The first race, indigens or autochthones, are those sub-Caucasian tribes which may still be met with in the province of Mahrah, and generally along the coast between Maskat and Hazramaut. 2 The Mahrah, the Janabah, and the Gara especially show a low development, for which hardship and privation alone will not satisfactorily account.3 These are Arab al-Aribah for whose inferiority oriental fable4 accounts as usual by thaumaturgy.
The principal adven? are the Noachians, a great Chaldaean or Mesopotamian tribe which entered Arabia about 2200 A.C., and by slow and gradual encroachments drove before them the ancient owners and seized the happier lands of the Peninsula. The great Anzah and the Nijdi families are types of this race, which is purely5 Caucasian, and shows a highly nervous temperament6, together with those signs of “blood” which distinguish even the lower animals, the horse and the camel, the greyhound and the goat of Arabia. These advenae would correspond with the Arab al-Mutarribah or Arabicized Arabs of the eastern historians.4
The third family, an ancient and a noble race dating from A.C. 1900, and typified in history by Ishmael, still occupies the so-called Sinaitic Peninsula. These Arabs, however, do not, and never did, extend beyond the limits of the mountains, where, still dwelling7 in the presence of their brethren, they retain all the wild customs and the untamable spirit of their forefathers8. They are distinguished9 from the pure stock by an admixture of Egyptian blood,5 and by preserving the ancient characteristics of the Nilotic family. The Ishmaelities are sub-Caucasian, and are denoted in history as the Arab al-Mustarribah, the insititious or half-caste Arab.
Oriental ethnography, which, like most Eastern sciences, luxuriates in nomenclative distinction, recognises a fourth race under the name of Arab al-Mustajamah. These “barbarized Arabs” are now represented by such a population as that of Meccah.
That Aus and Khazraj, the Himyaritic tribes which emigrated to Al-Hijaz, mixed with the Amalikah, the Jurham, and the Katirah, also races from Al-Yaman, and with the Hebrews, a northern branch of the Semitic family, we have ample historical evidence. And they who know how immutable10 is race in the Desert, will scarcely doubt that the Badawi of Al-Hijaz preserves in purity the blood transmitted to him by his ancestors.6
I will not apologise for entering into details concerning the personale of the Badawin7; a precise physical portrait of race, it has justly been remarked, is the sole deficiency in the pages of Bruce and of Burckhardt.
The temperament of the Hijazi is not unfrequently the pure nervous, as the height of the forehead and the fine texture11 of the hair prove. Sometimes the bilious12, and rarely the sanguine13, elements predominate; the lymphatic I never saw. He has large nervous centres, and well-formed spine14 and brain, a conformation favourable15 to longevity16. Bartema well describes his colour as a “dark leonine”; it varies from the deepest Spanish to a chocolate hue17, and its varieties are attributed by the people to blood. The skin is hard, dry, and soon wrinkled by exposure. The xanthous complexion18 is rare, though not unknown in cities, but the leucous does not exist. The crinal hair is frequently lightened by bleaching19, and the pilar is browner than the crinal. The voice is strong and clear, but rather barytone than bass20: in anger it becomes a shrill21 chattering22 like the cry of a wild animal. The look of a chief is dignified23 and grave even to pensiveness24; the “respectable man’s” is self-sufficient and fierce; the lower orders look ferocious25, stupid, and inquisitive26. Yet there is not much difference in this point between men of the same tribe, who have similar pursuits which engender27 similar passions. Expression is the grand diversifier of appearance among civilised people: in the Desert it knows few varieties.
The Badawi cranium is small, ooidal, long, high, narrow, and remarkable28 in the occiput for the development of Gall’s second propensity29: the crown slopes upwards30 towards the region of firmness, which is elevated; whilst the sides are flat to a fault. The hair, exposed to sun, wind, and rain, acquires a coarseness not natural to it8: worn in Kurun9 — ragged31 elf-locks — hanging down to the breast, or shaved in the form Shushah, a skull-cap of hair, nothing can be wilder than its appearance. The face is made to be a long oval, but want of flesh detracts from its regularity32. The forehead is high, broad, and retreating: the upper portion is moderately developed; but nothing can be finer than the lower brow, and the frontal sinuses stand out, indicating bodily strength and activity of character. The temporal fossa are deep, the bones are salient, and the elevated zygomata combined with the “lantern-jaw,” often give a “death’s-head” appearance to the face. The eyebrows34 are long, bushy, and crooked35, broken, as it were, at the angle where “Order” is supposed to be, and bent36 in sign of thoughtfulness. Most popular writers, following De Page,10 describe the Arab eye as large, ardent38, and black. The Badawi of the Hijaz, and indeed the race generally, has a small eye, round, restless, deep-set, and fiery39, denoting keen inspection40 with an ardent temperament and an impassioned character. Its colour is dark brown or green-brown, and the pupil is often speckled. The habit of pursing up the skin below the orbits, and half closing the lids to exclude glare, plants the outer angles with premature41 crows’-feet. Another peculiarity42 is the sudden way in which the eye opens, especially under excitement. This, combined with its fixity of glance, forms an expression now of lively fierceness, then of exceeding sternness; whilst the narrow space between the orbits impresses the countenance45 in repose46 with an intelligence not destitute47 of cunning. As a general rule, however, the expression of the Badawi face is rather dignity than that cunning for which the Semitic race is celebrated48, and there are lines about the mouth in variance49 with the stern or the fierce look of the brow. The ears are like those of Arab horses, small, well-cut, “castey,” and elaborate, with many elevations50 and depressions. The nose is pronounced, generally aquiline51, but sometimes straight like those Greek statues which have been treated as prodigious52 exaggerations of the facial angle. For the most part, it is a well-made feature with delicate nostrils53, below which the septum appears: in anger they swell54 and open like a blood mare55’s. I have, however, seen, in not a few instances, pert and offensive “pugs.” Deep furrows56 descend57 from the wings of the nose, showing an uncertain temper, now too grave, then too gay. The mouth is irregular. The lips are either bordes, denoting rudeness and want of taste, or they form a mere58 line. In the latter case there is an appearance of undue59 development in the upper portion of the countenance, especially when the jaws60 are ascetically61 thin, and the chin weakly retreats. The latter feature, however, is generally well and strongly made. The teeth, as usual among Orientals, are white, even, short and broad — indications of strength. Some tribes trim their mustaches according to the “Sunnat”; the Shafe’i often shave them, and many allow them to hang Persian-like over the lips. The beard is represented by two tangled62 tufts upon the chin; where whisker should be, the place is either bare or is thinly covered with straggling pile.
The Badawin of Al-Hijaz are short men, about the height of the Indians near Bombay, but weighing on an average a stone more. As usual in this stage of society, stature63 varies little; you rarely see a giant, and scarcely ever a dwarf64. Deformity is checked by the Spartan65 restraint upon population, and no weakly infant can live through a Badawi life. The figure, though spare, is square and well knit; fulness of limb seldom appears but about spring, when milk abounds67: I have seen two or three muscular figures, but never a fat man. The neck is sinewy68, the chest broad, the flank thin, and the stomach in-drawn69; the legs, though fleshless, are well made, especially when the knee and ankle are not bowed by too early riding. The shins do not bend cucumber-like to the front as in the African race.11 The arms are thin, with muscles like whipcords, and the hands and feet are, in point of size and delicacy70, a link between Europe and India. As in the Celt, the Arab thumb is remarkably71 long, extending almost to the first joint72 of the index,12 which, with its easy rotation73, makes it a perfect prehensile74 instrument: the palm also is fleshless, small-boned, and elastic75. With his small active figure, it is not strange that the wildest Badawi gait should be pleasing; he neither unfits himself for walking, nor distorts his ankles by turning out his toes according to the farcical rule of fashion, and his shoulders are not dressed like a drill-sergeant’s, to throw all the weight of the body upon the heels. Yet there is no slouch in his walk; it is light and springy, and errs76 only in one point, sometimes becoming a strut77.
Such is the Badawi, and such he has been for ages. The national type has been preserved by systematic78 intermarriage. The wild men do not refuse their daughters to a stranger, but the son-in-law would be forced to settle among them, and this life, which has its charms for a while, ends in becoming wearisome. Here no evil results are anticipated from the union of first cousins, and the experience of ages and of a mighty79 nation may be trusted. Every Badawi has a right to marry his father’s brother’s daughter before she is given to a stranger; hence “cousin” (Bint Amm) in polite phrase signifies a “wife.13” Our physiologists14 adduce the Sangre Azul of Spain and the case of the lower animals to prove that degeneracy inevitably80 follows “breeding-in.15”
Either they have theorised from insufficient81 facts, or civilisation82 and artificial living exercise some peculiar43 influence, or Arabia is a solitary83 exception to a general rule. The fact which I have mentioned is patent to every Eastern traveller.
After this long description, the reader will perceive with pleasure that we are approaching an interesting theme, the first question of mankind to the wanderer —“What are the women like?” Truth compels me to state that the women of the Hijazi Badawin are by no means comely84. Although the Benu Amur boast of some pretty girls, yet they are far inferior to the high-bosomed beauties of Nijd. And I warn all men that if they run to Al-Hijaz in search of the charming face which appears in my sketch86-book as “a Badawi girl,” they will be bitterly disappointed: the dress was Arab, but it was worn by a fairy of the West. The Hijazi woman’s eyes are fierce, her features harsh, and her face haggard; like all people of the South, she soon fades, and in old age her appearance is truly witch-like. Withered87 crones abound66 in the camps, where old men are seldom seen. The sword and the sun are fatal to
“A green old age, unconscious of decay.”
The manners of the Badawin are free and simple: “vulgarity” and affectation, awkwardness and embarrassment88, are weeds of civilised growth, unknown to the People of the Desert.16 Yet their manners are sometimes dashed with a strange ceremoniousness. When two frends meet, they either embrace or both extend the right hands, clapping palm to palm; their foreheads are either pressed together, or their heads are moved from side to side, whilst for minutes together mutual89 inquiries90 are made and answered. It is a breach91 of decorum, even when eating, to turn the back upon a person, and if a Badawi does it, he intends an insult. When a man prepares coffee, he drinks the first cup: the Sharbat Kajari of the Persians, and the Sulaymani of Egypt,17 render this precaution necessary. As a friend approaches the camp — it is not done to strangers for fear of startling them — those who catch sight of him shout out his name, and gallop92 up saluting93 with lances or firing matchlocks in the air. This is the well-known La’ab al-Barut, or gunpowder94 play. Badawin are generally polite in language, but in anger temper is soon shown, and, although life be in peril95, the foulest96 epithets98 — dog, drunkard, liar44, and infidel — are discharged like pistol-shots by both disputants.
