In countries where the principle of accumulation is as weak as it is in the various nations of Asia; where people will neither save, nor work to obtain the means of saving, unless under the inducement of enormously high profits, nor even then if it is necessary to wait a considerable time for them; where either productions remain scanty1, or drudgery2 great, because there is neither capital forthcoming nor forethought sufficient for the adoption4 of the contrivances by which natural agents are made to do the work of human labour; the desideratum for such a country, economically considered, is an increase of industry, and of the effective desire of accumulation. The means are, first, a better government: more complete security of property; moderate taxes, and freedom from arbitrary exaction5 under the name of taxes; a more permanent and more advantageous6 tenure7 of land, securing to the cultivator as far as possible the undivided benefits of the industry, skill, and economy he may exert. Secondly8, improvement of the public intelligence: the decay of usages or superstitions9 which interfere10 with the effective employment of industry; and the growth of mental activity, making the people alive to new objects of desire. Thirdly, the introduction of foreign arts, which raise the returns derivable11 from additional capital, to a rate corresponding to the low strength of the desire of accumulation: and the importation of foreign capital, which renders the increase of production no longer exclusively dependent on the thrift12 or providence13 of the inhabitants themselves, while it places before them a stimulating14 example, and by instilling15 new ideas and breaking the chains of habit, if not by improving the actual condition of the population, tends to create in them new wants, increased ambition, and greater thought for the future. These considerations apply more or less to all the Asiatic populations, and to the less civilized17 and industrious18 parts of Europe, as Russia, Turkey, Spain, and Ireland.
§2. But there are other countries, and England is at the head of them, in which neither the spirit of industry nor the effective desire of accumulation need any encouragement; where the people will toil19 hard for a small remuneration, and save much for a small profit; where, though the general thriftiness20 of the labouring class is much below what is desirable, the spirit of accumulation in the more prosperous part of the community requires abatement21 rather than increase. In these countries there would never be any deficiency of capital, if its increase were never checked or brought to a stand by too great a diminution22 of its returns. It is the tendency of the returns to a progressive diminution, which causes the increase of production to be often attended with a deterioration23 in the condition of the producers; and this tendency, which would in time put an end to increase of production altogether, is a result of the necessary and inherent conditions of production from the land.
In all countries which have passed beyond a rather early stage in the progress of agriculture, every increase in the demand for food, occasioned by increased population, will always, unless there is a simultaneous improvement in production, diminish the share which on a fair division would fall to each individual. An increased production, in default of unoccupied tracts24 of fertile land, or of fresh improvements tending to cheapen commodities, can never be obtained but by increasing the labour in more than the same proportion. The population must either work harder, or eat less, or obtain their usual food by sacrificing a part of their other customary comforts. Whenever this necessity is postponed25, notwithstanding an increase of population, it is because the improvements which facilitate production continue progressive; because the contrivances of mankind for making their labour more effective, keep up an equal struggle with nature, and extort26 fresh resources from her reluctant powers as fast as human necessities occupy and engross27 the old.
From this, results the important corollary, that the necessity of restraining population is not, as many persons believe, peculiar28 to a condition of great inequality of property. A greater number of people cannot, in any given state of civilization, be collectively so well provided for as a smaller. The niggardliness29 of nature, not the injustice30 of society, is the cause of the penalty attached to over-population. An unjust distribution of wealth does not even aggravate31 the evil, but, at most, causes it to be somewhat earlier felt. It is in vain to say, that all mouths which the increase of mankind calls into existence, bring with them hands. The new mouths require as much food as the old ones, and the hands do not produce as much. If all instruments of production were held in joint32 property by the whole people, and the produce divided with perfect equality among them, and if, in a society thus constituted, industry were as energetic and the produce as ample as at present, there would be enough to make all the existing population extremely comfortable; but when that population had doubled itself, as, with the existing habits of the people, under such an encouragement, it undoubtedly33 would in little more than twenty years, what would then be their condition? Unless the arts of production were in the same time improved in an almost unexampled degree, the inferior soils which must be resorted to, and the more laborious34 and scantily35 remunerative36 cultivation37 which must be employed on the superior soils, to procure38 food for so much larger a population, would, by an insuperable necessity, render every individual in the community poorer than before. If the population continued to increase at the same rate, a time would soon arrive when no one would have more than mere39 necessaries, and, soon after, a time when no one would have a sufficiency of those, and the further increase of population would be arrested by death.
