵(风)；v.喷气，喘气 | |
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61
subsides
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| v.（土地）下陷（因在地下采矿）( subside的第三人称单数 )；减弱；下降至较低或正常水平；一下子坐在椅子等上 | |
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62
intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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63
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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64
gruel
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| n.稀饭，粥 | |
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65
gush
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| v.喷，涌；滔滔不绝(说话)；n.喷，涌流；迸发 | |
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66
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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67
intermittent
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| adj.间歇的，断断续续的 | |
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68
vapor
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| n.蒸汽，雾气 | |
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69
thermal
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| adj.热的，由热造成的；保暖的 | |
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70
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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71
lavish
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| adj.无节制的；浪费的；vt.慷慨地给予，挥霍 | |
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72
vomiting
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| 吐 | |
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73
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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74
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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75
authentic
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| a.真的，真正的；可靠的，可信的，有根据的 | |
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76
meander
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| n.河流的曲折，漫步，迂回旅行；v.缓慢而弯曲地流动，漫谈 | |
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77
melancholy
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| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
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78
panorama
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| n.全景，全景画，全景摄影，全景照片[装置] | |
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79
congregated
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| （使）集合，聚集( congregate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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80
countless
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| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
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81
monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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82
mound
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| n.土墩，堤，小山；v.筑堤，用土堆防卫 | |
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83
funnel
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| n.漏斗；烟囱；v.汇集 | |
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84
considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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85
bowels
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| n.肠，内脏，内部；肠( bowel的名词复数 )；内部，最深处 | |
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86
smoothly
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| adv.平滑地，顺利地，流利地，流畅地 | |
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87
rim
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| n.(圆物的)边，轮缘；边界 | |
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88
placid
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| adj.安静的，平和的 | |
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89
tranquil
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| adj. 安静的, 宁静的, 稳定的, 不变的 | |
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90
tranquillity
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| n. 平静, 安静 | |
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91
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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92
brink
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| n.(悬崖、河流等的)边缘，边沿 | |
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93
vapors
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| n.水汽，水蒸气，无实质之物( vapor的名词复数 )；自夸者；幻想 [药]吸入剂 [古]忧郁（症）v.自夸，（使）蒸发( vapor的第三人称单数 ) | |
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94
wafted
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| v.吹送，飘送，（使）浮动( waft的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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95
detonation
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| n.爆炸；巨响 | |
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96
agitated
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| adj.被鼓动的，不安的 | |
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97
vehemently
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| adv. 热烈地 | |
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98
apex
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| n.顶点，最高点 | |
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99
shaft
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| n.(工具的)柄，杆状物 | |
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100
phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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101
minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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102
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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103
margin
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| n.页边空白；差额；余地，余裕；边，边缘 | |
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104
peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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105
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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106
lapse
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| n.过失，流逝，失效，抛弃信仰，间隔；vi.堕落，停止，失效，流逝；vt.使失效 | |
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107
tinting
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| 着色，染色（的阶段或过程） | |
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108
tremor
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| n.震动，颤动，战栗，兴奋，地震 | |
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109
preyer
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| 猛兽，猛禽 | |
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110
underneath
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| adj.在...下面，在...底下；adv.在下面 | |
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111
plunge
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| v.跳入，(使)投入，(使)陷入；猛冲 | |
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112
chasm
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| n.深坑，断层，裂口，大分岐，利害冲突 | |
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113
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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114
gapes
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| v.目瞪口呆地凝视( gape的第三人称单数 )；张开，张大 | |
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115
colossal
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| adj.异常的，庞大的 | |
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116
abrupt
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| adj.突然的，意外的；唐突的，鲁莽的 | |
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117
verdant
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| adj.翠绿的，青翠的，生疏的，不老练的 | |
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118
crevices
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| n.（尤指岩石的）裂缝，缺口( crevice的名词复数 ) | |
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119
fissure
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| n.裂缝；裂伤 | |
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120
fissures
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| n.狭长裂缝或裂隙( fissure的名词复数 )；裂伤；分歧；分裂v.裂开( fissure的第三人称单数 ) | |
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121
hacked
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| 生气 | |
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122
chaos
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| n.混乱，无秩序 | |
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123
asunder
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| adj.分离的，化为碎片 | |
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124
tottering
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| adj.蹒跚的，动摇的v.走得或动得不稳( totter的现在分词 )；踉跄；蹒跚；摇摇欲坠 | |
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125
irresistible