The best character of the Badawi is a truly noble compound of determination, gentleness, and generosity99. Usually they are a mixture of worldly cunning and great simplicity100, sensitive to touchiness101, good-tempered souls, solemn and dignified withal, fond of a jest, yet of a grave turn of mind, easily managed by a laugh and a soft word, and placable after passion, though madly revengeful after injury. It has been sarcastically103 said of the Benu-Harb that there is not a man
“Que s’il ne violoit, voloit, tuoit, bruloit
Ne fut assez bonne personne.”
The reader will inquire, like the critics of a certain modern humourist, how the fabric104 of society can be supported by such material. In the first place, it is a kind of societe leonine, in which the fiercest, the strongest, and the craftiest105 obtains complete mastery over his fellows, and this gives a keystone to the arch. Secondly106, there is the terrible blood-feud107, which even the most reckless fear for their posterity108. And, thirdly, though the revealed law of the Koran, being insufficient for the Desert, is openly disregarded, the immemorial customs of the Kazi al-Arab (the Judge of the Arabs)18 form a system stringent109 in the extreme.
The valour of the Badawi is fitful and uncertain. Man is by nature an animal of prey110, educated by the complicated relations of society, but readily relapsing into his old habits. Ravenous111 and sanguinary propensities112 grow apace in the Desert, but for the same reason the recklessness of civilisation is unknown there. Savages113 and semi-barbarians115 are always cautious, because they have nothing valuable but their lives and limbs. The civilised man, on the contrary, has a hundred wants or hopes or aims, without which existence has for him no charms. Arab ideas of bravery do not prepossess us. Their romances, full of foolhardy feats118 and impossible exploits, might charm for a time, but would not become the standard works of a really fighting people.19 Nor would a truly valorous race admire the cautious freebooters who safely fire down upon Caravans120 from their eyries. Arab wars, too, are a succession of skirmishes, in which five hundred men will retreat after losing a dozen of their number. In this partisan-fighting the first charge secures a victory, and the vanquished121 fly till covered by the shades of night. Then come cries and taunts122 of women, deep oaths, wild poetry, excitement, and reprisals123, which will probably end in the flight of the former victor. When peace is to be made, both parties count up their dead, and the usual blood-money is paid for excess on either side. Generally, however, the feud endures till, all becoming weary of it, some great man, as the Sharif of Meccah, is called upon to settle the terms of a treaty, which is nothing but an armistice124. After a few months’ peace, a glance or a word will draw blood, for these hates are old growths, and new dissensions easily shoot up from them.
But, contemptible125 though their battles be, the Badawin are not cowards. The habit of danger in raids and blood-feuds127, the continual uncertainty128 of existence, the desert, the chase, the hard life and exposure to the air, blunting the nervous system; the presence and the practice of weapons, horsemanship, sharpshooting, and martial129 exercises, habituate them to look death in the face like men, and powerful motives130 will make them heroes. The English, it is said, fight willingly for liberty, our neighbours for glory; the Spaniard fights, or rather fought, for religion and the Pundonor; and the Irishman fights for the fun of fighting. Gain and revenge draw the Arab’s sword; yet then he uses it fitfully enough, without the gay gallantry of the French or the persistent131 stay of the Anglo-Saxon. To become desperate he must have the all-powerful stimulants132 of honour and of fanaticism133. Frenzied134 by the insults of his women, or by the fear of being branded as a coward, he is capable of any mad deed.20 And the obstinacy135 produced by strong religious impressions gives a steadfastness136 to his spirit unknown to mere enthusiasm. The history of the Badawi tells this plainly. Some unobserving travellers, indeed, have mistaken his exceeding cautiousness for stark137 cowardice138. The incongruity139 is easily read by one who understands the principles of Badawi warfare140; with them, as amongst the Red Indians, one death dims a victory. And though reckless when their passions are thoroughly141 aroused, though heedless of danger when the voice of honour calls them, the Badawin will not sacrifice themselves for light motives. Besides, they have, as has been said, another and a potent142 incentive143 to cautiousness. Whenever peace is concluded, they must pay for victory.
There are two things which tend to soften144 the ferocity of Badawi life. These are, in the first place, intercourse145 with citizens, who frequently visit and entrust146 their children to the people of the Black tents; and, secondly, the social position of the women.
The Rev102. Charles Robertson, author of a certain “Lecture on Poetry, addressed to Working Men,” asserts that Passion became Love under the influence of Christianity, and that the idea of a Virgin147 Mother spread over the sex a sanctity unknown to the poetry or to the philosophy of Greece and Rome.21 Passing over the objections of deified Eros and Immortal148 Psyche149, and of the Virgin Mother — symbol of moral purity — being common to every old and material faith,22 I believe that all the noble tribes of savages display the principle. Thus we might expect to find, wherever the fancy, the imagination, and the ideality are strong, some traces of a sentiment innate150 in the human organisation151. It exists, says Mr. Catlin, amongst the North American Indians, and even the Gallas and the Somal of Africa are not wholly destitute of it. But when the barbarian116 becomes a semi-barbarian, as are the most polished Orientals, or as were the classical authors of Greece and Rome, then women fall from their proper place in society, become mere articles of luxury, and sink into the lowest moral condition. In the next stage, “civilisation,” they rise again to be “highly accomplished,” and not a little frivolous152.
Miss Martineau, when travelling through Egypt, once visited a harim, and there found, among many things, especially in ignorance of books and of book-making, materials for a heart-broken wail153 over the degradation154 of her sex. The learned lady indulges, too, in sundry155 strong and unsavoury comparisons between the harim and certain haunts of vice156 in Europe. On the other hand, male travellers generally speak lovingly of the harim. Sonnini, no admirer of Egypt, expatiates157 on “the generous virtues158, the examples of magnanimity and affectionate attachment159, the sentiments ardent, yet gentle, forming a delightful160 unison161 with personal charms in the harims of the Mamluks.”
As usual, the truth lies somewhere between the two extremes. Human nature, all the world over, differs but in degree. Everywhere women may be “capricious, coy, and hard to please” in common conjunctures: in the hour of need they will display devoted162 heroism163. Any chronicler of the Afghan war will bear witness that warm hearts, noble sentiments, and an overflowing164 kindness to the poor, the weak, and the unhappy are found even in a harim. Europe now knows that the Moslem165 husband provides separate apartments and a distinct establishment for each of his wives, unless, as sometimes happens, one be an old woman and the other a child. And, confessing that envy, hatred166, and malice167 often flourish in polygamy, the Moslem asks, Is monogamy open to no objections? As far as my limited observations go, polyandry is the only state of society in which jealousy168 and quarrels about the sex are the exception and not the rule of life.
In quality of doctor I have seen a little and heard much of the harim. It often resembles a European home composed of a man, his wife, and his mother. And I have seen in the West many a “happy fireside” fitter to make Miss Martineau’s heart ache than any harim in Grand Cairo.
Were it not evident that the spiritualising of sexuality by sentiment, of propensity by imagination, is universal among the highest orders of mankind — c’est l’etoffe de la nature que l’imagination a brodee, says Voltaire — I should attribute the origin of “love” to the influence of the Arabs’ poetry and chivalry169 upon European ideas rather than to mediaeval Christianity. Certain “Fathers of the Church,” it must be remembered, did not believe that women have souls. The Moslems never went so far.
In nomad170 life, tribes often meet for a time, live together whilst pasturage lasts, and then separate perhaps for a generation. Under such circumstances, youths who hold with the Italian that
“Perduto e tutto il tempo33
Che in amor non si spende,”
will lose heart to maidens171, whom possibly, by the laws of the clan172, they may not marry,23 and the light o’ love will fly her home. The fugitives173 must brave every danger, for revenge, at all times the Badawi’s idol174, now becomes the lodestar of his existence. But the Arab lover will dare all consequences. “Men have died and the worms have eaten them, but not for love,” may be true in the West: it is false in the East. This is attested175 in every tale where love, and not ambition, is the groundwork of the narrative176.24 And nothing can be more tender, more pathetic than the use made of these separations and long absences by the old Arab poets. Whoever peruses177 the Suspended Poem of Labid, will find thoughts at once so plaintive178 and so noble, that even Dr. Carlyle’s learned verse cannot wholly deface their charm.
The warrior179-bard returns from afar. He looks upon the traces of hearth180 and home still furrowing181 the Desert ground. In bitterness of spirit he checks himself from calling aloud upon his lovers and his friends. He melts at the remembrance of their departure, and long indulges in the absorbing theme. Then he strengthens himself by the thought of Nawara’s inconstancy, how she left him and never thought of him again. He impatiently dwells upon the charms of the places which detain her, advocates flight from the changing lover and the false friend, and, in the exultation182 with which he feels his swift dromedary start under him upon her rapid course, he seems to seek and finds some consolation183 for women’s perfidy184 and forgetfulness. Yet he cannot abandon Nawara’s name or memory. Again he dwells with yearning185 upon scenes of past felicity, and he boasts of his prowess — a fresh reproach to her — of his gentle birth, and of his hospitality. He ends with an encomium186 upon his clan, to which he attributes, as a noble Arab should, all the virtues of man. This is Goldsmith’s deserted187 village in Al-Hijaz. But the Arab, with equal simplicity and pathos188, has a fire, a force of language, and a depth of feeling, which the Irishman, admirable as his verse is, could never rival.
As the author of the Peninsular War well remarks, women in troubled times, throwing off their accustomed feebleness and frivolity189, become helpmates meet for man. The same is true of pastoral life. 25 Here, between the extremes of fierceness and sensibility, the weaker sex, remedying its great want, power, rises itself by courage, physical as well as moral. In the early days of Al-Islam, if history be credible190, Arabia had a race of heroines. Within the last century, Ghaliyah, the wife of a Wahhabi chief, opposed Mohammed Ali himself in many a bloody191 field. A few years ago, when Ibn Asm, popularly called Ibn Rumi, chief of the Zubayd clan about Rabigh, was treacherously192 slain193 by the Turkish general, Kurdi Osman, his sister, a fair young girl, determined194 to revenge him. She fixed195 upon the “Arafat-day” of pilgrimage for the accomplishment196 of her designs, disguised herself in male attire197, drew her kerchief in the form Lisam over the lower part of her face, and with lighted match awaited her enemy. The Turk, however, was not present, and the girl was arrested to win for herself a local reputation equal to the “maid” of Salamanca. Thus it is that the Arab has learned to swear that great oath “by the honour of my women.”
The Badawin are not without a certain Platonic198 affection, which they call Hawa (or Ishk) uzri — pardonable love.26 They draw the fine line between amant and amoureux: this is derided200 by the tow[n]speople, little suspecting how much such a custom says in favour of the wild men. Arabs, like other Orientals, hold that, in such matters, man is saved, not by faith, but by want of faith. They have also a saying not unlike ours —
“She partly is to blame who has been tried;
He comes too near who comes to be denied.”
