Such “architectural lawlessness,” such disregard for symmetry, — the result, I believe, of an imperfect “amalgamation and enrichment,” — may doubtless be defended upon the grounds both of cause and of effect. Architecture is of the imitative arts, and Nature, the Myriomorphous, everywhere delighting in variety, appears to abhor24 nothing so much as perfect similarity and precise uniformity. To copy her exactly we must therefore seek that general analogy compatible with individual variety; in fact, we should avoid the over-display of order and regularity15. And again, it may be asserted that, however incongruous these disorderly forms may appear to the conventional eye, we find it easy to surmount25 our first antipathy26. Perhaps we end in admiring them the more, as we love those faces in which irregularity of feature is compensated27 for by diversity and piquancy28 of expression.
There is nothing, I believe, new in the Arab Mosque29; it is an unconscious revival30 of the forms used from the earliest ages to denote by symbolism the worship of the generative and the creative gods. The reader will excuse me if I only glance at a subject of which the investigation31 would require a volume, and which, discussed at greater length, would be out of place in such a narrative32 as this.
The first Mosque in Al-Islam was erected by Mohammed at Kuba, near Al-Madinah: shortly afterwards, when he entered Meccah as a conqueror33, he destroyed the three hundred and sixty idols34 of the Arab Pantheon, and thus purified that venerable building from its abominations. He had probably observed in Syrian Bostra the two forms appropriated by the Christians to their places of worship, the cross and the parallelogramic Basilica; he therefore preferred for the prayers of the “Saving Faith” a square, — some authors say, with, others without, a cloister35. At length in the reign36 of Al-Walid (A.H. 90) the cupola, the niche37, and the minaret38 made their appearance; and what is called the Saracenic style became for ever the order of the Moslem39 world.
The Hindus I believe to have been the first who symbolised by an equilateral triangle their peculiar40 cult41, the Yoni-Linga: in their temple architecture, it became either a conoid or a perfect pyramid. Egypt denoted it by the obelisk42, peculiar to that country; and the form appeared in different parts of the world: thus in England it was a mere43 upright stone, and in Ireland a round tower. This we might expect to see. D’Hancarville and Brotier have successfully traced the worship itself, in its different modifications44, to all people: the symbol would therefore be found everywhere. The old Arab minaret is a plain cylindrical45 or polygonal46 tower, without balcony or stages, widely different from the Turkish, modern Egyptian, and Hijazi combinations of tube and prism, happily compared by a French traveller to “une chandelle coiffee d’un eteignoir.” And finally the ancient minaret, made solid as all Gothic architecture is, and provided with a belfry, became the spire47 and steeple of our ancestors.
From time immemorial, in hot and rainy lands, a hypaethral court, either round or square, surrounded by a covered portico48, was used for the double purpose of church and mart, — a place where God and Mammon were worshipped turn by turn. In some places we find rings of stones, like the Persian Pyroetheia; in others, circular concave buildings representing the vault49 of heaven, where Fire, the divine symbol, was worshipped; and in Arabia, columnar aisles50, which, surmounted51 by the splendid blue vault, resemble the palm-grove. The Greeks adopted this idea in the fanes of Creator Bacchus; and at Pozzuoli, near Naples, it may be seen in the building vulgarly called the Temple of Serapis. It was equally well known to the Kelts: in some places the Temenos was a circle, in others a quadrangle. And such to the present day is the Mosque of Al-Islam.
Even the Riwak or porches surrounding the area in the Mosque are revivals52 of older forms. “The range of square buildings which enclose the temple of Serapis are not, properly speaking, parts of the fane, but apartments of the priests, places for victims, and sacred utensils53, and chapels54 dedicated55 to subordinate deities56, introduced by a more complicated and corrupt57 worship, and probably unknown to the founders58 of the original edifice60.” The cloisters61 in the Mosque became cells, used as lecture rooms, and stores for books bequeathed to the college. They are unequal, because some are required to be of larger, others to be of smaller, dimensions. The same reason causes difference of size when the building is distributed into four hyposteles opening upon the area: the porch in the direction of the Ka’abah, where worshippers mostly congregate62, demands greater depth than the other three. The wings were not unfrequently made unequal, either from want of building materials, or because the same extent of accommodation was not required in both. The columns were of different substances; some of handsome marble, others of rough stone meanly plastered over, with dissimilar capitals, vulgarly cut shafts63 of various sizes; here with a pediment, there without, now turned upside down, then joined together by halves in the centre, and almost invariably nescient of intercolumnar rule. This is the result of Byzantine syncretism, carelessly and ignorantly grafted64 upon Arab ideas of the natural and the sublime65. Loving and admiring the great, or rather the big in plan,4 they care little for the execution of mere details, and they have not the acumen66 to discern the effect which clumsy workmanship, crooked67 lines, and visible joints68, — parts apparently69 insignificant70, — exercise upon the whole of an edifice. Their use of colours was a false taste, commonly displayed by mankind in their religious houses, and statues of the gods. The Hindus paint their pagodas71, inside and outside; and rub vermilion, in token of honour, over their deities. The Persian Colossi of Kaiomars and his consort72 on the Balkh road and the Sphinx of Egypt, as well as the temples of the Nile, still show traces of artificial complexion73. The fanes in classic Greece have been dyed. In the Forum74 Romanum, one of the finest buildings, still bears stains of the Tyrian purple. And to mention no other instances, in the churches and belfries of Modern Italy, we see alternate bands of white and black material so disposed as to give them the appearance of giant zebras. The origin of “Arabesque” ornament13 must be referred to one of the principles of Al-Islam. The Moslem, forbidden by his law to decorate his Mosque with statuary and pictures,5 supplied their place with quotations75 from the Koran, and inscriptions76, “plastic metaphysics,” of marvellous perplexity.
