A Fragment
The period which intervened between the birth of Pericles and the death of Aristotle, is undoubtedly1, whether considered in itself, or with reference to the effects which it has produced upon the subsequent destinies of civilized2 man, the most memorable3 in the history of the world. What was the combination of moral and political circumstances which produced so unparalleled a progress during that period in literature and the arts; — why that progress, so rapid and so sustained, so soon received a check, and became retrograde, — are problems left to the wonder and conjecture4 of posterity5. The wrecks6 and fragments of those subtle and profound minds, like the ruins of a fine statue, obscurely suggest to us the grandeur7 and perfection of the whole. Their very language — a type of the understandings of which it was the creation and the image — in variety, in simplicity8, in flexibility9, and in copiousness10, excels every other language of the western world. Their sculptures are such as we, in our presumption11, assume to be the models of ideal truth and beauty, and to which no artist of modern times can produce forms in any degree comparable. Their paintings, according to Pliny and Pausanias, were full of delicacy12 and harmony; and some even were powerfully pathetic, so as to awaken13, like tender music or tragic14 poetry, the most overwhelming emotions. We are accustomed to conceive the painters of the sixteenth century, as those who have brought their art to the highest perfection, probably because none of the ancient paintings have been preserved. For all the inventive arts maintain, as it were, a sympathetic connexion between each other, being no more than various expressions of one internal power, modified by different circumstances, either of an individual, or of society; and the paintings of that period would probably bear the same relation as is confessedly borne by the sculptures to all succeeding ones. Of their music we know little; but the effects which it is said to have produced, whether they be attributed to the skill of the composer, or the sensibility of his audience, are far more powerful than any which we experience from the music of our own times; and if, indeed, the melody of their compositions were more tender and delicate, and inspiring, than the melodies of some modern European nations, their superiority in this art must have been something wonderful, and wholly beyond conception.
Their poetry seems to maintain a very high, though not so disproportionate a rank, in the comparison. Perhaps Shakespeare, from the variety and comprehension of his genius, is to be considered, on the whole, as the greatest individual mind, of which we have specimens15 remaining. Perhaps Dante created imaginations of greater loveliness and energy than any that are to be found in the ancient literature of Greece. Perhaps nothing has been discovered in the fragments of the Greek lyric16 poets equivalent to the sublime17 and chivalric18 sensibility of Petrarch. — But, as a poet. Homer must be acknowledged to excel Shakespeare in the truth, the harmony, the sustained grandeur, the satisfying completeness of his images, their exact fitness to the illustration, and to that to which they belong. Nor could Dante, deficient19 in conduct, plan, nature, variety, and temperance, have been brought into comparison with these men, but for those fortunate isles20 laden21 with golden fruit, which alone could tempt22 any one to embark23 in the misty24 ocean of his dark and extravagant25 fiction.
But, omitting the comparison of individual minds, which can afford no general inference, how superior was the spirit and system of their poetry to that of any other period! So that had any other genius equal in other respects to the greatest that ever enlightened the world, arisen in that age, he would have been superior to all, from this circumstance alone — that had conceptions would have assumed a more harmonious26 and perfect form. For it is worthy27 of observation, that whatever the poet of that age produced is as harmonious and perfect as possible. In a drama, for instance, were the composition of a person of inferior talent, it was still homogeneous and free from inequalities it was a whole, consistent with itself. The compositions of great minds bore throughout the sustained stamp of their greatness. In the poetry of succeeding ages the expectations are often exalted28 on Icarian wings, and fall, too much disappointed to give a memory and a name to the oblivious29 pool in which they fell.