The evil of this system is that they, like certain Southerns — pensano sempre al male — always suspect, which may be worldly-wise, and also always show their suspicions, which is assuredly foolish. For thus they demoralise their women, who might be kept in the way of right by self-respect and by a sense of duty.
From ancient periods of the Arab’s history we find him practising knight-errantry, the wildest form of chivalry.27 “The Songs of Antar,” says the author of the “Crescent and the Cross,” “show little of the true chivalric201 spirit.” What thinks the reader of sentiments like these28? “This valiant202 man,” remarks Antar (who was “ever interested for the weaker sex,”) “hath defended the honour of women.” We read in another place, “Mercy, my lord, is the noblest quality of the noble.” Again, “it is the most ignominious203 of deeds to take free-born women prisoners.” “Bear not malice, O Shibub,” quoth the hero, “for of malice good never came.” Is there no true greatness in this sentiment? —“Birth is the boast of the faineant; noble is the youth who beareth every ill, who clotheth himself in mail during the noontide heat, and who wandereth through the outer darkness of night.” And why does the “knight of knights” love Ibla? Because “she is blooming as the sun at dawn, with hair black as the midnight shades, with Paradise in her eye, her bosom85 an enchantment204, and a form waving like the tamarisk when the soft wind blows from the hills of Nijd”? Yes! but his chest expands also with the thoughts of her “faith, purity, and affection,”— it is her moral as well as her material excellence205 that makes her the hero’s “hope, and hearing, and sight.” Briefly206, in Antar I discern
“a love exalted207 high,
By all the glow of chivalry;”
and I lament208 to see so many intelligent travellers misjudging the Arab after a superficial experience of a few debased Syrians or Sinaites. The true children of Antar, my Lord Lindsay, have not “ceased to be gentlemen.”
In the days of ignorance, it was the custom for Badawin, when tormented209 by the tender passion, which seems to have attacked them in the form of “possession,” for long years to sigh and wail and wander, doing the most truculent210 deeds to melt the obdurate211 fair. When Arabia Islamized, the practice changed its element for proselytism.
The Fourth Caliph is fabled212 to have travelled far, redressing213 the injured, punishing the injurer, preaching to the infidel, and especially protecting women — the chief end and aim of knighthood. The Caliph Al-Mu’tasim heard in the assembly of his courtiers that a woman of Sayyid family had been taken prisoner by a “Greek barbarian” of Ammoria. The man on one occasion struck her: when she cried “Help me, O Mu’tasim!” and the clown said derisively215, “Wait till he cometh upon his pied steed!” The chivalrous216 prince arose, sealed up the wine-cup which he held in his hand, took oath to do his knightly217 devoir, and on the morrow started for Ammoria with seventy thousand men, each mounted on a piebald charger. Having taken the place, he entered it, exclaiming, “Labbayki, Labbayki!”—“Here am I at thy call!” He struck off the caitiff’s head, released the lady with his own hands, ordered the cupbearer to bring the sealed bowl, and drank from it, exclaiming, “Now, indeed, wine is good!”
To conclude this part of the subject with another far-famed instance. When Al-Mutanabbi, the poet, prophet, and warrior of Hams (A.H. 354) started together with his son on their last journey, the father proposed to seek a place of safety for the night. “Art thou the Mutanabbi,” exclaimed his slave, “who wrote these lines —
“‘I am known to the night, the wild, and the steed,
To the guest, and the sword, to the paper and reed29’?”
The poet, in reply, lay down to sleep on Tigris’ bank, in a place haunted by thieves, and, disdaining218 flight, lost his life during the hours of darkness.
It is the existence of this chivalry among the “Children of Antar” which makes the society of Badawin (“damned saints,” perchance, and “honourable219 villains,”) so delightful to the traveller who[,] like the late Haji Wali (Dr. Wallin), understands and is understood by them. Nothing more na?ve than his lamentations at finding himself in the “loathsome company of Persians,” or among Arab townspeople, whose “filthy and cowardly minds” he contrasts with the “high and chivalrous spirit of the true Sons of the Desert.” Your guide will protect you with blade and spear, even against his kindred, and he expects you to do the same for him. You may give a man the lie, but you must lose no time in baring your sword. If involved in dispute with overwhelming numbers, you address some elder, Dakhil-ak ya Shaykh! —(I am) thy protected, O Sir — and he will espouse220 your quarrel with greater heat and energy, indeed, than if it were his own.30 But why multiply instances?
The language of love and war and all excitement is poetry, and here, again, the Badawi excels. Travellers complain that the wild men have ceased to sing. This is true if “poet” be limited to a few authors whose existence everywhere depends upon the accidents of patronage222 or political occurrences. A far stronger evidence of poetic223 feeling is afforded by the phraseology of the Arab, and the highly imaginative turn of his commonest expressions. Destitute of the poetic taste, as we define it, he certainly is: as in the Milesian, wit and fancy, vivacity224 and passion, are too strong for reason and judgment225, the reins226 which guide Apollo’s car.31 And although the Badawin no longer boast a Labid or a Maysunah, yet they are passionately227 fond of their ancient bards228.32 A man skilful229 in reading Al-Mutanabbi and the suspended Poems would be received by them with the honours paid by civilisation to the travelling millionaire.33 And their elders have a goodly store of ancient and modern war songs, legends, and love ditties which all enjoy.
I cannot well explain the effect of Arab poetry to one who has not visited the Desert.34 Apart from the pomp of words, and the music of the sound,35 there is a dreaminess of idea and a haze230 thrown over the object, infinitely231 attractive, but indescribable. Description, indeed, would rob the song of indistinctness, its essence. To borrow a simile232 from a sister art; the Arab poet sets before the mental eye, the dim grand outlines of picture — which must be filled up by the reader, guided only by a few glorious touches, powerfully standing233 out, and by the sentiment which the scene is intended to express; — whereas, we Europeans and moderns, by stippling234 and minute touches, produce a miniature on a large scale so objective as to exhaust rather than to arouse reflection. As the poet is a creator, the Arab’s is poetry, the European’s versical description. 36 The language, “like a faithful wife, following the mind and giving birth to its offspring,” and free from that “luggage of particles” which clogs235 our modern tongues, leaves a mysterious vagueness between the relation of word to word, which materially assists the sentiment, not the sense, of the poem. When verbs and nouns have, each one, many different significations, only the radical236 or general idea suggests itself.37 Rich and varied237 synonyms238, illustrating239 the finest shades of meaning, are artfully used; now scattered240 to startle us by distinctness, now to form as it were a star about which dimly seen satellites revolve241. And, to cut short a disquisition which might be prolonged indefinitely, there is in the Semitic dialect a copiousness242 of rhyme which leaves the poet almost unfettered to choose the desired expression.38 Hence it is that a stranger speaking Arabic becomes poetical243 as naturally as he would be witty244 in French and philosophic245 in German. Truly spake Mohammed al-Damiri, “Wisdom hath alighted upon three things — the brain of the Franks, the hands of the Chinese, and the tongues of the Arabs.”
The name of Harami — brigand246 — is still honourable among the Hijazi Badawin. Slain in raid or foray, a man is said to die Ghandur, or a brave. He, on the other hand, who is lucky enough, as we should express it, to die in his bed, is called Fatis (carrion247, the corps248 creve of the Klephts); his weeping mother will exclaim, “O that my son had perished of a cut throat!” and her attendant crones will suggest, with deference249, that such evil came of the will of Allah. It is told of the Lahabah, a sept of the Auf near Rabigh, that a girl will refuse even her cousin unless, in the absence of other opportunities, he plunder250 some article from the Hajj Caravan119 in front of the Pasha’s links. Detected twenty years ago, the delinquent251 would have been impaled252; now he escapes with a rib-roasting. Fear of the blood-feud, and the certainty of a shut road to future travellers, prevent the Turks proceeding253 to extremes. They conceal254 their weakness by pretending that the Sultan hesitates to wage a war of extermination255 with the thieves of the Holy Land.
It is easy to understand this respect for brigands256. Whoso revolts against society requires an iron mind in an iron body, and these mankind instinctively258 admires, however misdirected be their energies. Thus, in all imaginative countries, the brigand is a hero; even the assassin who shoots his victim from behind a hedge appeals to the fancy in Tipperary or on the Abruzzian hills. Romance invests his loneliness with grandeur259; if he have a wife or a friend’s wife, romance becomes doubly romantic, and a tithe260 of the superfluity robbed from the rich and bestowed261 upon the poor will win to Gasparoni the hearts of a people. The true Badawi style of plundering262, with its numerous niceties of honour and gentlemanly manners, gives the robber a consciousness of moral rectitude. “Strip off that coat, O certain person! and that turband,” exclaims the highwayman, “they are wanted by the daughter of my paternal263 uncle (wife).” You will (of course, if necessary) lend ready ear to an order thus politely attributed to the wants of the fair sex. If you will add a few obliging expressions to the bundle, and offer Latro a cup of coffee and a pipe, you will talk half your toilette back to your own person; and if you can quote a little poetry, you will part the best of friends, leaving perhaps only a pair of sandals behind you. But should you hesitate, Latro, lamenting264 the painful necessity, touches up your back with the heel of his spear. If this hint suffice not, he will make things plain by the lance’s point, and when blood shows, the tiger-part of humanity appears. Between Badawin, to be tamely plundered265, especially of the mare,39 is a lasting266 disgrace; a man of family lays down his life rather than yield even to overpowering numbers. This desperation has raised the courage of the Badawin to high repute amongst the settled Arabs, who talk of single braves capable, like the Homeric heroes, of overpowering three hundred men.
I omit general details about the often-described Sar, or Vendetta267. The price of blood is $800 = 200l., or rather that sum imperfectly expressed by live stock. All the Khamsah or A’amam, blood relations of the slayer268, assist to make up the required amount, rating each animal at three or four times its proper value. On such occasions violent scenes arise from the conflict of the Arab’s two pet passions, avarice269 and revenge. The “avenger of blood” longs to cut the foe270’s throat. On the other hand, how let slip an opportunity of enriching himself? His covetousness271 is intense, as are all his passions. He has always a project of buying a new dromedary, or of investing capital in some marvellous colt; the consequence is, that he is insatiable. Still he receives blood-money with a feeling of shame; and if it be offered to an old woman — the most revengeful variety of our species, be it remarked — she will dash it to the ground and clutch her knife, and fiercely swear by Allah that she will not “eat” her son’s blood.
The Badawi considers himself a man only when mounted on horseback, lance in hand, bound for a foray or a fray272, and carolling some such gaiety as —
“A steede! a steede of matchlesse speede!
A sword of metal keene!
All else to noble minds is drosse,
All else on earth is meane.”