His alphabet lent itself to the purpose, and hence probably arose that almost inconceivable variety of lace-like fretwork, of incrustations, of Arabesques77, and of geometric flowers, in which his eye delights to lose itself.6
The Meccan Mosque became a model to the world of Al-Islam, and the nations that embraced the new faith copied the consecrated78 building, as religiously as Christendom produced imitations of the Holy Sepulchre.7 The Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem, of Amru at Babylon on the Nile, and of Taylun at Cairo were erected, with some trifling79 improvements, such as arched cloisters and inscribed80 cornices, upon the plan of the Ka’abah. From Egypt and Palestine the ichnography spread far and wide. It was modified, as might be expected, by national taste; what in Arabia was simple and elegant became highly ornate in Spain,8 florid in Turkey, sturdy in Syria, and effeminate in India. Still divergence81 of detail had not, even after the lapse82 of twelve centuries, materially altered the fundamental form.
Perhaps no Eastern city affords more numerous or more accessible specimens83 of Mosque architecture than Cairo. Between 300 and 400 places of worship;9 some stately piles, others ruinous hovels, many new, more decaying and earthquake-shaken, with minarets84 that rival in obliquity85 the Pisan monster, are open to the traveller’s inspection86. And Europeans by following the advice of their hotel-keeper have penetrated87, and can penetrate88, into any one they please.10 If architecture be really what I believe it to be, the highest expression of a people’s artistic feeling, — highest because it includes all others, — to compare the several styles of the different epochs, to observe how each monarch89 building his own Mosque, and calling it by his own name, identified the manner of the monument with himself, and to trace the gradual decadence90 of art through one thousand two hundred years, down to the present day, must be a work of no ordinary interest to Orientalists. The limits of my plan, however, compel me to place only the heads of the argument before the reader. May I be allowed to express a hope that it will induce some learned traveller to investigate a subject in every way worthy91 his attention?
The desecrated92 Jami’ Taylun (ninth century) is simple and massive, yet elegant, and in some of its details peculiar.11 One of the four colonnades12 still remains94 unoccupied by paupers95 to show the original magnificence of the building; the other porches are walled up, and inhabited. In the centre of a quadrangle about 100 paces square is a domed96 building springing from a square which occupies the proper place of the Ka’abah. This “Jami’13” Cathedral is interesting as a point of comparison. If it be an exact copy of the Meccan temple as it stood in A.D. 879, it shows that the latter has greatly altered in this our modern day.
Next in date to the Taylun Mosque is that of the Sultan al-Hakim, third Caliph of the Fatimites, and founder59 of the Druze mysteries. The minarets are remarkable97 in shape, as well as size: they are unprovided with the usual outer gallery, they are based upon a cube of masonry98, and they are pierced above with apertures99 apparently meaningless. A learned Cairene informed me that these spires100 were devised by the eccentric monarch to disperse101, like large censers, fragrant102 smoke over the city during the hours of prayer. The Azhar and Hasanayn14 Mosques103 are simple and artless piles, celebrated104 for sanctity, but remarkable for nothing save ugliness. Few buildings, however, are statelier in appearance, or give a nobler idea of both founder and architect than that which bears Sultan Hasan’s name. The stranger stands awe-struck before walls high towering without a single break, a hypaethral court severe in masculine beauty, a gateway105 that might suit the palace of the Titans, and a lofty minaret of massive grandeur106. This Mosque (finished about A.D. 1363), with its fortress107 aspect, owns no more relationship to the efforts of a later age than does Canterbury Cathedral to an Anglo-Indian “Gothic.” For dignified108 beauty and refined taste, the Mosque and tomb of Kaid Bey and the other Mamluk kings are admirable. Even in their present state, picturesqueness109 presides over decay, and the traveller has seldom seen aught more striking than the rich light of the stained glass pouring through the first shades of evening upon the marble floor.