In physical knowledge Aristotle and Theophrastus had already — no doubt assisted by the labours of those of their predecessor30 whom they criticize — made advances worthy of the maturity31 of science. The astonishing invention of geometry, that series of discoveries which have enabled man to command the element and foresee future events, before the subjects of his ignorant wonder, and which have opened as it were the doors of the mysteries of nature, had already been brought to great perfection. Metaphysics, the science of man’s intimate nature, and logic32, or the grammar and elementary principles of that science received from the latter philosophers of the Periclean age a firm basis. All our more exact philosophy is built upon the labours of these great men, and many of the words which we employ in metaphysical distinctions were invented by them to give accuracy and system to their reasonings. The science of morals, or the voluntary conduct of men in relation to themselves or others, dates from this epoch33. How inexpressibly bolder and more pure were the doctrines34 of those great men, in comparison with the timid maxims35 which prevail in the writings of the most esteemed36 modern moralists! They were such as Phocion, and Epaminondas, and Timoleon, who formed themselves on their influence, were to the wretched heroes of our own age.
Their political and religious institutions are more difficult to bring into comparison with those of other times. A summary idea may be formed of the worth of any political and religious system, by observing the comparative degree of happiness and of intellect produced under its influence. And whilst many institution and opinions, which in ancient Greece were obstacles to the improvement of the human race, have been abolished among modern nations, how many pernicious superstitions37 and new contrivances of misrule, and unheard-of complications of public mischief38, have not been invented among them by the ever-watchful spirit of avarice39 and tyranny!
The modern nations of the civilized world owe the progress which they have made — as well in those physical sciences in which they have already excelled their masters, as in the moral and intellectual inquiries40, in which, with all the advantage of the experience of the latter, it can scarcely be said that they have yet equalled them, — to what is called the revival41 of learning; that is, the study of the writers of the age which preceded and immediately followed the government of Pericles, or of subsequent writers, who were, so to speak, the rivers flowing from those immortal42 fountains. And though there seems to be a principle in the modern world, which, should circumstances analogous43 to those which modelled the intellectual resources of the age to which we refer, into so harmonious a proportion, again arise, would arrest and perpetuate44 them, and consign45 their results to a more equal, extensive, and lasting46 improvement of the condition of man — though justice and the true meaning of human society are, if not more accurately47, more generally understood; though perhaps men know more, and therefore are more, as a mass, yet this principle has never been called into action, and requires indeed a universal and an almost appalling48 change in the system of existing things. The study of modern history is the study of kings, financiers, statesmen, and priests. The history of ancient Greece is the study of legislators, philosophers, and poets; it is the history of men, compared with the history of titles. What the Greeks were, was a reality, not a promise. And what we are and hope to be, is derived49, as it were, from the influence and inspiration of these glorious generations.
Whatever tends to afford a further illustration of the manners and opinions of those to whom we owe so much, and who were perhaps, on the whole, the most perfect specimens of humanity of whom we have authentic50 record, were infinitely51 valuable. Let us see their errors, their weaknesses, their daily actions, their familiar conversation, and catch the tone of their society. When we discover how far the most admirable community ever framed was removed from that perfection to which human society is impelled52 by some active power within each bosom53 to aspire54, how great ought to be our hopes, how resolute55 our struggles! For the Greeks of the Periclean age were widely different from us. It is to be lamented56 that no modern writer has hitherto dared to show them precisely57 as they were. Barthelemi cannot be denied the praise of industry and system; but he never forgets that he is a Christian58 and a Frenchman. Wieland, in his delightful59 novels, makes indeed a very tolerable Pagan, but cherishes too many political prejudices, and refrains from diminishing the interest of his romances by painting sentiments in which no European of modern times can possibly sympathize. There is no book which shows the Greeks precisely as they were; they seem all written for children with the caution that no practice or sentiment, highly inconsistent with our present manners, should be mentioned, lest those manners should receive outrage60 and violation61. But there are many to whom the Greek language is inaccessible62, who ought not to be excluded by this prudery from possessing an exact and comprehensive conception of the history of man; for there is no knowledge concerning what man has been and may be, from partaking of which a person can depart, without becoming in some degree more philosophical63, tolerant, and just.