Even in his sports he affects those that imitate war. Preserving the instinctive257 qualities which lie dormant273 in civilisation, he is an admirable sportsman. The children, men in miniature, begin with a rude system of gymnastics when they can walk. “My young ones play upon the backs of camels,” was the reply made to me by a Jahayni Badawi when offered some Egyptian plaything. The men pass their time principally in hawking274, shooting, and riding. The “Sakr,40” I am told, is the only falcon275 in general use; they train it to pursue the gazelle, which greyhounds pull down when fatigued276. I have heard much of their excellent marksmanship, but saw only moderate practice with a long matchlock rested and fired at standing objects. Double-barreled guns are rare amongst them.41 Their principal weapons are matchlocks and firelocks, pistols, javelins278, spears, swords, and the dagger280 called Jambiyah; the sling281 and the bow have long been given up. The guns come from Egypt, Syria, and Turkey; for the Badawi cannot make, although he can repair, this arm. He particularly values a good old barrel seven spans long, and would rather keep it than his coat; consequently, a family often boasts of four or five guns, which descend from generation to generation. Their price varies from two to sixty dollars. The Badawin collect nitre in the country, make excellent charcoal282, and import sulphur from Egypt and India; their powder, however, is coarse and weak. For hares and birds they cut up into slugs a bar of lead hammered out to a convenient size, and they cast bullets in moulds. They are fond of ball-practice, firing, as every sensible man does, at short distances, and striving at extreme precision. They are ever backing themselves with wagers283, and will shoot for a sheep, the loser inviting284 his friends to a feast: on festivals they boil the head, and use it as mark and prize. Those who affect excellence are said to fire at a bullet hanging by a thread; curious, however, to relate, the Badawin of Al-Hijaz have but just learned the art, general in Persia and Barbary, of shooting from horseback at speed.
Pistols have been lately introduced into the Hijaz, and are not common amongst the Badawin. The citizens incline to this weapon, as it is derived285 from Constantinople. In the Desert a tolerable pair with flint locks may be worth thirty dollars, ten times their price in England.
The spears42 called Kanat, or reeds, are made of male bamboos imported from India. They are at least twelve feet long, iron shod, with a tapering286 point, beneath which are one or two tufts of black ostrich287 feathers.43 Besides the Mirzak, or javelin279, they have a spear called Shalfah, a bamboo or a palm stick garnished288 with a head about the breadth of a man’s hand.
No good swords are fabricated in Al-Hijaz. The Khalawiyah and other Desert clans289 have made some poor attempts at blades. They are brought from Persia, India, and Egypt; but I never saw anything of value.
The Darakah, or shield, also comes from India. It is the common Cutch article, supposed to be made of rhinoceros290 hide, and displaying as much brass291 knob and gold wash as possible. The Badawin still use in the remoter parts Diraa, or coats of mail, worn by horsemen over buff jackets.
The dagger is made in Al-Yaman and other places: it has a vast variety of shapes, each of which, as usual, has its proper names. Generally they are but little curved (whereas the Gadaymi of Al-Yaman and Hazramaut is almost a semicircle), with tapering blade, wooden handle, and scabbard of the same material overlaid with brass. At the point of the scabbard is a round knob, and the weapon is so long, that a man when walking cannot swing his right arm. In narrow places he must enter sideways. But it is the mode always to appear in dagger, and the weapon, like the French soldier’s coupe-choux, is really useful for such bloodless purposes as cutting wood and gathering292 grass. In price they vary from one to thirty dollars.
The Badawin boast greatly of sword-play; but it is apparently293 confined to delivering a tremendous slash294, and to jumping away from the return-cut instead of parrying either with sword or shield. The citizens have learned the Turkish scimitar-play, which, in grotesqueness295 and general absurdity296, rivals the East Indian school. None of these Orientals knows the use of the point which characterises the highest school of swordsmanship.
The Hijazi Badawin have no game of chance, and dare not, I am told, ferment297 the juice of the Daum palm, as proximity298 to Aden has taught the wild men of Al-Yaman.44 Their music is in a rude state. The principal instrument is the Tabl, or kettle-drum, which is of two kinds: one, the smaller, used at festivals; the other, a large copper299 “tom-tom,” for martial purposes, covered with leather, and played upon, pulpit-like, with fist, and not with stick. Besides which, they have the one-stringed Rubabah, or guitar, that “monotonous but charming instrument of the Desert.” In another place I have described their dancing, which is an ignoble300 spectacle.
The Badawin of Al-Hijaz have all the knowledge necessary for procuring301 and protecting the riches of savage114 life. They are perfect in the breeding, the training, and the selling of cattle. They know sufficient of astronomy to guide themselves by night, and are acquainted with the names of the principal stars. Their local memory is wonderful. And such is their instinct in the art of asar, or tracking, that it is popularly said of the Zubayd clan, which lives between Meccah and Al-Madinah, a man will lose a she-camel and know her four-year-old colt by its foot. Always engaged in rough exercises and perilous302 journeys, they have learned a kind of farriery and a simple system of surgery. In cases of fracture they bind303 on splints with cloth bands, and the patient drinks camel’s milk and clarified butter till he is cured. Cuts are carefully washed, sprinkled with meal gunpowder, and sewn up. They dress gunshot wounds with raw camel’s flesh, and rely entirely304 upon nature and diet. When bitten by snakes or stung by scorpions305, they scarify the wound with a razor, recite a charm, and apply to it a dressing214 of garlic.45 The wealthy have Fiss or ring-stones, brought from India, and used with a formula of prayer to extract venom306. Some few possess the Tariyak (Theriack) of Al-Irak — the great counter-poison, internal as well as external, of the East. The poorer classes all wear the Za’al or Hibas of Al-Yaman; two yarns308 of black sheep’s wool tied round the leg, under the knee and above the ankle. When bitten, the sufferer tightens309 these cords above the injured part, which he immediately scarifies; thus they act as tourniquets310. These ligatures also cure cramps311 — and there is no other remedy. The Badawi knowledge of medicine is unusually limited in this part of Arabia, where even simples are not required by a people who rise with dawn, eat little, always breathe Desert air, and “at night make the camels their curfew.” The great tonic199 is clarified butter, and the Kay, or actual cautery, is used even for rheumatism312. This counter-irritant, together with a curious and artful phlebotomy, blood being taken, as by the Italians, from the toes, the fingers, and other parts of the body, are the Arab panaceas313. They treat scald-head with grease and sulphur. Ulcers314, which here abound, without, however, assuming the fearful type of the “Helcoma Yemenense,” are cauterised and stimulated315 by verdigris316. The evil of which Fracastorius sang is combated by sudorifics, by unguents of oil and sulphur, and especially by the sand-bath. The patient, buried up to the neck, remains317 in the sun fasting all day; in the evening he is allowed a little food. This rude course of “packing” lasts for about a month. It suits some constitutions; but others, especially Europeans, have tried the sand-bath and died of fever. Mules’ teeth, roasted and imperfectly pounded, remove cataract318. Teeth are extracted by the farrier’s pincers, and the worm which throughout the East is supposed to produce toothache, falls by fumigation319. And, finally, after great fatigue277, or when suffering from cold, the body is copiously320 greased with clarified butter and exposed to a blazing fire.
Mohammed and his followers321 conquered only the more civilised Badawin; and there is even to this day little or no religion amongst the wild people, except those on the coast or in the vicinity of cities. The faith of the Badawi comes from Al-Islam, whose hold is weak. But his customs and institutions, the growth of his climate, his nature, and his wants, are still those of his ancestors, cherished ere Meccah had sent forth322 a Prophet, and likely to survive the day when every vestige323 of the Ka’abah shall have disappeared. Of this nature are the Hijazi’s pagan oaths, his heathenish names (few being Moslem except “Mohammed”), his ordeal324 of licking red-hot iron, his Salkh, or scarification — proof of manliness325 — his blood revenge, and his eating carrion (i.e., the body of an animal killed without the usual formula), and his lending his wives to strangers. All these I hold to be remnants of some old creed326; nor should I despair of finding among the Badawin bordering upon the Great Desert some lingering system of idolatry.
The Badawin of Al-Hijaz call themselves Shafe’i but what is put into the mouths of their brethren in the West applies equally well here. “We pray not, because we must drink the water of ablution; we give no alms, because we ask them; we fast not the Ramazan month, because we starve throughout the year; and we do no pilgrimage, because the world is the House of Allah.” Their blunders in religious matters supply the citizens with many droll327 stories. And it is to be observed that they do not, like the Greek pirates or the Italian bandits, preserve a religious element in their plunderings; they make no vows328, and they carefully avoid offerings.
The ceremonies of Badawi life are few and simple — circumcisions, marriages, and funerals. Of the former rite37 there are two forms, Taharah, as usual in Al-Islam, and Salkh, an Arab invention, derived from the times of Paganism.46 During Wahhabi rule it was forbidden under pain of death, but now the people have returned to it. The usual age for Taharah is between five and six; among some classes, however, it is performed ten years later. On such occasions feastings and merrymakings take place, as at our christenings.
Women being a marketable commodity in barbarism as in civilisation, the youth in Al-Hijaz is not married till his father can afford to buy him a bride. There is little pomp or ceremony save firing of guns, dancing, singing, and eating mutton. The “settlement” is usually about thirty sound Spanish dollars,47 half paid down, and the other owed by the bridegroom to the father, the brothers, or the kindred of his spouse221. Some tribes will take animals in lieu of ready money. A man of wrath329 not contented330 with his bride, puts her away at once. If peaceably inclined, by a short delay he avoids scandal. Divorces are very frequent among Badawin, and if the settlement money be duly paid, no evil comes of them.48
The funerals of the wild men resemble those of the citizens, only they are more simple, the dead being buried where they die. The corpse331, after ablution, is shrouded332 in any rags procurable333; and, women and hired weepers not being permitted to attend, it is carried to the grave by men only. A hole is dug, according to Moslem custom; dry wood, which everywhere abounds, is disposed to cover the corpse, and an oval of stones surrounding a mound334 of earth keeps out jackals and denotes the spot. These Badawin have not, like the wild Sindis and Baluchis, favourite cemeteries335, to which they transport their dead from afar.
The traveller will find no difficulty in living amongst the Hijazi Badawin. “Trust to their honour, and you are safe,” as was said of the Crow Indians; “to their honesty and they will steal the hair off your head.” But the wanderer must adopt the wild man’s motto, omnia mea mecum porto; he must have good nerves, be capable of fatigue and hardship, possess some knowledge of drugs, shoot and ride well, speak Arabic and Turkish, know the customs by reading, and avoid offending against local prejudices, by causing himself, for instance, to be called Taggaa. The payment of a small sum secures to him a Rafik,49 and this “friend,” after once engaging in the task, will be faithful. “We have eaten salt together” (Nahnu Malihin) is still a bond of friendship: there are, however, some tribes who require to renew the bond every twenty-four hours, as otherwise, to use their own phrase, “the salt is not in their stomachs.” Caution must be exercised in choosing a companion who has not too many blood feuds. There is no objection to carrying a copper watch and a pocket compass, and a Koran could be fitted with secret pockets for notes and pencil. Strangers should especially avoid handsome weapons; these tempt126 the Badawin’s cupidity336 more than gold. The other extreme, defencelessness, is equally objectionable. It is needless to say that the traveller must never be seen writing anything but charms, and must on no account sketch in public. He should be careful in questioning, and rather lead up to information than ask directly. It offends some Badawin, besides denoting ignorance and curiosity, to be asked their names or those of their clans: a man may be living incognito337, and the tribes distinguish themselves when they desire to do so by dress, personal appearance, voice, dialect, and accentuation, points of difference plain to the initiated338. A few dollars suffice for the road, and if you would be “respectable,” a taste which I will not deprecate, some such presents as razors and Tarbushes are required for the chiefs.