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| adj.非常诱人的，无法拒绝的，无法抗拒的 | |
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126
kindly
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| adj.和蔼的，温和的，爽快的；adv.温和地，亲切地 | |
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127
ridge
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| n.山脊；鼻梁；分水岭 | |
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128
juts
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| v.（使）突出( jut的第三人称单数 )；伸出；（从…）突出；高出 | |
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129
strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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130
isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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131
geologists
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| 地质学家，地质学者( geologist的名词复数 ) | |
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132
parched
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| adj.焦干的；极渴的；v.（使）焦干 | |
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133
commotion
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| n.骚动，动乱 | |
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134
deluge
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| n./vt.洪水，暴雨，使泛滥 | |
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135
ridges
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| n.脊( ridge的名词复数 )；山脊；脊状突起；大气层的)高压脊 | |
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136
gorges
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| n.山峡，峡谷( gorge的名词复数 )；咽喉v.（用食物把自己）塞饱，填饱( gorge的第三人称单数 )；作呕 | |
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137
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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138
chasms
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| 裂缝( chasm的名词复数 )； 裂口； 分歧； 差别 | |
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139
lateral
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| adj.侧面的，旁边的 | |
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140
marrow
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| n.骨髓；精华；活力 | |
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141
cavern
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| n.洞穴，大山洞 | |
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142
cataract
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| n.大瀑布，奔流，洪水，白内障 | |
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143
precipice
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| n.悬崖，危急的处境 | |
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144
hemmed
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| 缝…的褶边( hem的过去式和过去分词 )； 包围 | |
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145
witchcraft
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| n.魔法，巫术 | |
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146
descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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147
igneous
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| adj.火的，火绒的 | |
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148
mythology
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| n.神话，神话学，神话集 | |
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149
descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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150
scramble
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| v.爬行，攀爬，杂乱蔓延，碎片，片段，废料 | |
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151
toiled
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| 长时间或辛苦地工作( toil的过去式和过去分词 )； 艰难缓慢地移动，跋涉 | |
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152
plodded
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| v.沉重缓慢地走（路）( plod的过去式和过去分词 )；努力从事；沉闷地苦干；缓慢进行（尤指艰难枯燥的工作） | |
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153
extremity
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| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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154
dismal
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| adj.阴沉的，凄凉的，令人忧郁的，差劲的 | |
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155
perseverance
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| n.坚持不懈，不屈不挠 | |
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156
transparent
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| adj.明显的，无疑的；透明的 | |
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157
tapering
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| adj.尖端细的 | |
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158
lustre
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| n.光亮，光泽；荣誉 | |
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159
naturalist
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| n.博物学家(尤指直接观察动植物者) | |
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160
turbid
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| adj.混浊的，泥水的，浓的 | |
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161
alluvial
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| adj.冲积的；淤积的 | |
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162
morasses
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| n.缠作一团( morass的名词复数 )；困境；沼泽；陷阱 | |
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163
derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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164
cascades
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| 倾泻( cascade的名词复数 )； 小瀑布（尤指一连串瀑布中的一支）； 瀑布状物； 倾泻（或涌出）的东西 | |
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165
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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166
gems
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| growth； economy； management； and customer satisfaction 增长 | |
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167
deafening
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| adj. 振耳欲聋的, 极喧闹的 动词deafen的现在分词形式 | |
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168
frightful
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| adj.可怕的；讨厌的 | |
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169
perpendicular
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| adj.垂直的，直立的；n.垂直线，垂直的位置 | |
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170
gash
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| v.深切，划开；n.(深长的)切(伤)口；裂缝 | |
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171
abruptly
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| adv.突然地，出其不意地 | |
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172
sweeping
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| adj.范围广大的，一扫无遗的 | |
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173
frenzy
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| n.疯狂，狂热，极度的激动 | |
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174
rebound
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| v.弹回；n.弹回，跳回 | |
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175
torrents
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| n.倾注；奔流( torrent的名词复数 )；急流；爆发；连续不断 | |
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176
eddying
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| 涡流，涡流的形成 | |
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177
writhing
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| （因极度痛苦而）扭动或翻滚( writhe的现在分词 ) | |
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178
foam
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| v./n.泡沫，起泡沫 | |
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179
lash
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| v.系牢；鞭打；猛烈抨击；n.鞭打；眼睫毛 | |
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180
bellowing
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| v.发出吼叫声，咆哮（尤指因痛苦）( bellow的现在分词 )；（愤怒地）说出（某事），大叫 | |
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181
shudder
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| v.战粟，震动，剧烈地摇晃；n.战粟，抖动 | |
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182
efface
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| v.擦掉，抹去 | |
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183
dwarf
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| n.矮子，侏儒，矮小的动植物；vt.使…矮小 | |
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184
dwarfed
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| vt.（使）显得矮小（dwarf的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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185
gulf
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| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
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186
latitude
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| n.纬度，行动或言论的自由(范围)，(pl.)地区 | |
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187
insular