The modern Mosques must be visited to see Egyptian architecture in its decline and fall. That of Sittna Zaynab (our Lady Zaynab), founded by Murad Bey, the Mamluk, and interrupted by the French invasion, shows, even in its completion, some lingering traces of taste. But nothing can be more offensive than the building which every tourist flogs donkey in his hurry to see — old Mohammed Ali’s “Folly” in the citadel110. Its Greek architect has toiled111 to caricature a Mosque to emulate112 the glories of our English “Oriental Pavilion.” Outside, as Monckton Milnes sings,
“The shining minarets, thin and high,”
are so thin, so high above the lumpy domes113, that they look like the spindles of crouching114 crones, and are placed in full sight of Sultan Hasan the Giant, so as to derive115 all the disadvantages of the contrast. Is the pointed116 arch forgotten by man, that this hapless building should be disgraced by large and small parallelograms of glass and wood,15 so placed and so formed as to give its exterior117 the appearance of a European theatre coiffe with Oriental cupolas? Outside as well as inside, money has been lavished118 upon alabaster119 full of flaws; round the bases of pillars run gilt120 bands; in places the walls are painted with streaks121 to resemble marble, and the wood-work is overlaid with tinsel gold. After a glance at these abominations, one cannot be surprised to hear the old men of Egypt lament122 that, in spite of European education, and of prizes encouraging geometry and architecture, modern art offers a melancholy123 contrast to antiquity124. It is said that H. H. Abbas Pasha proposes to erect21 for himself a Mosque that shall far surpass the boast of the last generation. I venture to hope that his architect will light the “sacred fire” from Sultan Hasan’s, not from Mohammed Ali’s, Turco-Grecian splendours. The former is like the genuine Osmanli of past ages, fierce, cold, with a stalwart frame, index of a strong mind — there was a sullen125 grandeur about the man. The latter is the pert and puny126 modern Turk in pantaloons, frock coat and Fez, ill-dressed, ill-conditioned, and ill-bred, body and soul.
We will now enter the Mosque Al-Azhar. At the dwarf127 wooden railing we take off our slippers128, hold them in the left hand, sole to sole, that no dirt may fall from them, and cross the threshold with the right foot, ejaculating Bismillah, &c. Next we repair to the Mayza’ah, or large tank, for ablution, without which it is unlawful to appear in the House of Allah. We then seek some proper place for devotion, place our slippers on some other object in front of us to warn the lounger, and perform a two-bow prayer in honour of the Mosque.16 This done, we may wander about, and inspect the several objects of curiosity.
The moon shines splendidly upon a vast open court, paved with stones which are polished like glass by the feet of the Faithful. There is darkness in the body of the building, a large oblong hall, at least twice too lengthy129 for its height, supported by a forest of pillars, thin, poor-looking, crooked marble columns, planted avenue-like, upon torn and dirty matting. A few oil lamps shed doubtful light over scanty130 groups, who are debating some point of grammar, or are listening to the words of wisdom that fall from the mouth of a Wa’iz.17 Presently they will leave the hypostyle, and throw themselves upon the flags of the quadrangle, where they may enjoy the open air and avoid some fleas131. It is now “long vacation”: so the holy building has become a kind of Caravanserai for travellers; perhaps a score of nations meet in it; there is a confusion of tongues, and the din5 at times is deafening132. Around the court runs a tolerably well-built colonnade93, whose entablature is garnished133 with crimson134 arabesques, and in the inner wall are pierced apartments, now closed with plank135 doors. Of the Riwak, as the porches are called, the Azhar contains twenty-four, one for each recognised nation in Al-Islam, and of these fifteen are still open to students.18 Inside them we find nothing but matting and a pile of large dingy136 wooden boxes, which once contained the college library; they are now, generally speaking, empty.19
There is nothing worth seeing in the cluster of little dark chambers137 that form the remainder of the Azhar. Even the Zawiyat al-Umyan (or the Blind men’s Oratory), a place where so many “town and gown rows” have emanated138, is rendered interesting only by the fanaticism139 of its inmates140, and the certainty that, if recognised in this sanctum, we shall run the gauntlet under the staves of its proprietors141, the angry blind.