The government of the Arabs may be called almost an autonomy. The tribes never obey their Shaykhs, unless for personal considerations, and, as in a civilised army, there generally is some sharp-witted and brazen-faced individual whose voice is louder than the general’s. In their leonine society the sword is the greater administrator339 of law.
Relations between the Badawi tribes of Al-Hijaz are of a threefold character: they are either Ashab, Kiman, or Akhwan.
Ashab, or “comrades,” are those who are bound by oath to an alliance offensive and defensive340: they intermarry, and are therefore closely connected.
Kiman,50 or foes341, are tribes between whom a blood feud, the cause and the effect of deadly enmity, exists.
Akhawat, or “brotherhood,” denotes the tie between the stranger and the Badawi, who asserts an immemorial and inalienable right to the soil upon which his forefathers fed their flocks. Trespass342 by a neighbour instantly causes war. Territorial343 increase is rarely attempted, for if of a whole clan but a single boy escape he will one day assert his claim to the land, and be assisted by all the Ashab, or allies of the slain. By paying to man, woman, or child, a small sum, varying, according to your means, from a few pence worth of trinkets to a couple of dollars, you share bread and salt with the tribe, you and your horse become Dakhil (protected), and every one must afford you brother-help. If traveller or trader attempt to pass through the land without paying Al-Akhawah or Al-Rifkah, as it is termed, he must expect to be plundered, and, resisting, to be slain: it is no dishonour344 to pay it, and he clearly is in the wrong who refuses to conform to custom. The Rafik, under different names, exists throughout this part of the world; at Sinai he was called a Ghafir, a Rabia in Eastern Arabia, amongst the Somal an Abban, and by the Gallas a Mogasa. I have called the tax “black-mail”; it deserves a better name, being clearly the rudest form of those transit-dues and octrois which are in nowise improved by “progress.” The Ahl Bayt,51 or dwellers345 in the Black Tents, levy346 the tax from the Ahl Hayt, or the People of Walls; that is to say, townsmen and villagers who have forfeited347 right to be held Badawin. It is demanded from bastard348 Arabs, and from tribes who, like the Hutaym and the Khalawiyah, have been born basely or have become “nidering.” And these people are obliged to pay it at home as well as abroad. Then it becomes a sign of disgrace, and the pure clans, like the Benu Harb, will not give their damsels in marriage to “brothers.”
Besides this Akhawat-tax and the pensions by the Porte to chiefs of clans, the wealth of the Badawi consists in his flocks and herds349, his mare, and his weapons. Some clans are rich in horses; others are celebrated for camels; and not a few for sheep, asses307, or greyhounds. The Ahamidah tribe, as has been mentioned, possesses few animals; it subsists350 by plunder and by presents from pilgrims. The principal wants of the country are sulphur, lead, cloths of all kinds, sugar, spices, coffee, corn, and rice. Arms are valued by the men, and it is advisable to carry a stock of Birmingham jewellery for the purpose of conciliating womankind. In exchange the Badawin give sheep,52 cattle, clarified butter, milk, wool, and hides, which they use for water-bags, as the Egyptians and other Easterns do potteries351. But as there is now a fair store of dollars in the country, it is rarely necessary to barter352.
The Arab’s dress marks his simplicity; it gives him a nationality, as, according to John Evelyn, “prodigious breeches” did to the Swiss. It is remarkably picturesque353, and with sorrow we see it now confined to the wildest Badawin and a few Sharifs. To the practised eye, a Hijazi in Tarbush and Caftan is ridiculous as a Basque or a Catalonian girl in a cachemire and a little chip. The necessary dress of a man is his Saub (Tobe), a blue calico shirt, reaching from neck to ankles, tight or loose-sleeved, opening at the chest in front, and rather narrow below; so that the wearer, when running, must either hold it up or tuck it into his belt. The latter article, called Hakw, is a plaited leathern thong354, twisted round the waist very tightly, so as to support the back. The trousers and the Futah, or loin-cloth of cities, are looked upon as signs of effeminacy. In cold weather the chiefs wear over the shirt an Aba, or cloak. These garments are made in Nijd and the Eastern districts; they are of four colours, white, black, red, and brown-striped. The best are of camels’ hair, and may cost fifteen dollars; the worst, of sheep’s wool, are worth only three; both are cheap, as they last for years. The Mahramah (head-cloth) comes from Syria; which, with Nijd, supplies also the Kufiyah or headkerchief. The Ukal,53 fillets bound over the kerchief, are of many kinds; the Bishr tribe near Meccah make a kind of crown like the gloria round a saint’s head, with bits of wood, in which are set pieces of mother-o’-pearl. Sandals, too, are of every description, from the simple sole of leather tied on with thongs355, to the handsome and elaborate chaussure of Meccah; the price varies from a piastre to a dollar, and the very poor walk barefooted. A leathern bandoleer, called Majdal, passed over the left shoulder, and reaching to the right hip3, supports a line of brass cylinders356 for cartridges357.54 The other cross-belt (Al-Masdar), made of leather ornamented359 with brass rings, hangs down at the left side, and carries a Kharizah, or hide-case for bullets. And finally, the Hizam, or waist-belt, holds the dagger and extra cartridge358 cases. A Badawi never appears in public unarmed.
Women wear, like their masters, dark blue cotton Tobes, but larger and looser. When abroad they cover the head with a Yashmak of black stuff, or a poppy-coloured Burka (nose-gay) of the Egyptian shape. They wear no pantaloons, and they rarely affect slippers360 or sandals. The hair is twisted into Majdul, little pig-tails, and copiously anointed with clarified butter. The rich perfume the skin with rose and cinnamon-scented oils, and adorn361 the hair with Al-Shayh (Absinthium), sweetest herb of the Desert; their ornaments362 are bracelets363, collars, ear and nose-rings of gold, silver, or silver-gilt. The poorer classes have strings364 of silver coins hung round the neck.
The true Badawi is an abstemious365 man, capable of living for six months on ten ounces of food per diem; the milk of a single camel, and a handful of dates, dry or fried in clarified butter, suffice for his wants. He despises the obese366 and all who require regular and plentiful367 meals, sleeps on a mat, and knows neither luxury nor comfort, freezing during one quarter and frying for three quarters of the year. But though he can endure hunger, like all savages, he will gorge368 when an opportunity offers. I never saw the man who could refrain from water upon the line of march; and in this point they contrast disadvantageously with the hardy117 Wahhabis of the East, and the rugged369 mountaineers of Jabal Shammar. They are still “acridophagi,” and even the citizens far prefer a dish of locusts370 to the Fasikh, which act as anchovies372, sardines373, and herrings in Egypt. They light a fire at night, and as the insects fall dead they quote this couplet to justify374 their being eaten —
“We are allowed two carrions and two bloods,
The fish and locust371, the liver and the spleen.55”
Where they have no crops to lose, the people are thankful for a fall of locusts. In Al-Hijaz the flights are uncertain; during the last five years Al-Madinah has seen but few. They are prepared for eating by boiling in salt water and drying four or five days in the sun: a “wet” locust to an Arab is as a snail375 to a Briton. The head is plucked off, the stomach drawn, the wings and the prickly part of the legs are plucked, and the insect is ready for the table. Locusts are never eaten with sweet things, which would be nauseous: the dish is always “hot,” with salt and pepper, or onions fried in clarified butter, when it tastes nearly as well as a plate of stale shrimps376.
The favourite food on the line of march is meat cut into strips and sun-dried. This, with a bag of milk-balls56 and a little coffee, must suffice for journey or campaign. The Badawin know neither fermented377 nor distilled378 liquors, although Ikhs ya’l Khammar! (Fie upon thee, drunkard!) is a popular phrase, preserving the memory of another state of things. Some clans, though not all, smoke tobacco. It is generally the growth of the country called Hijazi or Kazimiyah; a green weed, very strong, with a foul97 smell, and costing about one piastre per pound. The Badawin do not relish379 Persian tobacco, and cannot procure380 Latakia: it is probably the pungency381 of the native growth offending the delicate organs of the Desert-men, that caused nicotiana to be proscribed382 by the Wahhabis, who revived against its origin a senseless and obsolete383 calumny384.
The almost absolute independence of the Arabs, and of that noble race the North American Indians of a former generation, has produced a similarity between them worthy385 of note, because it may warn the anthropologist386 not always to detect in coincidence of custom identity of origin. Both have the same wild chivalry, the same fiery sense of honour, and the same boundless387 hospitality: elopements from tribe to tribe, the blood feud, and the Vendetta are common to the to. Both are grave and cautious in demeanour, and formal in manner — princes in rags or paint. The Arabs plunder pilgrims; the Indians, bands of trappers; both glory in forays, raids, and cattle-lifting; and both rob according to certain rules. Both are alternately brave to desperation, and shy of danger. Both are remarkable for nervous and powerful eloquence388; dry humour, satire389, whimsical tales, frequent tropes; boasts, and ruffling390 style; pithy391 proverbs, extempore songs, and languages wondrous392 in their complexity393. Both, recognising no other occupation but war and the chase, despise artificers and the effeminate people of cities, as the game-cock spurns394 the vulgar roosters of the poultry-yard.57 The chivalry of the Western wolds, like that of the Eastern wilds, salutes395 the visitor by a charge of cavalry396, by discharging guns, and by wheeling around him with shouts and yells. The “brave” stamps a red hand upon his mouth to show that he has drunk the blood of a foe. Of the Utaybah “Harami” it is similarly related, that after mortal combat he tastes the dead man’s gore397.
Of these two chivalrous races of barbarians, the Badawi claims our preference on account of his treatment of women, his superior development of intellect, and the glorious page of history which he has filled.
The tribes of Al-Hijaz are tediously numerous: it will be sufficient to enumerate398 the principal branches of the Badawi tree, without detailing the hundred little offshoots which it has put forth in the course of ages.58
Those ancient clans the Abs and Adnan have almost died out. The latter, it is said, still exists in the neighbourhood of Taif; and the Abs, I am informed, are to be found near Kusayr (Cosseir), on the African coast, but not in Al-Hijaz. Of the Aus, Khazraj, and Nazir details have been given in a previous chapter. The Benu Harb is now the ruling clan in the Holy Land. It is divided by genealogists into two great bodies, first, the Benu Salim, and, secondly, the Masruh,59 or “roaming tribes.”
