on the solicitude1 of the state for security against foreign enemies.
If it were not conducive2 to the clearness of our principal idea to apply it successively to single objects, it would not be essential to the present inquiry3, to make any reference to the subject of security against foreign enemies. But this brief digression is the less to be regretted, and indeed may not be without illustrative importance, so long as I confine my attention to the influence of war on national character, and regard its institutions from the same point of view that has suggested the master-principle of the whole investigation4.
Now, when thus regarded, war seems to be one of the most favourable5 manifestations6 for the culture of human nature; and I confess, it is not without regret that I see it disappearing more and more from the scene. However fearful in some aspects, it is still the extremity8 through which all that active daring—all that endurance and fortitude9 are steeled and tested, which afterwards work themselves out into such various and beautiful results in the ordinary conduct of life, and which alone impart to its whole form and character that elastic10 strength and rich diversity, without which facility is feebleness, and unity11, inanity12.
It may, perhaps, be argued that there are many other means of securing this invigorating discipline in the school of trial and danger—that there are a thousand forms of employment full of mere13 physical peril14, and innumerable crises of moral conflict which assail15 the firm, unfaltering statesman in the silence of the cabinet, and the free and fearless thinker in his solitary16 cell. But I cannot divest17 myself of the belief, that as everything spiritual is but the more exquisite18 bloom and development of the corporeal19, so too, in war, the noblest forms of action and daring are crowned with the fairest moral issues. It is true we still possess, in the eventful past, the strong stem, as it were, from which these active virtues21 could continue to shoot and bud forth22 in the present. But the memory of the past is ever dimly receding23 from our eyes in the distances of oblivion; and while the number of those who fondly cherish its teaching is always diminishing in a nation, its influence even on them tends also gradually to decline. We seldom acknowledge, moreover, in other pursuits, however difficult or perilous24, that inherent idea of greatness and glory so inseparably associated with warlike achievement—an idea, based as it is on the conception of superior power, which is far from being chimerical25 or imaginary.
As for the elements, we do not labour so much to oppose and subdue26 their antagonism27, as to escape their effects and outlast28 their fury:—
“With the resistless might of gods
Men may not measure strength;”1
—deliverance is not victory; the boon29 which fate beneficently offers, and of which human courage and susceptibility only avail themselves, is not the fruit or the earnest of superior power. In war, moreover, every one is inspired with the feeling of rights to be defended and wrongs to be avenged30; and while man, in a state of nature, esteems31 it a far higher object to redeem32 his honour than to accumulate the means of subsistence, it is a choice which even the most civilized33 would not feel disposed to deny to him.
It will not be supposed for a moment that the death of a fallen warrior34 has something in it more beautiful to my eyes than the death of the fearless Pliny, or, to instance devotion somewhat too little honoured, the death of Robert and Pilatre du Rozier. But such instances are rare; and it may be fairly questioned whether they would ever, even, occur without the inspiring memory of those former examples. Neither have I selected the most favourable position in the case of war, nor regarded the finer manifestations of its high-souled enthusiasm. Let me recall the Spartans35 at Thermopyl?, and ask what influence such an illustrious example of heroism36 in its sons is likely to exercise on the general character of a nation. I do not deny that such a spirit of daring devotedness38 and self-sacrifice can find room for manifestation7 in any form or position in life, nor that it actually does thus exhibit itself; but can we blame him, if, as a sentient39 being, man is most fondly captivated with its most vivid and visible embodiment, or refuse to believe that such a conspicuous40 expression of courageous41 virtue20 exercises the most living and lasting42 influence on the national spirit and character? And as to the bracing43 discipline of ordinary life I would observe that, with all that I have heard of evils more terrible than death, I never yet knew any, save the enthusiast44, who, while in the full fruition of all the joys of existence, could really afford to despise it. Least of all would we look for such a spirit in antiquity45, where as yet the thing itself was superior to the name, and the reality of the present more highly prized than the shadowy uncertainty46 of the future. My view of the warrior, then, does not apply to such as were trained up and devoted37 to warlike pursuits in Plato’s Republic,2 but to men who take life and death, like other things, for what they really are, and who, having the highest in view, can dare to set the highest at stake. Lastly, it is to be observed that all those situations in which contrasting extremes are most closely and variously intermingled, are the deepest and richest in interest, and conduce most remarkably47 to human development; but of what is this so true and so striking a characteristic as of war—where inclination48 and duty, and the duty of the man and that of the citizen, seem ever in irreconcilable49 conflict, and where, nevertheless, all these intricate antagonisms50 find their clearest and fullest solution, as soon as the spirit of just defence has put weapons into our hands?
