2. The Historical theory; according to which all the persons mentioned in mythology were once real human beings, and the legends and fabulous8 traditions relating to them are merely the additions and embellishments of later times. Thus the story of ?olus, the king and god of the winds, is supposed to have risen from the fact that ?olus was the ruler of some islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, where he reigned10 as a just and pious11 king, and taught the natives the use of sails for ships, and how to tell from the signs of the atmosphere the changes of the weather and the winds. Cadmus, who, the legend says, sowed the earth with dragon’s teeth, from which sprang a crop of armed men, was in fact an emigrant12 from Ph?nicia, and brought with him into Greece the knowledge of the letters of the alphabet, which he taught to the natives. From these rudiments13 of learning sprung civilization, which the poets have always been prone14 to describe as a deterioration15 of man’s first estate, the Golden Age of innocence16 and simplicity17.
3. The Allegorical theory supposes that all the myths of the ancients were allegorical and symbolical18, and contained some moral, religious, or philosophical19 truth or historical fact, under the form of an allegory, but came in process of time to be understood literally20. Thus Saturn21, who devours22 his own children, is the same power whom the Greeks called Cronos (Time), which may truly be said to destroy whatever it has brought into existence. The story of Io is interpreted in a similar manner. Io is the moon, and Argus the starry23 sky, which, as it were, keeps sleepless24 watch over her. The fabulous wanderings of Io represent the continual revolutions of the moon, which also suggested to Milton the same idea.
“To behold25 the wandering moon
Riding near her highest noon,
Like one that had been led astray
In the heaven’s wide, pathless way.”
—Il Penseroso.
4. The Physical theory; according to which the elements of air, fire, and water were originally the objects of religious adoration26, and the principal deities27 were personifications of the powers of nature. The transition was easy from a personification of the elements to the notion of supernatural beings presiding over and governing the different objects of nature. The Greeks, whose imagination was lively, peopled all nature with invisible beings, and supposed that every object, from the sun and sea to the smallest fountain and rivulet28, was under the care of some particular divinity. Wordsworth, in his “Excursion,” has beautifully developed this view of Grecian mythology:
“In that fair clime the lonely herdsman, stretched
On the soft grass through half a summer’s day,
With music lulled29 his indolent repose30;
And, in some fit of weariness, if he,
When his own breath was silent, chanced to hear
A distant strain far sweeter than the sounds
Which his poor skill could make, his fancy fetched
Even from the blazing chariot of the Sun
A beardless youth who touched a golden lute31,
And filled the illumined groves32 with ravishment.
The mighty34 hunter, lifting up his eyes
Toward the crescent Moon, with grateful heart
Called on the lovely Wanderer who bestowed35
That timely light to share his joyous36 sport;
And hence a beaming goddess with her nymphs
Across the lawn and through the darksome grove33
(Not unaccompanied with tuneful notes
By echo multiplied from rock or cave)
Swept in the storm of chase, as moon and stars
Glance rapidly along the clouded heaven
When winds are blowing strong. The Traveller slaked37
His thirst from rill or gushing38 fount, and thanked
The Naiad. Sunbeams upon distant hills
Gliding39 apace with shadows in their train,
Might with small help from fancy, be transformed
Into fleet Oreads sporting visibly.
The Zephyrs40, fanning, as they passed, their wings,
Lacked not for love fair objects whom they wooed
With gentle whisper. Withered41 boughs42 grotesque43,
Stripped of their leaves and twigs44 by hoary45 age,
From depth of shaggy covert46 peeping forth47
In the low vale, or on steep mountain side;
And sometimes intermixed with stirring horns
Of the live deer, or goat’s depending beard;
These were the lurking48 Satyrs, a wild brood
Of gamesome deities; or Pan himself,
That simple shepherd’s awe-inspiring god.”
All the theories which have been mentioned are true to a certain extent. It would therefore be more correct to say that the mythology of a nation has sprung from all these sources combined than from any one in particular. We may add also that there are many myths which have arisen from the desire of man to account for those natural phenomena49 which he cannot understand; and not a few have had their rise from a similar desire of giving a reason for the names of places and persons.