The Azhar is the grand collegiate Mosque of this city, — the Christ Church, in fact, of Cairo, — once celebrated throughout the world of Al-Islam. It was built, I was told, originally in poor style by one Jauhar al-Kaid,20 originally the slave of a Moorish142 merchant, in consequence of a dream that ordered him to “erect a place whence the light of science should shine upon Al-Islam.”
It gradually increased by “Wakf21” (entailed bequests) of lands, money, and books; and pious143 rulers made a point of adding to its size and wealth. Of late years it has considerably144 declined, the result of sequestrations, and of the diminished esteem145 in which the purely146 religious sciences are now held in the land of Egypt.22 Yet it is calculated that between 2000 and 3000 students of all nations and ages receive instruction here gratis147.
Each one is provided with bread, in a quantity determined148 by the amount of endowment, at the Riwak set apart for his nation,23 with some article of clothing on festival days, and a few piastres once a year. The professors, who are about 150 in number, may not take fees from their pupils; some lecture on account of the religious merit of the action, others to gain the high title of “Teacher in Al Azhar.24” Six officials receive stipends149 from the government, — the Shaykh al-Jami’ or dean, the Shaykh al-Sakka, who regulates the provision of water for ablution, and others that may be called heads of departments.
The following is the course of study in the Azhar. The school-boy of four or five years’ standing150 has been taught, by a liberal application of the maxim151 “the Green Rod is of the Trees of Paradise,” to chant the Koran without understanding it, the elementary rules of arithmetic, and, if he is destined152 to be a learned man, the art of writing.25 He then registers his name in Al-Azhar, and applies himself to the branches of study most cultivated in Al-Islam, namely Nahw (syntax), Fikh (the law), Hadis (the traditions of the Prophet), and Tafsir, or Exposition of the Koran.
The young Egyptian reads at the same time Sarf, or Inflexion, and Nahw (syntax). But as Arabic is his mother-tongue, he is not required to study the former so deeply as are the Turks, the Persians, and the Indians. If he desire, however, to be a proficient153, he must carefully peruse154 five books in Sarf,26 and six in Nahw.27
Master of grammar, our student now applies himself to its proper end and purpose, Divinity. Of the four schools those of Abu Hanifah and Al-Shafe’i are most common in Cairo; the followers155 of Ibn Malik abound9 only in Southern Egypt and the Berberah country, and the Hanbali is almost unknown. The theologian begins with what is called a Matn or text, a short, dry, and often obscure treatise157, a mere string of precepts158; in fact, the skeleton of the subject. This he learns by repeated perusal160, till he can quote almost every passage literatim. He then passes to its “Sharh,” or commentary, generally the work of some other savant, who explains the difficulty of the text, amplifies161 its Laconicisms, enters into exceptional cases, and deals with principles and reasons, as well as with mere precept159. A difficult work will sometimes require “Hashiyah,” or “marginal notes”; but this aid has a bad name:—
“Who readeth with note,
But learneth by rote,”
says a popular doggrel. The reason is, that the student’s reasoning powers being little exercised, he learns to depend upon the dixit of a master rather than to think for himself. It also leads to the neglect of another practice, highly advocated by the Eastern pedagogue162.
“The lecture is one.
The dispute (upon the subject of the lecture) is one thousand.”
In order to become a Fakih, or divine of distinguished163 fame, the follower156 of Abu Hanifah must peruse about ten volumes,28 some of huge size, written in a diffuse164 style; the Shafe’i’s reading is not quite so extensive.29 Theology is much studied, because it leads directly to the gaining of daily bread, as priest or tutor; and other scientific pursuits are neglected for the opposite reason.
The theologian in Egypt, as in other parts of Al-Islam, must have a superficial knowledge of the Prophet’s traditions. Of these there are eight well known collections,30 but only the first three are generally read.
School-boys are instructed, almost when in their infancy165, to intone the Koran; at the university they are taught a more exact system of chanting. The style called “Hafs” is most common in Egypt, as it is indeed throughout the Moslem world. And after learning to read the holy volume, some savans are ambitious enough to wish to understand it: under these circumstances they must dive into the ’Ilm al-Tafsir,31 or the Exegesis166 of the Koran.