One of the chief distinctions between the manners of ancient Greece and modern Europe, consisted in the regulations and the sentiments respecting sexual intercourse64. Whether this difference arises from some imperfect influence of the doctrines of Jesus, who alleges65 the absolute and unconditional66 equality of all human beings, or from the institutions of chivalry67, or from a certain fundamental difference of physical nature existing in the Celts, or from a combination of all or any of these causes acting68 on each other, is a question worthy of voluminous investigation69. The fact is, that the modern Europeans have in this circumstance, and in the abolition70 of slavery, made an improvement the most decisive in the regulation of human society; and all the virtue71 and the wisdom of the Periclean age arose under other institutions, in spite of the diminution72 which personal slavery and the inferiority of women, recognized by law and opinion, must have produced in the delicacy, the strength, the comprehensiveness, and the accuracy of their conceptions, in moral, political, and metaphysical science, and perhaps in every other art and science.
The women, thus degraded, became such as it was expected they would become. They possessed73, except with extraordinary exceptions, the habits and the qualities of slaves. They were probably not extremely beautiful; at least there was no such disproportion in the attractions of the external form between the female and male sex among the Greeks, as exists among the modern Europeans. They were certainly devoid74 of that moral and intellectual loveliness with which the acquisition of knowledge and the cultivation75 of sentiment animates76, as with another life of overpowering grace, the lineaments and the gestures of every form which they inhabit. Their eyes could not have been deep and intricate from the workings of the mind, and could have entangled77 no heart in soul-enwoven labyrinths78.
Let it not be imagined that because the Greeks were deprived of its legitimate79 object, they were incapable80 of sentimental81 love; and that this passion is the mere82 child of chivalry and the literature of modern times. This object or its archetype for ever exists in the mind, which selects among those who resemble it that which most resembles it; and instinctively83 fills up the interstices of the imperfect image, in the same manner as the imagination moulds and completes the shapes in clouds, or in the fire, into the resemblances of whatever form, animal, building, &c., happens to be present to it. Man is in his wildest state a social being: a certain degree of civilization and refinement84 ever produces the want of sympathies still more intimate and complete; and the gratification of the senses is no longer all that is sought in sexual connexion. It soon becomes a very small part of that profound and complicated sentiment, which we call love, which is rather the universal thirst for a communion not only of the senses, but of our whole nature, intellectual, imaginative and sensitive, and which, when individualized, becomes an imperious necessity, only to be satisfied by the complete or partial, actual or supposed fulfilment of its claims. This want grows more powerful in proportion to the development which our nature receives from civilization, for man never ceases to be a social being. The sexual impulse, which is only one, and often a small part of those claims, serves, from its obvious and external nature, as a kind of type or expression of the rest, a common basis, an acknowledged and visible link. Still it is a claim which even derives85 a strength not its own from the accessory circumstances which surround it, and one which our nature thirsts to satisfy. To estimate this, observe the degree of intensity86 and durability87 of the love of the male towards the female in animals and savages88 and acknowledge all the duration and intensity observable in the love of civilized beings beyond that of savages to be produced from other causes. In the susceptibility of the external senses there is probably no important difference.
Among the ancient Greeks the male sex, one half of the human race, received the highest cultivation and refinement: whilst the other, so far as intellect is concerned, were educated as slaves and were raised but few degrees in all that related to moral of intellectual excellence89 above the condition of savages. The gradations in the society of man present us with slow improvement in this respect. The Roman women held a higher consideration in society, and were esteemed almost as the equal partners with their husbands in the regulation of domestic economy and the education of their children. The practices and customs of modern Europe are essentially90 different from and incomparably less pernicious than either, however remote from what an enlightened mind cannot fail to desire as the future destiny of human beings.