STATUES OF THE GODS
To adequately represent to the eye the ideas intended to be conveyed to the mind under the several names of deities was a task which called into exercise the highest powers of genius and art. Of the many attempts four have been most celebrated50, the first two known to us only by the descriptions of the ancients, the others still extant and the acknowledged masterpieces of the sculptor51’s art.
THE OLYMPIAN JUPITER
The statue of the Olympian Jupiter by Phidias was considered the highest achievement of this department of Grecian art. It was of colossal52 dimensions, and was what the ancients called “chryselephantine;” that is, composed of ivory and gold; the parts representing flesh being of ivory laid on a core of wood or stone, while the drapery and other ornaments53 were of gold. The height of the figure was forty feet, on a pedestal twelve feet high. The god was represented seated on his throne. His brows were crowned with a wreath of olive, and he held in his right hand a sceptre, and in his left a statue of Victory. The throne was of cedar54, adorned55 with gold and precious stones.
The idea which the artist essayed to embody57 was that of the supreme58 deity59 of the Hellenic (Grecian) nation, enthroned as a conqueror60, in perfect majesty61 and repose, and ruling with a nod the subject world. Phidias avowed62 that he took his idea from the representation which Homer gives in the first book of the “Iliad,” in the passage thus translated by Pope:
“He spoke63 and awful bends his sable64 brows,
Shakes his ambrosial65 curls and gives the nod,
The stamp of fate and sanction of the god.
High heaven with reverence66 the dread67 signal took,
And all Olympus to the centre shook.”[36]
THE MINERVA OF THE PARTHENON
This was also the work of Phidias. It stood in the Parthenon, or temple of Minerva at Athens. The goddess was represented standing68. In one hand she held a spear, in the other a statue of Victory. Her helmet, highly decorated, was surmounted69 by a Sphinx. The statue was forty feet in height, and, like the Jupiter, composed of ivory and gold. The eyes were of marble, and probably painted to represent the iris70 and pupil. The Parthenon, in which this statue stood, was also constructed under the direction and superintendence of Phidias. Its exterior71 was enriched with sculptures, many of them from the hand of Phidias. The Elgin marbles, now in the British Museum, are a part of them.
Both the Jupiter and Minerva of Phidias are lost, but there is good ground to believe that we have, in several extant statues and busts72, the artist’s conceptions of the countenances74 of both. They are characterized by grave and dignified75 beauty, and freedom from any transient expression, which in the language of art is called repose.
THE VENUS DE’ MEDICI
The Venus of the Medici is so called from its having been in the possession of the princes of that name in Rome when it first attracted attention, about two hundred years ago. An inscription76 on the base records it to be the work of Cleomenes, an Athenian sculptor of 200 B.C., but the authenticity77 of the inscription is doubtful. There is a story that the artist was employed by public authority to make a statue exhibiting the perfection of female beauty, and to aid him in his task the most perfect forms the city could supply were furnished him for models. It is this which Thomson alludes78 to in his “Summer”:
“So stands the statue that enchants79 the world;
So bending tries to veil the matchless boast,
The mingled80 beauties of exulting81 Greece.”
Byron also alludes to this statue. Speaking of the Florence Museum, he says:
“There, too, the goddess loves in stone, and fills
The air around with beauty;” etc.
And in the next stanza82,
“Blood, pulse, and breast confirm the Dardan shepherd’s prize.”
See this last allusion83 explained in Chapter XXVII.
THE APOLLO BELVEDERE
The most highly esteemed84 of all the remains85 of ancient sculpture is the statue of Apollo, called the Belvedere, from the name of the apartment of the Pope’s palace at Rome in which it was placed. The artist is unknown. It is supposed to be a work of Roman art, of about the first century of our era. It is a standing figure, in marble, more than seven feet high, naked except for the cloak which is fastened around the neck and hangs over the extended left arm. It is supposed to represent the god in the moment when he has shot the arrow to destroy the monster Python. (See Chapter III.) The victorious86 divinity is in the act of stepping forward. The left arm, which seems to have held the bow, is outstretched, and the head is turned in the same direction. In attitude and proportion the graceful87 majesty of the figure is unsurpassed. The effect is completed by the countenance73, where on the perfection of youthful godlike beauty there dwells the consciousness of triumphant88 power.