Our student is now a perfect Fakih or Mulla.32 But the poor fellow has no scholarship or fellowship — no easy tutorship — no fat living to look forward to. After wasting seven years, or twice seven years, over his studies, and reading till his brain is dizzy, his digestion167 gone, and his eyes half blind, he must either starve upon college alms, or squat168, like my old Shaykh Mohammed, in a druggist’s shop, or become pedagogue and preacher in some country place, on the pay of L8 per annum. With such prospects169 it is wonderful how the Azhar can present any attractions; but the southern man is essentially170 an idler, and many become Olema, like Capuchins, in order to do nothing. A favoured few rise to the degree of Mudarris (professors), and thence emerge Kazis and Muftis. This is another inducement to matriculate; every undergraduate having an eye upon the Kazi-ship, with as much chance of obtaining it as the country parocco has of becoming a cardinal171. Others again devote themselves to laical pursuits, degenerate172 into Wakils (lawyers), or seek their fortunes as Katibs — public or private accountants.
To conclude this part of the subject, I cannot agree with Dr. Bowring when he harshly says, upon the subject of Moslem education: “The instruction given by the Doctors of the Law in the religious schools, for the formation of the Mohammedan priesthood, is of the most worthless character.”33 His opinion is equally open to objection with that of those who depreciate173 the law itself because it deals rather in precepts than in principle, in ceremonies and ordinances174 rather than in ethics175 and aesthetics176. Both are what Eastern faiths and Eastern training have ever been, — both are eminently177 adapted for the Oriental mind. When the people learn to appreciate ethics, and to understand psychics178 and aesthetics, the demand will create a supply. Meanwhile they leave transcendentalism to their poets and philosophers, and they busy themselves with preparing for heaven by practising the only part of their faith now intelligible179 to them — the Material.
It is not to be supposed that a nation in this stage of civilisation180 could be so fervently181 devout182 as the Egyptians are, without the bad leaven183 of bigotry184. The same tongue which is employed in blessing185 Allah, is, it is conceived, doing its work equally well in cursing Allah’s enemies. Wherefore the Kafir is denounced by every sex, age, class, and condition, by the man of the world,34 as by the boy at school; and out of, as well as in, the Mosque. If you ask your friend who is the person with a black turband, he replies,
“A Christian2. Allah make his Countenance186 cold!”
If you inquire of your servant, who are the people singing in the next house, it is ten to one that his answer will be,
“Jews. May their lot be Jahannam!”
It appears unintelligible187, still it is not less true, that Egyptians who have lived as servants under European roofs for years, retain the liveliest loathing188 for the manners and customs of their masters. Few Franks, save those who have mixed with the Egyptians in Oriental disguise, are aware of their repugnance189 to, and contempt for, Europeans — so well is the feeling veiled under the garb190 of innate191 politeness, and so great is their reserve when conversing192 with those of strange religions. I had a good opportunity of ascertaining193 the truth when the first rumour194 of a Russian war arose. Almost every able-bodied man spoke195 of hastening to the Jihad, — a crusade, or holy war, — and the only thing that looked like apprehension196 was the too eager depreciation197 of their foes198. All seemed delighted with the idea of French co-operation, for, somehow or other, the Frenchman is everywhere popular. When speaking of England, they were not equally easy: heads were rolled, pious sentences were ejaculated, and finally out came the old Eastern cry, “Of a truth they are Shaytans, those English.35” The Austrians are despised, because the East knows nothing of them since the days when Osmanli hosts threatened the gates of Vienna. The Greeks are hated as clever scoundrels, ever ready to do Al-Islam a mischief199. The Maltese, the greatest of cowards off their own ground, are regarded with a profound contempt: these are the proteges which bring the British nation into disrepute at Cairo. And Italians are known chiefly as “istruttori” and “distruttori”36 — doctors, druggists, and pedagogues200.
Yet Egyptian human nature is, like human nature everywhere, contradictory201. Hating and despising Europeans, they still long for European rule. This people admire an iron-handed and lion-hearted despotism; they hate a timid and a grinding tyranny.37 Of all foreigners, they would prefer the French yoke202, — a circumstance which I attribute to the diplomatic skill and national dignity of our neighbours across the Channel.38 But whatever European nation secures Egypt will win a treasure. Moated on the north and south by seas, with a glacis of impassable deserts to the eastward203 and westward204, capable of supporting an army of 180,000 men, of paying a heavy tribute, and yet able to show a considerable surplus of revenue, this country in western hands will command India, and by a ship-canal between Pelusium and Suez would open the whole of Eastern Africa.39
There is no longer much to fear from the fanaticism of the people, and a little prudence205 would suffice to command the interests of the Mosque.40 The chiefs of corporations,41 in the present state of popular feeling, would offer even less difficulty to an invader206 or a foreign ruler than the Olema. Briefly207, Egypt is the most tempting208 prize which the East holds out to the ambition of Europe, not excepted even the Golden Horn.