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1
undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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memorable
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| adj.值得回忆的，难忘的，特别的，显著的 | |
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conjecture
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| n./v.推测，猜测 | |
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posterity
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| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
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wrecks
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| n.沉船( wreck的名词复数 )；（事故中）遭严重毁坏的汽车（或飞机等）；（身体或精神上）受到严重损伤的人；状况非常糟糕的车辆（或建筑物等）v.毁坏[毁灭]某物( wreck的第三人称单数 )；使（船舶）失事，使遇难，使下沉 | |
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grandeur
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| n.伟大，崇高，宏伟，庄严，豪华 | |
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simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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flexibility
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| n.柔韧性，弹性，（光的）折射性，灵活性 | |
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copiousness
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| n.丰裕，旺盛 | |
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presumption
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| n.推测，可能性，冒昧，放肆，[法律]推定 | |
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delicacy
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| n.精致，细微，微妙，精良；美味，佳肴 | |
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awaken
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| vi.醒，觉醒；vt.唤醒，使觉醒，唤起，激起 | |
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tragic
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| adj.悲剧的，悲剧性的，悲惨的 | |
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specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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lyric
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| n.抒情诗，歌词；adj.抒情的 | |
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sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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chivalric
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| 有武士气概的，有武士风范的 | |
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deficient
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| adj.不足的，不充份的，有缺陷的 | |
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isles
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| 岛( isle的名词复数 ) | |
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laden
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| adj.装满了的；充满了的；负了重担的；苦恼的 | |
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tempt
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| vt.引诱，勾引，吸引，引起…的兴趣 | |
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embark
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| vi.乘船，着手，从事，上飞机 | |
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misty
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| adj.雾蒙蒙的，有雾的 | |
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extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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harmonious
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| adj.和睦的，调和的，和谐的，协调的 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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oblivious
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| adj.易忘的，遗忘的，忘却的，健忘的 | |
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predecessor
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| n.前辈，前任 | |
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maturity
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| n.成熟；完成；(支票、债券等)到期 | |
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logic
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| n.逻辑(学)；逻辑性 | |
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epoch
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| n.(新)时代；历元 | |
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doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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maxims
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| n.格言，座右铭( maxim的名词复数 ) | |
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esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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avarice
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| n.贪婪；贪心 | |
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inquiries
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| n.调查( inquiry的名词复数 )；疑问；探究；打听 | |
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revival
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| n.复兴，复苏，（精力、活力等的）重振 | |
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immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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perpetuate
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| v.使永存，使永记不忘 | |
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consign
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| vt.寄售（货品），托运，交托，委托 | |
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lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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accurately
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| adv.准确地，精确地 | |
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appalling
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| adj.骇人听闻的，令人震惊的，可怕的 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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authentic
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| a.真的，真正的；可靠的，可信的，有根据的 | |
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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impelled
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| v.推动、推进或敦促某人做某事( impel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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bosom
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| n.胸，胸部；胸怀；内心；adj.亲密的 | |
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aspire
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| vi.(to，after)渴望，追求，有志于 | |
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resolute
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| adj.坚决的，果敢的 | |
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lamented
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| adj.被哀悼的，令人遗憾的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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delightful
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| adj.令人高兴的，使人快乐的 | |
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outrage
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| n.暴行，侮辱，愤怒；vt.凌辱，激怒 | |
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violation
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| n.违反(行为)，违背(行为)，侵犯 | |
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inaccessible
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| adj.达不到的，难接近的 | |
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philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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alleges
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| 断言，宣称，辩解( allege的第三人称单数 ) | |
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unconditional
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| adj.无条件的，无限制的，绝对的 | |
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chivalry
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| n.骑士气概，侠义；（男人）对女人彬彬有礼，献殷勤 | |
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acting
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| n.演戏，行为，假装；adj.代理的，临时的，演出用的 | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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abolition
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| n.废除，取消 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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diminution
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| n.减少；变小 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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devoid
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| adj.全无的，缺乏的 | |
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cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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animates
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| v.使有生气( animate的第三人称单数 )；驱动；使栩栩如生地动作；赋予…以生命 | |
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entangled
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| adj.卷入的；陷入的；被缠住的；缠在一起的v.使某人（某物/自己）缠绕，纠缠于（某物中），使某人（自己）陷入（困难或复杂的环境中）( entangle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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labyrinths
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| 迷宫( labyrinth的名词复数 )； （文字，建筑）错综复杂的 | |
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legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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81
sentimental
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| adj.多愁善感的，感伤的 | |
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82
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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instinctively
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| adv.本能地 | |
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refinement
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| n.文雅；高尚；精美；精制；精炼 | |
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85
derives
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| v.得到( derive的第三人称单数 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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86
intensity
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| n.强烈，剧烈；强度；烈度 | |
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87
durability
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| n.经久性，耐用性 | |
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88
savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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