THE DIANA A LA BICHE
The Diana of the Hind89, in the palace of the Louvre, may be considered the counterpart to the Apollo Belvedere. The attitude much resembles that of the Apollo, the sizes correspond and also the style of execution. It is a work of the highest order, though by no means equal to the Apollo. The attitude is that of hurried and eager motion, the face that of a huntress in the excitement of the chase. The left hand is extended over the forehead of the Hind, which runs by her side, the right arm reaches backward over the shoulder to draw an arrow from the quiver.
THE POETS OF MYTHOLOGY
Homer, from whose poems of the “Iliad” and “Odyssey” we have taken the chief part of our chapters of the Trojan war and the return of the Grecians, is almost as mythical90 a personage as the heroes he celebrates. The traditionary story is that he was a wandering minstrel, blind and old, who travelled from place to place singing his lays to the music of his harp91, in the courts of princes or the cottages of peasants, and dependent upon the voluntary offerings of his hearers for support. Byron calls him “The blind old man of Scio’s rocky isle92,” and a well-known epigram, alluding93 to the uncertainty94 of the fact of his birthplace, says:
“Seven wealthy towns contend for Homer dead,
Through which the living Homer begged his bread.”
These seven were Smyrna, Scio, Rhodes, Colophon, Salamis, Argos, and Athens.
Modern scholars have doubted whether the Homeric poems are the work of any single mind. This arises from the difficulty of believing that poems of such length could have been committed to writing at so early an age as that usually assigned to these, an age earlier than the date of any remaining inscriptions95 or coins, and when no materials capable of containing such long productions were yet introduced into use. On the other hand it is asked how poems of such length could have been handed down from age to age by means of the memory alone. This is answered by the statement that there was a professional body of men, called Rhapsodists, who recited the poems of others, and whose business it was to commit to memory and rehearse for pay the national and patriotic96 legends.
The prevailing97 opinion of the learned, at this time, seems to be that the framework and much of the structure of the poems belong to Homer, but that there are numerous interpolations and additions by other hands.
The date assigned to Homer, on the authority of Herodotus, is 850 B.C.
VIRGIL
Virgil, called also by his surname, Maro, from whose poem of the “?neid” we have taken the story of ?neas, was one of the great poets who made the reign9 of the Roman emperor Augustus so celebrated, under the name of the Augustan age. Virgil was born in Mantua in the year 70 B.C. His great poem is ranked next to those of Homer, in the highest class of poetical98 composition, the Epic99. Virgil is far inferior to Homer in originality100 and invention, but superior to him in correctness and elegance101. To critics of English lineage Milton alone of modern poets seems worthy102 to be classed with these illustrious ancients. His poem of “Paradise Lost,” from which we have borrowed so many illustrations, is in many respects equal, in some superior, to either of the great works of antiquity103. The following epigram of Dryden characterizes the three poets with as much truth as it is usual to find in such pointed104 criticism:
“On Milton
“Three poets in three different ages born,
Greece, Italy, and England did adorn56.
The first in loftiness of soul surpassed,
The next in majesty, in both the last.
The force of nature could no further go;
To make a third she joined the other two.”
From Cowper’s “Table Talk”:
“Ages elapsed ere Homer’s lamp appeared,
And ages ere the Mantuan swan was heard.
To carry nature lengths unknown before,
To give a Milton birth, asked ages more.
Thus genius rose and set at ordered times,
And shot a dayspring into distant climes,
Ennobling every region that he chose;
He sunk in Greece, in Italy he rose,
And, tedious years of Gothic darkness past,
Emerged all splendor105 in our isle at last.
Thus lovely Halcyons106 dive into the main,
Then show far off their shining plumes107 again.”