The Benu Salim, again, have eight subdivisions, viz.:—
Ahamidah (Ahmadi)60: this clan owns for chief, Shaykh Sa’ad of the mountains. It is said to contain about 3500 men. Its principal sub-clan is the Hadari.
Hawazim (Hazimi), the rival tribe, 3000 in number: it is again divided into Muzayni and Zahiri.
Sobh (Sobhi), 3500, habitat near Al-Badr.
Salaymah (Salimi), also called Aulad Salim.
Sa’adin (Sa’adani).
Mahamid (Mahmadi), 8000.
Rahalah (Rihayli), 1000.
Timam (Tamimi).
The Masruh tree splits into two great branches, Benu Auf, and Benu Amur.61 The former is a large clan, extending from Wady Nakia [Arabic] near Nijd, to Rabigh and Al-Madinah. They have few horses, but many dromedaries, camels, and sheep, and are much feared by the people, on account of their warlike and savage character. They separate into ten sub-divisions, viz.:—
Sihliyah (Sihli), about 2000 in number.
Sawaid (Sa’idi), 1000.
Rukhasah (Rakhis).
Kassanin (Kassan): this sub-clan claims origin from the old “Gassan”stock, and is found in considerable numbers at Wady Nakia and other places near Al-Madinah.
Ruba’ah (Rabai).
Khazarah (Khuzayri).
Lahabah (Lahaybi), 1500 in number.
Faradah (Faradi).
Benu Ali (Alawi).
Zubayd (Zubaydi), near Meccah, a numerous clan of fighting thieves.
Also under the Benu Amur — as the word is popularly pronounced — are ten sub-families. They principally inhabit the land about Al-Fara [Arabic] a collection of settlements four marches South of Al-Madinah, number about 10,000 men, and have droves of sheep and camels but few horses.
Marabitah (Murabti).
Hussar (Hasir).
Benu Jabir (Jabiri).
Rabaykah (Rubayki).
Hisnan (Hasuni).
Bizan (Bayzani).
Badarin (Badrani).
Biladiyah (Biladi).
Jaham (the singular and plural399 forms are the same).
Shatarah (Shitayri).62
The great Anizah race now, I was told, inhabits Khaybar, and it must not visit Al-Madinah without a Rafik or protector. Properly speaking there are no outcasts in Al-Hijaz, as in Al-Yaman and the Somali country. But the Hitman (pl. of Hutaym or Hitaym), inhabiting the sea-board about Yambu’, are taxed by other Badawin as low and vile400 of origin. The unchastity of the women is connived401 at by the men, who, however, are brave and celebrated as marksmen: they make, eat, and sell cheese, for which reason that food is despised by the Harb. And the Khalawiyah (pl. of Khalawi) are equally despised; they are generally blacksmiths, have a fine breed of greyhounds, and give asses as a dowry, which secures for them the derision of their fellows.
Mr. C. Cole, H. B. M.’s Vice-Consul at Jeddah, was kind enough to collect for me notices of the different tribes in Central and Southern Hijaz. His informants divide the great clan Juhaynah living about Yambu’ and Yambu’ al-Nakhl into five branches, viz.:—
Benu Ibrahimah, in number about 5000.
Ishran, 700.
Benu Malik, 6000.
Arwah, 5000.
Kaunah, 3000.
Thus giving a total of 19,700 men capable of carrying arms.63
The same gentleman, whose labours in Eastern Arabia during the coast survey of the “Palinurus” are well known to the Indian world, gives the following names of the tribes under allegiance to the Sharif of Meccah.
Sakif (Thakif) al-Yaman, 2000.
Sakif al-Sham,64 1000.
Benu Malik, 6000.
Nasirah, 3000.
Benu Sa’ad, 4000.
Huzayh (Hudhayh), 5000.
Bakum (Begoum), 5000.
Adudah, 500.
Bashar, 1000.
Sa’id, 1500.
Zubayd, 4000.
Aydah, 1000.
The following is a list of the Southern Hijazi tribes, kindly402 forwarded to me by the Abbe Hamilton, after his return from a visit to the Sharif at Taif.
Ghamid al-Badawy (“of the nomades”), 30,000.
Ghamid al-Hazar (“the settled”), 40,000.
Zahran, 38,000.
Benu Malik, 30,000.
Nasirah, 15,000.
Asir, 40,000.
Tamum, *
Bilkarn, * * together, 80,000.
Benu Ahmar, 10,000.
Utaybah, living north of Meccah: no number given.
Shu’abin.
Daraysh, 2000.
Benu Sufyan, 15,000.
Al-Hullad, 3000.
It is evident that the numbers given by this traveller include the women, and probably the children of the tribes. Some exaggeration will also be suspected.
The principal clans which practise the pagan Salkh, or excoriation403, are, in Al-Hijaz, the Huzayl and the Benu Sufyan, together with the following families in Al-Tahamah:
Juhadilah.
Kabakah.
Benu Fahm.
Benu Mahmud.
Saramu (?)
Majarish.
Benu Yazid.
I now take leave of a subject which cannot but be most uninteresting to English readers.
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1
genealogy
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| n.家系，宗谱 | |
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physiologists
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| n.生理学者( physiologist的名词复数 )；生理学( physiology的名词复数 )；生理机能 | |
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hip
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| n.臀部，髋；屋脊 | |
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fable
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| n.寓言；童话；神话 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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temperament
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| n.气质，性格，性情 | |
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dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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forefathers
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| n.祖先，先人；祖先，祖宗( forefather的名词复数 )；列祖列宗；前人 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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immutable
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| adj.不可改变的，永恒的 | |
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texture
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| n.(织物)质地；(材料)构造；结构；肌理 | |
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bilious
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| adj.胆汁过多的；易怒的 | |
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sanguine
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| adj.充满希望的，乐观的，血红色的 | |
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spine
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| n.脊柱，脊椎；(动植物的)刺；书脊 | |
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favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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longevity
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| n.长命；长寿 | |
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hue
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| n.色度；色调；样子 | |
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complexion
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| n.肤色；情况，局面；气质，性格 | |
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bleaching
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| 漂白法，漂白 | |
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20
bass
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| n.男低音(歌手)；低音乐器；低音大提琴 | |
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shrill
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| adj.尖声的；刺耳的；v尖叫 | |
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chattering
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| n. （机器振动发出的）咔嗒声，(鸟等)鸣，啁啾 adj. 喋喋不休的，啾啾声的 动词chatter的现在分词形式 | |
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23
dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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24
pensiveness
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| n.pensive（沉思的）的变形 | |
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ferocious
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| adj.凶猛的，残暴的，极度的，十分强烈的 | |
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inquisitive
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| adj.求知欲强的，好奇的，好寻根究底的 | |
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engender
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| v.产生，引起 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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propensity
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| n.倾向；习性 | |
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30
upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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ragged
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| adj.衣衫褴褛的，粗糙的，刺耳的 | |
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32
regularity
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| n.规律性，规则性；匀称，整齐 | |
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33
tempo
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| n.(音乐的)速度；节奏，行进速度 | |
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34
eyebrows
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| 眉毛( eyebrow的名词复数 ) | |
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35
crooked
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| adj.弯曲的；不诚实的，狡猾的，不正当的 | |
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bent
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| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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37
rite
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| n.典礼，惯例，习俗 | |
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38
ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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fiery
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| adj.燃烧着的，火红的；暴躁的；激烈的 | |
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40
inspection
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| n.检查，审查，检阅 | |
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41
premature
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| adj.比预期时间早的；不成熟的，仓促的 | |
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42
peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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44
liar
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| n.说谎的人 | |
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45
countenance
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| n.脸色，面容；面部表情；vt.支持，赞同 | |
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46
repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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47
destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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48
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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49
variance
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| n.矛盾，不同 | |
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50
elevations
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| （水平或数量）提高( elevation的名词复数 )； 高地； 海拔； 提升 | |
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51
aquiline
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| adj.钩状的，鹰的 | |
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prodigious
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| adj.惊人的，奇妙的；异常的；巨大的；庞大的 | |
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nostrils
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| 鼻孔( nostril的名词复数 ) | |
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54
swell
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| vi.膨胀，肿胀；增长，增强 | |
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55
mare
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| n.母马，母驴 | |
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56
furrows
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| n.犁沟( furrow的名词复数 )；（脸上的）皱纹v.犁田，开沟( furrow的第三人称单数 ) | |
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57
descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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59
undue
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| adj.过分的；不适当的；未到期的 | |
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60
jaws
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| n.口部；嘴 | |
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61
ascetically
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| 苦行地 | |
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62
tangled
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| adj. 纠缠的，紊乱的 动词tangle的过去式和过去分词 | |
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63
stature
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| n.（高度）水平，（高度）境界，身高，身材 | |
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64
dwarf
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| n.矮子，侏儒，矮小的动植物；vt.使…矮小 | |
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65
spartan
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| adj.简朴的，刻苦的；n.斯巴达；斯巴达式的人 | |
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66
abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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abounds
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| v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的第三人称单数 ) | |
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68
sinewy
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| adj.多腱的，强壮有力的 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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70
delicacy
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| n.精致，细微，微妙，精良；美味，佳肴 | |
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remarkably
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| ad.不同寻常地，相当地 | |
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72
joint
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| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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73
rotation
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| n.旋转；循环，轮流 | |
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74
prehensile
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| adj.（足等）适于抓握的 | |
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75
elastic
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| n.橡皮圈，松紧带；adj.有弹性的；灵活的 | |
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76
errs
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| 犯错误，做错事( err的第三人称单数 ) | |
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77
strut
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| v.肿胀，鼓起；大摇大摆地走；炫耀；支撑；撑开；n.高视阔步；支柱，撑杆 | |
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systematic
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| adj.有系统的，有计划的，有方法的 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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80
inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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81
insufficient
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| adj.(for，of)不足的，不够的 | |
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82
civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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comely
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| adj.漂亮的，合宜的 | |
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bosom
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| n.胸，胸部；胸怀；内心；adj.亲密的 | |
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sketch
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| n.草图；梗概；素描；v.素描；概述 | |
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87
withered
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| adj. 枯萎的，干瘪的，（人身体的部分器官）因病萎缩的或未发育良好的 动词wither的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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88
embarrassment
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| n.尴尬；使人为难的人(事物)；障碍；窘迫 | |
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mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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inquiries
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| n.调查( inquiry的名词复数 )；疑问；探究；打听 | |
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91
breach
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| n.违反，不履行；破裂；vt.冲破，攻破 | |
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92
gallop
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| v./n.(马或骑马等)飞奔；飞速发展 | |
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saluting
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| v.欢迎，致敬( salute的现在分词 )；赞扬，赞颂 | |
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gunpowder
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| n.火药 | |
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peril
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| n.(严重的)危险；危险的事物 | |
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foulest
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| adj.恶劣的( foul的最高级 )；邪恶的；难闻的；下流的 | |
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foul
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| adj.污秽的；邪恶的；v.弄脏；妨害；犯规；n.犯规 | |
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epithets
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| n.（表示性质、特征等的）词语( epithet的名词复数 ) | |
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generosity
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| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
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100
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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touchiness
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| n.易动气，过分敏感 | |
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102
rev
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| v.发动机旋转，加快速度 | |
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sarcastically
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| adv.挖苦地，讽刺地 | |
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104
fabric
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| n.织物，织品，布；构造，结构，组织 | |
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craftiest
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| 狡猾的，狡诈的( crafty的最高级 ) | |
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106
secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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feud
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| n.长期不和；世仇；v.长期争斗；世代结仇 | |
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108
posterity
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| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
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109
stringent
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| adj.严厉的；令人信服的；银根紧的 | |
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110
prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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111
ravenous
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| adj.极饿的，贪婪的 | |
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112
propensities
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| n.倾向，习性( propensity的名词复数 ) | |
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113
savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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114
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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115
barbarians
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| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
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116
barbarian
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| n.野蛮人；adj.野蛮(人)的；未开化的 | |
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117
hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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118
feats
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| 功绩，伟业，技艺( feat的名词复数 ) | |
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119
caravan
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| n.大蓬车；活动房屋 | |
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120
caravans
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| （可供居住的）拖车（通常由机动车拖行）( caravan的名词复数 )； 篷车； （穿过沙漠地带的）旅行队（如商队） | |
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121
vanquished
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| v.征服( vanquish的过去式和过去分词 )；战胜；克服；抑制 | |