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| adj.岛屿的，心胸狭窄的 | |
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188
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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189
reigns
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| n.君主的统治( reign的名词复数 )；君主统治时期；任期；当政期 | |
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190
cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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191
receded
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| v.逐渐远离( recede的过去式和过去分词 )；向后倾斜；自原处后退或避开别人的注视；尤指问题 | |
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192
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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193
indigenous
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| adj.土产的，土生土长的，本地的 | |
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194
destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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195
attains
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的第三人称单数 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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196
attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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197
dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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198
ripen
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| vt.使成熟；vi.成熟 | |
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199
scarlet
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| n.深红色，绯红色，红衣；adj.绯红色的 | |
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200
nourishment
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| n.食物，营养品；营养情况 | |
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201
paramount
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| a.最重要的，最高权力的 | |
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202
stunted
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| adj.矮小的；发育迟缓的 | |
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203
charcoal
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| n.炭，木炭，生物炭 | |
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204
moss
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| n.苔，藓，地衣 | |
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205
dunes
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| 沙丘( dune的名词复数 ) | |
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206
tangle
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| n.纠缠；缠结；混乱；v.(使)缠绕；变乱 | |
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207
turnips
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| 芜青( turnip的名词复数 )； 芜菁块根； 芜菁甘蓝块根； 怀表 | |
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208
colonists
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| n.殖民地开拓者，移民，殖民地居民( colonist的名词复数 ) | |
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209
staple
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| n.主要产物，常用品，主要要素，原料，订书钉，钩环；adj.主要的，重要的；vt.分类 | |
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210
beverages
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| n.饮料( beverage的名词复数 ) | |
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211
curdled
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| v.（使）凝结( curdle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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212
preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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213
hampered
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| 妨碍，束缚，限制( hamper的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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214
scantiness
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| n.缺乏 | |
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215
ravens
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| n.低质煤；渡鸦( raven的名词复数 ) | |
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216
sheared
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| v.剪羊毛( shear的过去式和过去分词 )；切断；剪切 | |
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217
contortions
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| n.扭歪，弯曲；扭曲，弄歪，歪曲( contortion的名词复数 ) | |
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218
robust
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| adj.强壮的，强健的，粗野的，需要体力的，浓的 | |
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219
hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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220
pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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221
irritable
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| adj.急躁的；过敏的；易怒的 | |
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222
herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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223
superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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224
sledging
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| v.乘雪橇( sledge的现在分词 )；用雪橇运载 | |
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225
ravenous
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| adj.极饿的，贪婪的 | |
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226
ravages
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| 劫掠后的残迹，破坏的结果，毁坏后的残迹 | |
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227
ornithologist
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| n.鸟类学家 | |
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228
swampy
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| adj.沼泽的，湿地的 | |
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229
plovers
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| n.珩，珩科鸟（如凤头麦鸡）( plover的名词复数 ) | |
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230
abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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231
solitude
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| n. 孤独; 独居,荒僻之地,幽静的地方 | |
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232
lark
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| n.云雀，百灵鸟；n.嬉戏，玩笑；vi.嬉戏 | |
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233
melodious
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| adj.旋律美妙的，调子优美的，音乐性的 | |
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234
sedulous
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| adj.勤勉的，努力的 | |
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235
secreting
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| v.（尤指动物或植物器官）分泌( secrete的现在分词 )；隐匿，隐藏 | |
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236
rigor
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| n.严酷，严格，严厉 | |
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237
aged
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| adj.年老的，陈年的 | |
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238
proprietor
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| n.所有人；业主；经营者 | |
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239
strand
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| vt.使（船）搁浅，使（某人）困于（某地） | |
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240
exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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241
plaintive
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| adj.可怜的，伤心的 | |
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242
maternal
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| adj.母亲的，母亲般的，母系的，母方的 | |
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243
rippled
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| 使泛起涟漪（ripple的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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244
ornithological
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| adj.鸟类学的 | |
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245
compartments
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| n.间隔( compartment的名词复数 )；（列车车厢的）隔间；（家具或设备等的）分隔间；隔层 | |
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246
compartment
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| n.卧车包房，隔间；分隔的空间 | |
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247
clamorous
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| adj.吵闹的，喧哗的 | |
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248
farmhouse
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| n.农场住宅（尤指主要住房） | |
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249
marvel
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| vi.(at)惊叹vt.感到惊异；n.令人惊异的事 | |
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250
grassy
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| adj.盖满草的；长满草的 | |