Ovid,
often alluded108 to in poetry by his other name of Naso, was born in the year 43 B.C. He was educated for public life and held some offices of considerable dignity, but poetry was his delight, and he early resolved to devote himself to it. He accordingly sought the society of the contemporary poets, and was acquainted with Horace and saw Virgil, though the latter died when Ovid was yet too young and undistinguished to have formed his acquaintance. Ovid spent an easy life at Rome in the enjoyment110 of a competent income. He was intimate with the family of Augustus, the emperor, and it is supposed that some serious offence given to some member of that family was the cause of an event which reversed the poet’s happy circumstances and clouded all the latter portion of his life. At the age of fifty he was banished111 from Rome, and ordered to betake himself to Tomi, on the borders of the Black Sea. Here, among the barbarous people and in a severe climate, the poet, who had been accustomed to all the pleasures of a luxurious112 capital and the society of his most distinguished109 contemporaries, spent the last ten years of his life, worn out with grief and anxiety. His only consolation113 in exile was to address his wife and absent friends, and his letters were all poetical. Though these poems (the “Trista” and “Letters from Pontus”) have no other topic than the poet’s sorrows, his exquisite114 taste and fruitful invention have redeemed115 them from the charge of being tedious, and they are read with pleasure and even with sympathy.
The two great works of Ovid are his “Metamorphoses” and his “Fasti.” They are both mythological poems, and from the former we have taken most of our stories of Grecian and Roman mythology. A late writer thus characterizes these poems:
“The rich mythology of Greece furnished Ovid, as it may still furnish the poet, the painter, and the sculptor, with materials for his art. With exquisite taste, simplicity, and pathos116 he has narrated117 the fabulous traditions of early ages, and given to them that appearance of reality which only a master hand could impart. His pictures of nature are striking and true; he selects with care that which is appropriate; he rejects the superfluous118; and when he has completed his work, it is neither defective119 nor redundant120. The ‘Metamorphoses’ are read with pleasure by youth, and are re-read in more advanced age with still greater delight. The poet ventured to predict that his poem would survive him, and be read wherever the Roman name was known.”
The prediction above alluded to is contained in the closing lines of the “Metamorphoses,” of which we give a literal translation below:
“And now I close my work, which not the ire
Of Jove, nor tooth of time, nor sword, nor fire
Shall bring to nought121. Come when it will that day
Which o’er the body, not the mind, has sway,
And snatch the remnant of my life away,
My better part above the stars shall soar,
And my renown122 endure forevermore.
Where’er the Roman arms and arts shall spread,
There by the people shall my book be read;
And, if aught true in poet’s visions be,
My name and fame have immortality123.”
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1
mythology
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| n.神话，神话学，神话集 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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mythological
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| adj.神话的 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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narratives
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| 记叙文( narrative的名词复数 )； 故事； 叙述； 叙述部分 | |
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scripture
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| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
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beguiled
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| v.欺骗( beguile的过去式和过去分词 )；使陶醉；使高兴；消磨（时间等） | |
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fabulous
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| adj.极好的；极为巨大的；寓言中的，传说中的 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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reigned
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| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
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pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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emigrant
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| adj.移居的，移民的；n.移居外国的人，移民 | |
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13
rudiments
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| n.基础知识，入门 | |
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prone
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| adj.(to)易于…的，很可能…的；俯卧的 | |
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deterioration
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| n.退化；恶化；变坏 | |
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innocence
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| n.无罪；天真；无害 | |
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simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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symbolical
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| a.象征性的 | |
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philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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Saturn
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| n.农神，土星 | |
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devours
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| 吞没( devour的第三人称单数 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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starry
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| adj.星光照耀的, 闪亮的 | |
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sleepless
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| adj.不睡眠的，睡不著的，不休息的 | |
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behold
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| v.看，注视，看到 | |
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adoration
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| n.爱慕，崇拜 | |
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deities
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| n.神，女神( deity的名词复数 )；神祗；神灵；神明 | |
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rivulet
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| n.小溪，小河 | |
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lulled
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| vt.使镇静，使安静（lull的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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lute
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| n.琵琶，鲁特琴 | |
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groves
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| 树丛，小树林( grove的名词复数 ) | |
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grove
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| n.林子，小树林，园林 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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joyous
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| adj.充满快乐的；令人高兴的 | |
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slaked
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| v.满足( slake的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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gushing
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| adj.迸出的；涌出的；喷出的；过分热情的v.喷，涌( gush的现在分词 )；滔滔不绝地说话 | |
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gliding
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| v. 滑翔 adj. 滑动的 | |
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zephyrs
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| n.和风，微风( zephyr的名词复数 ) | |
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withered
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| adj. 枯萎的，干瘪的，（人身体的部分器官）因病萎缩的或未发育良好的 动词wither的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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boughs
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| 大树枝( bough的名词复数 ) | |
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grotesque
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| adj.怪诞的，丑陋的；n.怪诞的图案，怪人（物） | |
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twigs
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| 细枝，嫩枝( twig的名词复数 ) | |
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hoary
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| adj.古老的；鬓发斑白的 | |
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covert
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| adj.隐藏的；暗地里的 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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lurking