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122
taunts
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| 嘲弄的言语，嘲笑，奚落( taunt的名词复数 ) | |
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123
reprisals
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| n.报复（行为）( reprisal的名词复数 ) | |
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124
armistice
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| n.休战，停战协定 | |
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125
contemptible
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| adj.可鄙的，可轻视的，卑劣的 | |
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126
tempt
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| vt.引诱，勾引，吸引，引起…的兴趣 | |
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127
feuds
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| n.长期不和，世仇( feud的名词复数 ) | |
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128
uncertainty
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| n.易变，靠不住，不确知，不确定的事物 | |
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129
martial
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| adj.战争的，军事的，尚武的，威武的 | |
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130
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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131
persistent
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| adj.坚持不懈的，执意的；持续的 | |
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132
stimulants
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| n.兴奋剂( stimulant的名词复数 )；含兴奋剂的饮料；刺激物；激励物 | |
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133
fanaticism
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| n.狂热，盲信 | |
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134
frenzied
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| a.激怒的；疯狂的 | |
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135
obstinacy
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|
| n.顽固；（病痛等）难治 | |
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136
steadfastness
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| n.坚定，稳当 | |
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137
stark
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| adj.荒凉的；严酷的；完全的；adv.完全地 | |
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138
cowardice
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| n.胆小，怯懦 | |
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139
incongruity
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| n.不协调，不一致 | |
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140
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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141
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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142
potent
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| adj.强有力的，有权势的；有效力的 | |
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143
incentive
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| n.刺激；动力；鼓励；诱因；动机 | |
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144
soften
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| v.(使)变柔软；(使)变柔和 | |
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145
intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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146
entrust
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| v.信赖，信托，交托 | |
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147
virgin
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| n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的 | |
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148
immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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149
psyche
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| n.精神；灵魂 | |
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150
innate
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| adj.天生的，固有的，天赋的 | |
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151
organisation
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| n.组织，安排，团体，有机休 | |
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152
frivolous
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| adj.轻薄的；轻率的 | |
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153
wail
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| vt./vi.大声哀号，恸哭；呼啸，尖啸 | |
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154
degradation
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| n.降级；低落；退化；陵削；降解；衰变 | |
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155
sundry
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| adj.各式各样的，种种的 | |
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156
vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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157
expatiates
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| v.详述，细说( expatiate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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158
virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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159
attachment
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| n.附属物，附件；依恋；依附 | |
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160
delightful
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|
| adj.令人高兴的，使人快乐的 | |
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161
unison
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| n.步调一致，行动一致 | |
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162
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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163
heroism
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| n.大无畏精神，英勇 | |
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164
overflowing
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|
| n. 溢出物,溢流 adj. 充沛的，充满的 动词overflow的现在分词形式 | |
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165
Moslem
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| n.回教徒，穆罕默德信徒；adj.回教徒的，回教的 | |
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166
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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167
malice
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| n.恶意，怨恨，蓄意；[律]预谋 | |
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168
jealousy
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|
| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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169
chivalry
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| n.骑士气概，侠义；（男人）对女人彬彬有礼，献殷勤 | |
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170
nomad
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| n.游牧部落的人，流浪者，游牧民 | |
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171
maidens
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| 处女( maiden的名词复数 )； 少女； 未婚女子； （板球运动）未得分的一轮投球 | |
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172
clan
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| n.氏族，部落，宗族，家族，宗派 | |
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173
fugitives
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| n.亡命者，逃命者( fugitive的名词复数 ) | |
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174
idol
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| n.偶像，红人，宠儿 | |
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175
attested
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|
| adj.经检验证明无病的，经检验证明无菌的v.证明( attest的过去式和过去分词 )；证实；声称…属实；使宣誓 | |
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176
narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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177
peruses
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| v.读（某篇文字）( peruse的第三人称单数 )；（尤指）细阅；审阅；匆匆读或心不在焉地浏览（某篇文字） | |
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178
plaintive
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| adj.可怜的，伤心的 | |
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179
warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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180
hearth
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| n.壁炉炉床，壁炉地面 | |
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181
furrowing
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| v.犁田，开沟( furrow的现在分词 ) | |
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182
exultation
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| n.狂喜，得意 | |
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183
consolation
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| n.安慰，慰问 | |
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184
perfidy
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| n.背信弃义，不忠贞 | |
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185
yearning
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| a.渴望的；向往的；怀念的 | |
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186
encomium
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| n.赞颂；颂词 | |
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187
deserted
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|
| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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188
pathos
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| n.哀婉，悲怆 | |
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189
frivolity
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| n.轻松的乐事，兴高采烈；轻浮的举止 | |
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190
credible
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| adj.可信任的，可靠的 | |
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191
bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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192
treacherously
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| 背信弃义地； 背叛地； 靠不住地； 危险地 | |
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193
slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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194
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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195
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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196
accomplishment
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| n.完成，成就，（pl.）造诣，技能 | |
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197
attire
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| v.穿衣，装扮[同]array；n.衣着；盛装 | |
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198
platonic
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| adj.精神的；柏拉图（哲学）的 | |
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199
tonic
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| n./adj.滋补品，补药，强身的，健体的 | |
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200
derided
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| v.取笑，嘲笑( deride的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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201
chivalric
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| 有武士气概的，有武士风范的 | |
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202
valiant
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| adj.勇敢的，英勇的；n.勇士，勇敢的人 | |
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203
ignominious
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| adj.可鄙的，不光彩的，耻辱的 | |
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204
enchantment
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| n.迷惑，妖术，魅力 | |
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205
excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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206
briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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207
exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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208
lament
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| n.悲叹，悔恨，恸哭；v.哀悼，悔恨，悲叹 | |
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209
tormented
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| 饱受折磨的 | |
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210
truculent
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| adj.野蛮的，粗野的 | |
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211
obdurate
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| adj.固执的，顽固的 | |
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212
fabled
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| adj.寓言中的，虚构的 | |
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213
redressing
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| v.改正( redress的现在分词 )；重加权衡；恢复平衡 | |
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214
dressing
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| n.(食物)调料；包扎伤口的用品，敷料 | |
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215
derisively
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| adv. 嘲笑地，嘲弄地 | |
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216
chivalrous
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| adj.武士精神的；对女人彬彬有礼的 | |
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217
knightly
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| adj. 骑士般的 adv. 骑士般地 | |
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218
disdaining
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| 鄙视( disdain的现在分词 )； 不屑于做，不愿意做 | |
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219
honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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220
espouse
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| v.支持，赞成，嫁娶 | |
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221
spouse
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| n.配偶(指夫或妻) | |
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222
patronage
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| n.赞助，支援，援助；光顾，捧场 | |
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223
poetic
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| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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224
vivacity
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| n.快活，活泼，精神充沛 | |
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225
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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226
reins
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| 感情，激情； 缰( rein的名词复数 )； 控制手段； 掌管； （成人带着幼儿走路以防其走失时用的）保护带 | |
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227
passionately
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| ad.热烈地，激烈地 | |
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228
bards
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| n.诗人( bard的名词复数 ) | |
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229
skilful
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| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
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230
haze
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| n.霾，烟雾；懵懂，迷糊；vi.(over)变模糊 | |
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231
infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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232
simile
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| n.直喻，明喻 | |
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233
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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234
stippling
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| n.点刻法，点画v.加点、绘斑，加粒( stipple的现在分词 )；（把油漆、水泥等的表面）弄粗糙 | |
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235
clogs
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| 木屐； 木底鞋，木屐( clog的名词复数 ) | |
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236
radical
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|
| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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237
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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238
synonyms
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| 同义词( synonym的名词复数 ) | |
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239
illustrating
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的现在分词 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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240
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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241
revolve
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| vi.(使)旋转；循环出现 | |
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242
copiousness
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| n.丰裕，旺盛 | |
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243
poetical
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| adj.似诗人的；诗一般的；韵文的；富有诗意的 | |
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244
witty
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| adj.机智的，风趣的 | |
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245
philosophic
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| adj.哲学的，贤明的 | |
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246
brigand
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| n.土匪，强盗 | |
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247
carrion
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| n.腐肉 | |
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248
corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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249
deference
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| n.尊重，顺从；敬意 | |
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250
plunder
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| vt.劫掠财物，掠夺；n.劫掠物，赃物；劫掠 | |
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251
delinquent
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| adj.犯法的，有过失的；n.违法者 | |
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252
impaled
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| 钉在尖桩上( impale的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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253
proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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254
conceal
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| v.隐藏，隐瞒，隐蔽 | |
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255
extermination
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| n.消灭，根绝 | |
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256
brigands
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| n.土匪，强盗( brigand的名词复数 ) | |
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257
instinctive
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| adj.(出于)本能的；直觉的；(出于)天性的 | |
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258
instinctively
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| adv.本能地 | |
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259
grandeur
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| n.伟大，崇高，宏伟，庄严，豪华 | |
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260
tithe
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| n.十分之一税；v.课什一税，缴什一税 | |
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261
bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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262
plundering
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| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的现在分词 ) | |
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263
paternal
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| adj.父亲的，像父亲的，父系的，父方的 | |
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264
lamenting
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|
| adj.悲伤的，悲哀的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的现在分词 ) | |
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265
plundered
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| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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266
lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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267
vendetta
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| n.世仇，宿怨 | |
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268
slayer
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| n. 杀人者，凶手 | |
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269
avarice
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| n.贪婪；贪心 | |
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270
foe
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| n.敌人，仇敌 | |
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271
covetousness
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272
fray
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| v.争吵；打斗；磨损，磨破；n.吵架；打斗 | |
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273
dormant
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|
| adj.暂停活动的；休眠的；潜伏的 | |
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274
hawking
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| 利用鹰行猎 | |
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275
falcon
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| n.隼，猎鹰 | |
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276
fatigued
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|
| adj. 疲乏的 | |
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277
fatigue
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| n.疲劳，劳累 | |
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278
javelins
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|
| n.标枪( javelin的名词复数 ) | |
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279
javelin
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| n.标枪，投枪 | |
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280
dagger
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| n.匕首，短剑，剑号 | |
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281
sling
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|
| vt.扔；悬挂；n.挂带；吊索，吊兜；弹弓 | |
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282
charcoal
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| n.炭，木炭，生物炭 | |
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283
wagers
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| n.赌注，用钱打赌( wager的名词复数 )v.在（某物）上赌钱，打赌( wager的第三人称单数 )；保证，担保 | |
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284
inviting
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|
| adj.诱人的，引人注目的 | |
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285
derived
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|
| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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286
tapering
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|
| adj.尖端细的 | |
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287
ostrich
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| n.鸵鸟 | |
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288
garnished
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| v.给（上餐桌的食物）加装饰( garnish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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289
clans
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| 宗族( clan的名词复数 )； 氏族； 庞大的家族； 宗派 | |
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290
rhinoceros
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| n.犀牛 | |
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291
brass
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|
| n.黄铜；黄铜器，铜管乐器 | |
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292
gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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293
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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294
slash
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|
| vi.大幅度削减；vt.猛砍，尖锐抨击，大幅减少；n.猛砍，斜线，长切口，衣衩 | |
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295
grotesqueness
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296
absurdity
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|
| n.荒谬，愚蠢；谬论 | |
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297
ferment
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| vt.使发酵；n./vt.（使）激动，（使）动乱 | |
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298
proximity
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|
| n.接近，邻近 | |
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299
copper
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|
| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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300
ignoble
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|
| adj.不光彩的，卑鄙的；可耻的 | |
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301
procuring
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|
| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的现在分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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302
perilous
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|
| adj.危险的，冒险的 | |
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303
bind
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|
| vt.捆，包扎；装订；约束；使凝固；vi.变硬 | |
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304
entirely
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|
| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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305
scorpions
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|
| n.蝎子( scorpion的名词复数 ) | |
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306
venom
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|
| n.毒液，恶毒，痛恨 | |
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307
asses
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|
| n. 驴，愚蠢的人，臀部 adv. (常用作后置)用于贬损或骂人 | |
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308
yarns
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|
| n.纱( yarn的名词复数 )；纱线；奇闻漫谈；旅行轶事 | |
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309
tightens
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|
| 收紧( tighten的第三人称单数 )； （使）变紧； （使）绷紧； 加紧 | |
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310
tourniquets
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|
| n.止血带( tourniquet的名词复数 ) | |
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311
cramps
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|
| n. 抽筋, 腹部绞痛, 铁箍 adj. 狭窄的, 难解的 v. 使...抽筋, 以铁箍扣紧, 束缚 | |
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312
rheumatism
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|
| n.风湿病 | |
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313
panaceas
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|
| n.治百病的药，万灵药( panacea的名词复数 ) | |
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314
ulcers
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|
| n.溃疡( ulcer的名词复数 )；腐烂物；道德败坏；腐败 | |
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315
stimulated
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|
| a.刺激的 | |
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316
verdigris
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|
| n.铜锈；铜绿 | |
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317
remains
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|
| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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318
cataract
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|
| n.大瀑布，奔流，洪水，白内障 | |
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319
fumigation
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|
| n.烟熏，熏蒸；忿恨 | |
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320
copiously
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|
| adv.丰富地，充裕地 | |
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321
followers
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|
| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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322
forth
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|
| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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323
vestige
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|
| n.痕迹，遗迹，残余 | |
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324
ordeal
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|
| n.苦难经历，（尤指对品格、耐力的）严峻考验 | |
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325
manliness
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| 刚毅 | |
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326
creed
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|
| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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327
droll
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|
| adj.古怪的，好笑的 | |
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328
vows
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| 誓言( vow的名词复数 )； 郑重宣布，许愿 | |
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329
wrath
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|
| n.愤怒，愤慨，暴怒 | |
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330
contented
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|
| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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331
corpse
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|
| n.尸体，死尸 | |
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332
shrouded
|
|
| v.隐瞒( shroud的过去式和过去分词 )；保密 | |
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333
procurable
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|
| adj.可得到的，得手的 | |
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334
mound
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|
| n.土墩，堤，小山；v.筑堤，用土堆防卫 | |
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335
cemeteries
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|
| n.（非教堂的）墓地，公墓( cemetery的名词复数 ) | |
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336
cupidity
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|
| n.贪心，贪财 | |
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337
incognito
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|
| adv.匿名地；n.隐姓埋名；adj.化装的，用假名的，隐匿姓名身份的 | |
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338
initiated
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|
| n. 创始人 adj. 新加入的 vt. 开始，创始，启蒙，介绍加入 | |
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339
administrator
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|
| n.经营管理者，行政官员 | |
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340
defensive
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|
| adj.防御的；防卫的；防守的 | |
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341
foes
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| 敌人，仇敌( foe的名词复数 ) | |
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342
trespass
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|
| n./v.侵犯，闯入私人领地 | |
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343
territorial
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| adj.领土的，领地的 | |
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344
dishonour
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|
| n./vt.拒付（支票、汇票、票据等）；vt.凌辱，使丢脸；n.不名誉，耻辱，不光彩 | |
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345
dwellers
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| n.居民，居住者( dweller的名词复数 ) | |
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346
levy
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| n.征收税或其他款项，征收额 | |
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347
forfeited
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| （因违反协议、犯规、受罚等）丧失，失去( forfeit的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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348
bastard
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|
| n.坏蛋，混蛋；私生子 | |
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349
herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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350
subsists
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| v.（靠很少的钱或食物）维持生活，生存下去( subsist的第三人称单数 ) | |
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351
potteries
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|
| n.陶器( pottery的名词复数 )；陶器厂；陶土；陶器制造（术） | |
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352
barter
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|
| n.物物交换，以货易货，实物交易 | |
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353
picturesque
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|
| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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354
thong
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|
| n.皮带；皮鞭；v.装皮带 | |
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355
thongs
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| 的东西 | |
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356
cylinders
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|
| n.圆筒( cylinder的名词复数 )；圆柱；汽缸；（尤指用作容器的）圆筒状物 | |
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357
cartridges
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|
| 子弹( cartridge的名词复数 )； （打印机的）墨盒； 录音带盒； （唱机的）唱头 | |
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358
cartridge
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|
| n.弹壳，弹药筒；(装磁带等的)盒子 | |
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359
ornamented
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|
| adj.花式字体的v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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360
slippers
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|
| n. 拖鞋 | |
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361
adorn
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| vt.使美化，装饰 | |
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362
ornaments
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|
| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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363
bracelets
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|
| n.手镯，臂镯( bracelet的名词复数 ) | |
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364
strings
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| n.弦 | |
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365
abstemious
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|
| adj.有节制的，节俭的 | |
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366
obese
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|
| adj.过度肥胖的，肥大的 | |
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367
plentiful
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|
| adj.富裕的，丰富的 | |
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368
gorge
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| n.咽喉，胃，暴食，山峡；v.塞饱，狼吞虎咽地吃 | |
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369
rugged
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| adj.高低不平的，粗糙的，粗壮的，强健的 | |
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370
locusts
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| n.蝗虫( locust的名词复数 )；贪吃的人；破坏者；槐树 | |
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371
locust
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| n.蝗虫；洋槐，刺槐 | |
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372
anchovies
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| n. 鯷鱼，凤尾鱼 | |
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373
sardines
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| n. 沙丁鱼 | |
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374
justify
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| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
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375
snail
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| n.蜗牛 | |
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376
shrimps
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| n.虾，小虾( shrimp的名词复数 )；矮小的人 | |
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377
fermented
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| v.（使）发酵( ferment的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）激动；骚动；骚扰 | |
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378
distilled
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| adj.由蒸馏得来的v.蒸馏( distil的过去式和过去分词 )；从…提取精华 | |
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379
relish
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| n.滋味，享受，爱好，调味品；vt.加调味料，享受，品味；vi.有滋味 | |
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380
procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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381
pungency
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| n.（气味等的）刺激性；辣；（言语等的）辛辣；尖刻 | |
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382
proscribed
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| v.正式宣布（某事物）有危险或被禁止( proscribe的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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383
obsolete
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| adj.已废弃的，过时的 | |
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384
calumny
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| n.诽谤，污蔑，中伤 | |
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385
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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386
anthropologist
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| n.人类学家，人类学者 | |
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387
boundless
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| adj.无限的；无边无际的；巨大的 | |
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388
eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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389
satire
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| n.讽刺，讽刺文学，讽刺作品 | |
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390
ruffling
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| 弄皱( ruffle的现在分词 )； 弄乱； 激怒； 扰乱 | |
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391
pithy
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| adj.(讲话或文章)简练的 | |
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392
wondrous
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| adj.令人惊奇的，奇妙的；adv.惊人地；异乎寻常地；令人惊叹地 | |
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393
complexity
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| n.复杂(性)，复杂的事物 | |
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394
spurns
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| v.一脚踢开，拒绝接受( spurn的第三人称单数 ) | |
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395
salutes
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| n.致敬，欢迎，敬礼( salute的名词复数 )v.欢迎，致敬( salute的第三人称单数 )；赞扬，赞颂 | |
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396
cavalry
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| n.骑兵；轻装甲部队 | |
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397
gore
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| n.凝血，血污；v.（动物）用角撞伤，用牙刺破；缝以补裆；顶 | |
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398
enumerate
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| v.列举，计算，枚举，数 | |
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399
plural
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| n.复数；复数形式；adj.复数的 | |
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400
vile
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| adj.卑鄙的，可耻的，邪恶的；坏透的 | |
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401
connived
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| v.密谋 ( connive的过去式和过去分词 )；搞阴谋；默许；纵容 | |
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402
kindly
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| adj.和蔼的，温和的，爽快的；adv.温和地，亲切地 | |
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403
excoriation
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| n.严厉的责难；苛责；表皮脱落；抓痕 | |
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