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251
infested
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| adj.为患的，大批滋生的（常与with搭配）v.害虫、野兽大批出没于( infest的过去式和过去分词 )；遍布于 | |
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252
mounds
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| 土堆，土丘( mound的名词复数 )； 一大堆 | |
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253
nurture
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| n.养育，照顾，教育；滋养，营养品；vt.养育，给与营养物，教养，扶持 | |
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254
annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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255
brackish
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| adj.混有盐的；咸的 | |
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256
flamingo
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| n.红鹳，火烈鸟 | |
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257
shrill
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| adj.尖声的；刺耳的；v尖叫 | |
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258
modulated
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| 已调整[制]的，被调的 | |
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259
whoop
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| n.大叫，呐喊，喘息声；v.叫喊，喘息 | |
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260
depredations
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| n.劫掠，毁坏( depredation的名词复数 ) | |
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261
spotted
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| adj.有斑点的，斑纹的，弄污了的 | |
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262
fables
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| n.寓言( fable的名词复数 )；神话，传说 | |
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263
dedicated
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| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
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264
superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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265
foretells
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| v.预言，预示( foretell的第三人称单数 ) | |
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266
uncommon
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| adj.罕见的，非凡的，不平常的 | |
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267
kidnapper
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| n.绑架者，拐骗者 | |
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268
pouncing
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| v.突然袭击( pounce的现在分词 )；猛扑；一眼看出；抓住机会（进行抨击） | |
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269
salmon
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| n.鲑，大马哈鱼，橙红色的 | |
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270
entangled
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| adj.卷入的；陷入的；被缠住的；缠在一起的v.使某人（某物/自己）缠绕，纠缠于（某物中），使某人（自己）陷入（困难或复杂的环境中）( entangle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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271
meshes
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| 网孔( mesh的名词复数 )； 网状物； 陷阱； 困境 | |
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272
extricate
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| v.拯救，救出；解脱 | |
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273
esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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274
falcons
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| n.猎鹰( falcon的名词复数 ) | |
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275
isles
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| 岛( isle的名词复数 ) | |
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276
testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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277
undertaking
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| n.保证，许诺，事业 | |
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278
naturalists
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| n.博物学家( naturalist的名词复数 )；（文学艺术的）自然主义者 | |
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279
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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280
specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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281
obliquely
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| adv.斜； 倾斜； 间接； 不光明正大 | |
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282
furrows
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| n.犁沟( furrow的名词复数 )；（脸上的）皱纹v.犁田，开沟( furrow的第三人称单数 ) | |
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283
stumps
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| （被砍下的树的）树桩( stump的名词复数 )； 残肢； （板球三柱门的）柱； 残余部分 | |
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284
penguins
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| n.企鹅( penguin的名词复数 ) | |
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285
seamen
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| n.海员 | |
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286
cod
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| n.鳕鱼；v.愚弄；哄骗 | |
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287
cargo
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| n.(一只船或一架飞机运载的)货物 | |
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288
dispels
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| v.驱散，赶跑( dispel的第三人称单数 ) | |
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289
curds
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| n.凝乳( curd的名词复数 ) | |
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290
skier
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| n.滑雪运动员 | |
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291
refreshment
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| n.恢复，精神爽快，提神之事物；（复数）refreshments:点心，茶点 | |
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292
migratory
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| n.候鸟，迁移 | |
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293
dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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294
bartering
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| v.作物物交换，以货换货( barter的现在分词 ) | |
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295
basking
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| v.晒太阳，取暖( bask的现在分词 )；对…感到乐趣；因他人的功绩而出名；仰仗…的余泽 | |
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296
stewed
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|
| adj.焦虑不安的，烂醉的v.炖( stew的过去式和过去分词 )；煨；思考；担忧 | |
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297
intensity
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| n.强烈，剧烈；强度；烈度 | |
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298
putrid
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| adj.腐臭的；有毒的；已腐烂的；卑劣的 | |
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299
stewing
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| 炖 | |
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300
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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301
noisome
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| adj.有害的，可厌的 | |
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302
contemplate
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| vt.盘算，计议；周密考虑；注视，凝视 | |
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303
reeking
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| v.发出浓烈的臭气( reek的现在分词 )；散发臭气；发出难闻的气味 (of sth)；明显带有（令人不快或生疑的跡象） | |
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304
formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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305
phlegmatic
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| adj.冷静的，冷淡的，冷漠的，无活力的 | |
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306
trifling
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| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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307
apparatus
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| n.装置，器械；器具，设备 | |
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308
impure
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| adj.不纯净的，不洁的；不道德的，下流的 | |
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309
prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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dormant
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| adj.暂停活动的；休眠的；潜伏的 | |
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olfactory
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| adj.嗅觉的 | |
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hearth
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| n.壁炉炉床，壁炉地面 | |
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