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1
Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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overthrowing
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| v.打倒，推翻( overthrow的现在分词 )；使终止 | |
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meditated
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| 深思，沉思，冥想( meditate的过去式和过去分词 )； 内心策划，考虑 | |
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din
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| n.喧闹声，嘈杂声 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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heterogeneous
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| adj.庞杂的；异类的 | |
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abounding
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| adj.丰富的，大量的v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的现在分词 ) | |
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abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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granite
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| adj.花岗岩，花岗石 | |
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structural
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| adj.构造的，组织的，建筑（用）的 | |
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ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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hybrid
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| n.(动，植）杂种，混合物 | |
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regularity
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| n.规律性，规则性；匀称，整齐 | |
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perpetuated
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| vt.使永存（perpetuate的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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plagiarism
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| n.剽窃，抄袭 | |
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reiterated
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| 反复地说，重申( reiterate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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incongruities
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| n.不协调( incongruity的名词复数 )；不一致；不适合；不协调的东西 | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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piecemeal
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| adj.零碎的；n.片，块；adv.逐渐地；v.弄成碎块 | |
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abhor
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| v.憎恶；痛恨 | |
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surmount
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| vt.克服；置于…顶上 | |
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antipathy
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| n.憎恶；反感，引起反感的人或事物 | |
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compensated
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| 补偿，报酬( compensate的过去式和过去分词 )； 给（某人）赔偿（或赔款） | |
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piquancy
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| n.辛辣，辣味，痛快 | |
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mosque
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| n.清真寺 | |
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revival
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| n.复兴，复苏，（精力、活力等的）重振 | |
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31
investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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32
narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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33
conqueror
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| n.征服者，胜利者 | |
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34
idols
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| 偶像( idol的名词复数 )； 受崇拜的人或物； 受到热爱和崇拜的人或物； 神像 | |
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35
cloister
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| n.修道院；v.隐退，使与世隔绝 | |
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36
reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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37
niche
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| n.壁龛；合适的职务(环境、位置等) | |
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38
minaret
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| n.（回教寺院的）尖塔 | |
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39
Moslem
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| n.回教徒，穆罕默德信徒；adj.回教徒的，回教的 | |
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40
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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41
cult
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| n.异教，邪教；时尚，狂热的崇拜 | |
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42
obelisk
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| n.方尖塔 | |
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43
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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44
modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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45
cylindrical
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| adj.圆筒形的 | |
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46
polygonal
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| adj.多角形的，多边形的 | |
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47
spire
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| n.(教堂)尖顶，尖塔，高点 | |
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48
portico
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| n.柱廊，门廊 | |
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49
vault
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| n.拱形圆顶，地窖，地下室 | |
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50
aisles
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| n. (席位间的)通道, 侧廊 | |
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51
surmounted
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|
| 战胜( surmount的过去式和过去分词 )； 克服（困难）； 居于…之上； 在…顶上 | |
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52
revivals
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| n.复活( revival的名词复数 )；再生；复兴；（老戏多年后）重新上演 | |
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53
utensils
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| 器具，用具，器皿( utensil的名词复数 )； 器物 | |
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54
chapels
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| n.小教堂， （医院、监狱等的）附属礼拜堂( chapel的名词复数 )；（在小教堂和附属礼拜堂举行的）礼拜仪式 | |
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55
dedicated
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| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
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56
deities
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| n.神，女神( deity的名词复数 )；神祗；神灵；神明 | |
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57
corrupt
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| v.贿赂，收买；adj.腐败的，贪污的 | |
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58
founders
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| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
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59
Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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60
edifice
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| n.宏伟的建筑物(如宫殿，教室) | |
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61
cloisters
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| n.（学院、修道院、教堂等建筑的）走廊( cloister的名词复数 )；回廊；修道院的生活；隐居v.隐退，使与世隔绝( cloister的第三人称单数 ) | |
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62
congregate
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| v.(使)集合，聚集 | |
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63
shafts
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| n.轴( shaft的名词复数 )；（箭、高尔夫球棒等的）杆；通风井；一阵（疼痛、害怕等） | |
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64
grafted
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| 移植( graft的过去式和过去分词 )； 嫁接； 使（思想、制度等）成为（…的一部份）； 植根 | |
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65
sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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66
acumen
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| n.敏锐，聪明 | |
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67
crooked
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| adj.弯曲的；不诚实的，狡猾的，不正当的 | |
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68
joints
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| 接头( joint的名词复数 )； 关节； 公共场所（尤指价格低廉的饮食和娱乐场所） （非正式）； 一块烤肉 （英式英语） | |
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69
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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70
insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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71
pagodas
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| 塔，宝塔( pagoda的名词复数 ) | |
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72
consort
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| v.相伴；结交 | |
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73
complexion