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| 潜在 | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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sculptor
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| n.雕刻家，雕刻家 | |
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colossal
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| adj.异常的，庞大的 | |
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ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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cedar
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| n.雪松，香柏(木) | |
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adorned
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| [计]被修饰的 | |
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adorn
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| vt.使美化，装饰 | |
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embody
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| vt.具体表达，使具体化；包含，收录 | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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conqueror
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| n.征服者，胜利者 | |
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majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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avowed
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| adj.公开声明的，承认的v.公开声明，承认( avow的过去式和过去分词) | |
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spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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sable
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| n.黑貂；adj.黑色的 | |
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ambrosial
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| adj.美味的 | |
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reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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surmounted
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| 战胜( surmount的过去式和过去分词 )； 克服（困难）； 居于…之上； 在…顶上 | |
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iris
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| n.虹膜，彩虹 | |
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exterior
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| adj.外部的，外在的；表面的 | |
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busts
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| 半身雕塑像( bust的名词复数 )； 妇女的胸部； 胸围； 突击搜捕 | |
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countenance
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| n.脸色，面容；面部表情；vt.支持，赞同 | |
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countenances
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| n.面容( countenance的名词复数 )；表情；镇静；道义支持 | |
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dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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inscription
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| n.（尤指石块上的）刻印文字，铭文，碑文 | |
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authenticity
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| n.真实性 | |
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alludes
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| 提及，暗指( allude的第三人称单数 ) | |
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enchants
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| 使欣喜，使心醉( enchant的第三人称单数 )； 用魔法迷惑 | |
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mingled
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| 混合，混入( mingle的过去式和过去分词 )； 混进，与…交往[联系] | |
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exulting
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| vi. 欢欣鼓舞，狂喜 | |
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stanza
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| n.（诗）节，段 | |
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allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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victorious
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| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
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graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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hind
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| adj.后面的，后部的 | |
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mythical
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| adj.神话的；虚构的；想像的 | |
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harp
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| n.竖琴；天琴座 | |
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isle
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| n.小岛，岛 | |
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alluding
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| 提及，暗指( allude的现在分词 ) | |
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uncertainty
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| n.易变，靠不住，不确知，不确定的事物 | |
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inscriptions
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| （作者）题词( inscription的名词复数 )； 献词； 碑文； 证劵持有人的登记 | |
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patriotic
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| adj.爱国的，有爱国心的 | |
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prevailing
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| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
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poetical
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| adj.似诗人的；诗一般的；韵文的；富有诗意的 | |
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epic
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| n.史诗，叙事诗；adj.史诗般的，壮丽的 | |
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originality
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| n.创造力，独创性；新颖 | |
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elegance
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| n.优雅；优美，雅致；精致，巧妙 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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103
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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105
splendor
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| n.光彩；壮丽，华丽；显赫，辉煌 | |
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halcyons
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| n.翡翠鸟（halcyon的复数形式） | |
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plumes
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| 羽毛( plume的名词复数 )； 羽毛饰； 羽毛状物； 升上空中的羽状物 | |
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alluded
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| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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109
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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110
enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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111
banished
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| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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112
luxurious
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| adj.精美而昂贵的；豪华的 | |
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113
consolation
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| n.安慰，慰问 | |
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114
exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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115
redeemed
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| adj. 可赎回的，可救赎的 动词redeem的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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116
pathos
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| n.哀婉，悲怆 | |
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117
narrated
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| v.故事( narrate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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118
superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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119
defective
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| adj.有毛病的，有问题的，有瑕疵的 | |
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120
redundant
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| adj.多余的，过剩的；(食物)丰富的；被解雇的 | |
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121
nought
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| n.／adj.无，零 | |
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122
renown
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| n.声誉，名望 | |
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123
immortality
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| n.不死，不朽 | |
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