To regard war in this light, in which alone it can be considered as either beneficial or necessary, seems to indicate, in my opinion, the nature of the policy to be observed by the State with respect to it. In order to cherish and promote the nobler spirit which it engenders51, and to diffuse52 it throughout the whole body of the nation, it will be evident that freedom is the prime condition. Now this already argues against the maintenance of standing53 armies; and we would observe further, that these and other modern methods and appurtenances of warfare54 in general, are very far removed from the ideal we can conceive as most highly conducive to human culture. If the warrior in general becomes degraded to a machine as soon as he surrenders his freedom, this degradation55 must be still more complete and deplorable in our methods of conducting war, in which so much less than formerly56 depends upon the valour, strength, and skill of the individual. How fatal must the uniformity consequent on such a sacrifice become, when, in time of peace, a considerable portion of the nation is condemned58 to this machine-like existence—not for a few years only, but often throughout life—merely in the prospect59 of a possible war! Perhaps it is in nothing so strikingly manifest as in the institutions to which we now refer, that with the progressive development of the theory of human enterprises, their utility declines as regards the immediate60 agents concerned. It cannot be questioned that the art of war has made incredible strides in advance in modern times, but it is equally unquestionable that the nobler characteristics of the warrior have proportionately disappeared, and that it is only in antiquity that we find them flourishing in graceful61 and consummate62 beauty; or, at least, if this seems exaggerated, that the warlike spirit appears now to bring little but injurious consequences in its train for the nations which entertain it, while in the ancient world we see it so commonly productive of beneficial results. Our standing armies carry war, so to speak, into the very bosom63 of peace. Now, a warlike spirit is only honourable64 in union with the fairest virtues which bloom out from peace, and military discipline, only when allied65 with the highest feeling of freedom; if these are severed,—and it is needless to show how such a disunion is promoted by the existence of marshalled armies in the midst of peace,—the former rapidly degenerates66 into wild and lawless ferocity, and the latter into the abject67 submission68 of slavery.
Still, although I would condemn57 the maintenance of standing armies, it may be well to observe that I only introduce the subject in this place, in so far as it accords with the immediate scope I have in view. I am far from overlooking their great and undoubted usefulness, which checks and counterbalances the headlong tendency to ruin, towards which their faults and disadvantages would inevitably69 hurry them like everything else on earth. They are a significant portion of the whole—the vast web, which has been woven, not by any plans of vain human reason, but by the sure hand of destiny; and the picture that would represent us by the side of our ancestors, fully70 and fairly delineated in all the complex phases and workings of our modern life, would have to show how mightily71 they operate on every other characteristic of our age, and how they share with them the praise and blame of all the good or bad that distinguishes it.
I must moreover have been very unfortunate in the exposition of my views, if I am supposed to infer that the State should, from time to time, seek causes for producing war. It may extend the various possibility of freedom to its people, and a neighbouring nation may enjoy a like degree of freedom, which is the only soil where war and every other healthful manifestation of human power arises naturally to meet the necessity and occasion. Men, in every age, are men; nor do they lose their original passions. War will arise of itself; and if, under these circumstances, it should not so arise, it is then at least certain that peace has not been gained by compulsion, nor produced by artificial paralysis72; and such a spontaneous tranquillity73 will be so much the more blessed gift to the nations, as the peaceful ploughman is a more grateful image in our eyes than the blood-stained warrior. And if we conceive of a progressive civilization of the whole human race, it is indeed certain that the later ages will become gradually more peaceful; but in such a development peace will spring from the internal capacities of the beings themselves, and it is the very character of men—free men, that will be imbued74 with its pure and benevolent75 spirit. Even now—a single year of European history proves it—we enjoy the fruits of peace, but not a spirit of peacefulness. Human forces, which are ever striving towards an activity that is infinite, either merge76 in union when they encounter each other, or clash in direct collision. The form which the conflict of these forces may assume,—whether that of war, or competition, or unknown modifications77 yet to be revealed,—depends chiefly on the measure of their refinement78.