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| n.肤色；情况，局面；气质，性格 | |
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74
forum
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| n.论坛，讨论会 | |
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75
quotations
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| n.引用( quotation的名词复数 )；[商业]行情（报告）；（货物或股票的）市价；时价 | |
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76
inscriptions
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| （作者）题词( inscription的名词复数 )； 献词； 碑文； 证劵持有人的登记 | |
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77
arabesques
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| n.阿拉伯式花饰( arabesque的名词复数 )；错综图饰；阿拉伯图案；阿拉贝斯克芭蕾舞姿（独脚站立，手前伸，另一脚一手向后伸） | |
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78
consecrated
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|
| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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79
trifling
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|
| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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80
inscribed
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| v.写，刻( inscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；内接 | |
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81
divergence
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| n.分歧，岔开 | |
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82
lapse
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| n.过失，流逝，失效，抛弃信仰，间隔；vi.堕落，停止，失效，流逝；vt.使失效 | |
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83
specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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84
minarets
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| n.（清真寺旁由报告祈祷时刻的人使用的）光塔( minaret的名词复数 ) | |
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85
obliquity
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| n.倾斜度 | |
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86
inspection
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| n.检查，审查，检阅 | |
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87
penetrated
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| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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88
penetrate
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| v.透(渗)入；刺入，刺穿；洞察，了解 | |
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89
monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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90
decadence
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| n.衰落，颓废 | |
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91
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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92
desecrated
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| 毁坏或亵渎( desecrate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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93
colonnade
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| n.柱廊 | |
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94
remains
|
|
| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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95
paupers
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| n.穷人( pauper的名词复数 )；贫民；贫穷 | |
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96
domed
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|
| adj. 圆屋顶的, 半球形的, 拱曲的 动词dome的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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97
remarkable
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|
| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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98
masonry
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| n.砖土建筑；砖石 | |
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99
apertures
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| n.孔( aperture的名词复数 )；隙缝；（照相机的）光圈；孔径 | |
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100
spires
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| n.（教堂的） 塔尖，尖顶( spire的名词复数 ) | |
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101
disperse
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| vi.使分散；使消失；vt.分散；驱散 | |
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102
fragrant
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| adj.芬香的，馥郁的，愉快的 | |
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103
mosques
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| 清真寺； 伊斯兰教寺院，清真寺； 清真寺，伊斯兰教寺院( mosque的名词复数 ) | |
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104
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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105
gateway
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| n.大门口，出入口，途径，方法 | |
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106
grandeur
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| n.伟大，崇高，宏伟，庄严，豪华 | |
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107
fortress
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| n.堡垒，防御工事 | |
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108
dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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109
picturesqueness
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110
citadel
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| n.城堡；堡垒；避难所 | |
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111
toiled
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| 长时间或辛苦地工作( toil的过去式和过去分词 )； 艰难缓慢地移动，跋涉 | |
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112
emulate
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| v.努力赶上或超越，与…竞争；效仿 | |
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113
domes
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| n.圆屋顶( dome的名词复数 )；像圆屋顶一样的东西；圆顶体育场 | |
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114
crouching
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| v.屈膝，蹲伏( crouch的现在分词 ) | |
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115
derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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116
pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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117
exterior
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| adj.外部的，外在的；表面的 | |
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118
lavished
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| v.过分给予，滥施( lavish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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119
alabaster
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| adj.雪白的；n.雪花石膏；条纹大理石 | |
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120
gilt
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| adj.镀金的；n.金边证券 | |
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121
streaks
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| n.（与周围有所不同的）条纹( streak的名词复数 )；（通常指不好的）特征（倾向）；（不断经历成功或失败的）一段时期v.快速移动( streak的第三人称单数 )；使布满条纹 | |
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122
lament
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| n.悲叹，悔恨，恸哭；v.哀悼，悔恨，悲叹 | |
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123
melancholy
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| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
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124
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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125
sullen
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| adj.愠怒的，闷闷不乐的，(天气等)阴沉的 | |
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126
puny
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| adj.微不足道的，弱小的 | |
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127
dwarf
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| n.矮子，侏儒，矮小的动植物；vt.使…矮小 | |
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128
slippers
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| n. 拖鞋 | |
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129
lengthy
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| adj.漫长的，冗长的 | |
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130
scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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131
fleas
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| n.跳蚤( flea的名词复数 )；爱财如命；没好气地（拒绝某人的要求） | |
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132
deafening
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| adj. 振耳欲聋的, 极喧闹的 动词deafen的现在分词形式 | |
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133
garnished
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| v.给（上餐桌的食物）加装饰( garnish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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134
crimson
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| n./adj.深(绯)红色(的)；vi.脸变绯红色 | |
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135
plank
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| n.板条，木板，政策要点，政纲条目 | |
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136
dingy
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| adj.昏暗的，肮脏的 | |
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137
chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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138