If I may now venture to derive79 an inference from these reflections accordant with my ultimate design, I would lay down the principle—that the State should in no way attempt to encourage war, but neither should it forcibly interfere80 to prevent it, when demanded by necessitous occasion; that it should allow perfect freedom to the diffusion81 of warlike impulses through the spirit and character of the nation, while it especially refrains from all positive institutions calculated to foster a national military development; or, where these last are absolutely necessary—as, for instance, in the training of the citizens to the use of arms—that it should give them a direction likely to induce, not only the skill, daring, and subordination of the mere soldier, but animate82 those under its discipline with the spirit of true warriors83, or rather of noble-minded citizens, ready at all times to fight in the defence of their country.
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1
solicitude
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| n.焦虑 | |
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conducive
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| adj.有益的，有助的 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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manifestations
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| n.表示，显示（manifestation的复数形式） | |
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manifestation
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| n.表现形式；表明；现象 | |
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extremity
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| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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fortitude
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| n.坚忍不拔；刚毅 | |
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elastic
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| n.橡皮圈，松紧带；adj.有弹性的；灵活的 | |
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unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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inanity
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| n.无意义，无聊 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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peril
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| n.(严重的)危险；危险的事物 | |
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assail
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| v.猛烈攻击，抨击，痛斥 | |
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solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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divest
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| v.脱去，剥除 | |
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exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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corporeal
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| adj.肉体的，身体的；物质的 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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receding
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| v.逐渐远离( recede的现在分词 )；向后倾斜；自原处后退或避开别人的注视；尤指问题 | |
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perilous
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| adj.危险的，冒险的 | |
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chimerical
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| adj.荒诞不经的，梦幻的 | |
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subdue
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| vt.制服，使顺从，征服；抑制，克制 | |
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antagonism
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| n.对抗，敌对，对立 | |
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28
outlast
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| v.较…耐久 | |
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boon
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| n.恩赐，恩物，恩惠 | |
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30
avenged
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| v.为…复仇，报…之仇( avenge的过去式和过去分词 )；为…报复 | |
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31
esteems
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| n.尊敬，好评( esteem的名词复数 )v.尊敬( esteem的第三人称单数 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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32
redeem
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| v.买回，赎回，挽回，恢复，履行（诺言等） | |
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33
civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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spartans
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| n.斯巴达（spartan的复数形式） | |
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36
heroism
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| n.大无畏精神，英勇 | |
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37
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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devotedness
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sentient
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| adj.有知觉的，知悉的；adv.有感觉能力地 | |
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40
conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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41
courageous
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| adj.勇敢的，有胆量的 | |
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42
lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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bracing
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| adj.令人振奋的 | |
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enthusiast
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| n.热心人，热衷者 | |
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45
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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uncertainty
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| n.易变，靠不住，不确知，不确定的事物 | |
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remarkably
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| ad.不同寻常地，相当地 | |
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48
inclination
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| n.倾斜；点头；弯腰；斜坡；倾度；倾向；爱好 | |
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irreconcilable
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| adj.（指人）难和解的，势不两立的 | |
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antagonisms
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| 对抗，敌对( antagonism的名词复数 ) | |
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engenders
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| v.产生（某形势或状况），造成，引起( engender的第三人称单数 ) | |
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diffuse
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| v.扩散；传播；adj.冗长的；四散的，弥漫的 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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54
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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degradation
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| n.降级；低落；退化；陵削；降解；衰变 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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57
condemn
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| vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑 | |
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condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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consummate
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| adj.完美的；v.成婚；使完美 [反]baffle | |
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bosom
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| n.胸，胸部；胸怀；内心；adj.亲密的 | |
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honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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degenerates
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| 衰退，堕落，退化( degenerate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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abject
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| adj.极可怜的，卑屈的 | |
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submission
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| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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mightily
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| ad.强烈地；非常地 | |
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paralysis
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| n.麻痹(症)；瘫痪(症) | |
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tranquillity
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| n. 平静, 安静 | |
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imbued
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| v.使（某人/某事）充满或激起（感情等）( imbue的过去式和过去分词 )；使充满；灌输；激发（强烈感情或品质等） | |
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benevolent
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| adj.仁慈的，乐善好施的 | |
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merge
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| v.(使)结合，(使)合并，(使)合为一体 | |
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modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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refinement
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| n.文雅；高尚；精美；精制；精炼 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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diffusion
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| n.流布；普及；散漫 | |
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animate
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| v.赋于生命，鼓励；adj.有生命的，有生气的 | |
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warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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