emanated
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| v.从…处传出，传出( emanate的过去式和过去分词 )；产生，表现，显示 | |
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139
fanaticism
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| n.狂热，盲信 | |
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140
inmates
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| n.囚犯( inmate的名词复数 ) | |
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141
proprietors
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| n.所有人，业主( proprietor的名词复数 ) | |
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142
moorish
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| adj.沼地的，荒野的，生[住]在沼地的 | |
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143
pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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144
considerably
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|
| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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145
esteem
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| n.尊敬，尊重；vt.尊重，敬重；把…看作 | |
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146
purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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147
gratis
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| adj.免费的 | |
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148
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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149
stipends
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| n.（尤指牧师的）薪俸( stipend的名词复数 ) | |
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150
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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151
maxim
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| n.格言，箴言 | |
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152
destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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153
proficient
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| adj.熟练的，精通的；n.能手，专家 | |
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154
peruse
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| v.细读，精读 | |
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155
followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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156
follower
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| n.跟随者；随员；门徒；信徒 | |
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157
treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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158
precepts
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| n.规诫，戒律，箴言( precept的名词复数 ) | |
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precept
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| n.戒律；格言 | |
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perusal
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| n.细读，熟读；目测 | |
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161
amplifies
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| 放大，扩大( amplify的第三人称单数 )； 增强； 详述 | |
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162
pedagogue
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| n.教师 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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diffuse
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| v.扩散；传播；adj.冗长的；四散的，弥漫的 | |
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infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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166
exegesis
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| n.注释，解释 | |
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167
digestion
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| n.消化，吸收 | |
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168
squat
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| v.蹲坐，蹲下；n.蹲下；adj.矮胖的，粗矮的 | |
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prospects
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| n.希望，前途(恒为复数) | |
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170
essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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cardinal
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| n.(天主教的)红衣主教；adj.首要的，基本的 | |
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degenerate
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| v.退步，堕落；adj.退步的，堕落的；n.堕落者 | |
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depreciate
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| v.降价，贬值，折旧 | |
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174
ordinances
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| n.条例，法令( ordinance的名词复数 ) | |
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175
ethics
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| n.伦理学；伦理观，道德标准 | |
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aesthetics
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| n.(尤指艺术方面之)美学，审美学 | |
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eminently
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| adv.突出地；显著地；不寻常地 | |
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psychics
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| 心理学，心灵学； （自称）通灵的或有特异功能的人，巫师( psychic的名词复数 ) | |
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intelligible
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| adj.可理解的，明白易懂的，清楚的 | |
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civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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fervently
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| adv.热烈地，热情地，强烈地 | |
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devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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leaven
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| v.使发酵；n.酵母；影响 | |
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bigotry
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| n.偏见，偏执，持偏见的行为[态度]等 | |
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blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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countenance
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| n.脸色，面容；面部表情；vt.支持，赞同 | |
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187
unintelligible
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| adj.无法了解的，难解的，莫明其妙的 | |
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loathing
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| n.厌恶，憎恨v.憎恨，厌恶( loathe的现在分词)；极不喜欢 | |
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repugnance
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| n.嫌恶 | |
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garb
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| n.服装，装束 | |
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innate
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| adj.天生的，固有的，天赋的 | |
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conversing
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| v.交谈，谈话( converse的现在分词 ) | |
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ascertaining
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的现在分词 ) | |
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rumour
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| n.谣言，谣传，传闻 | |
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195
spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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apprehension
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| n.理解，领悟；逮捕，拘捕；忧虑 | |
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depreciation
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| n.价值低落，贬值，蔑视，贬低 | |
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198
foes
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| 敌人，仇敌( foe的名词复数 ) | |
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199
mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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pedagogues
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| n.教师，卖弄学问的教师( pedagogue的名词复数 ) | |
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contradictory
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| adj.反驳的，反对的，抗辩的；n.正反对，矛盾对立 | |
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202
yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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203
eastward
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| adv.向东；adj.向东的；n.东方，东部 | |
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westward
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| n.西方，西部；adj.西方的，向西的；adv.向西 | |
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prudence
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| n.谨慎，精明，节俭 | |
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206
invader
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| n.侵略者，侵犯者，入侵者 | |
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207
briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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208
tempting
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| a.诱人的, 吸引人的 | |
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