Whether, at the present or any other time, the produce of industry proportionally to the labour employed, is increasing or diminishing, and the average condition of the people improving or deteriorating40, depends upon whether population is advancing faster than improvement, or improvement than population. After a degree of density41 has been attained42, sufficient to allow the principal benefits of combination of labour, all further increase tends in itself to mischief43, so far as regards the average condition of the people; but the progress of improvement has a counteracting44 operation, and allows of increased numbers without any deterioration, and even consistently with a higher average of comfort. Improvement must here be understood in a wide sense, including not only new industrial inventions, or an extended use of those already known, but improvements in institutions, education, opinions, and human affairs generally, provided they tend, as almost all improvements do, to give new motives45 or new facilities to production. If the productive powers of the country increase as rapidly as advancing numbers call for an augmentation of produce, it is not necessary to obtain that augmentation by the cultivation of soils more sterile46 than the worst already under culture, or by applying additional labour to the old soils at a diminished advantage; or at all events this loss of power is compensated47 by the increased efficiency with which, in the progress of improvement, labour is employed in manufactures. In one way or the other, the increased population is provided for, and all are as well off as before. But if the growth of human power over nature is suspended or slackened, and population does not slacken its increase; if, with only the existing command over natural agencies, those agencies are called upon for an increased produce; this greater produce will not be afforded to the increased population, without either demanding on the average a greater effort from each, or on the average reducing each to a smaller ration16 out of the aggregate48 produce.
As a matter of fact, at some periods the progress of population has been the more rapid of the two, at others that of improvement. In England during a long interval49 preceding the French Revolution, population increased slowly. but the progress of improvement, at least in agriculture, would seem to have been still slower, since though nothing occurred to lower the value of the precious metals, the price of corn rose considerably50, and England, from an exporting, became an importing country. This evidence, however, is short of conclusive51, inasmuch as the extraordinary number of abundant seasons during the first half of the century, not continuing during the last, was a cause of increased price in the later period, extrinsic52 to the ordinary progress of society. Whether during the same period improvements in manufactures, or diminished cost of imported commodities, made amends53 for the diminished productiveness of labour on the land, is uncertain. But ever since the great mechanical inventions of Watt54, Arkwright, and their contemporaries, the return to labour has probably increased as fast as the population; and would have out-stripped it, if that very augmentation of return had not called forth3 an additional portion of the inherent power of multiplication55 in the human species. During the twenty or thirty years last elapsed, so rapid has been the extension of improved processes of agriculture, that even the land yields a greater produce in proportion to the labour employed; the average price of corn had become decidedly lower, even before the repeal56 of the corn laws had so materially lightened, for the time being, the pressure of population upon production. But though improvement may during a certain space of time keep up with, or even surpass, the actual increase of population, it assuredly never comes up to the rate of increase of which population is capable; and nothing could have prevented a general deterioration in the condition of the human race, were it not that population has in fact been restrained. Had it been restrained still more, and the same improvements taken place, there would have been a larger dividend57 than there now is, for the nation or the species at large. The new ground wrung58 from nature by the improvements would not have been all used up in the support of mere numbers. Though the gross produce would not have been so great, there would have been a greater produce per head of the population.
§3. When the growth of numbers outstrips59 the progress of improvement, and a country is driven to obtain the means of subsistence on terms more and more unfavourable, by the inability of its land to meet additional demands except on more onerous61 conditions; there are two expedients62 by which it may hope to mitigate63 that disagreeable necessity, even though no change should take place in the habits of the people with respect to their rate of increase. One of these expedients is the importation of food from abroad. The other is emigration.
The admission of cheaper food from a foreign country, is equivalent to an agricultural invention by which food could be raised at a similarly diminished cost at home. It equally increases the productive power of labour. The return was before, so much food for so much labour employed in the growth of food: the return is now, a greater quantity of food, for the same labour employed in producing cottons or hardware or some other commodity, to be given in exchange for food. The one improvement, like the other, throws back the decline of the productive power of labour by a certain distance: but in the one case as in the other, it immediately resumes its course; the tide which has receded66, instantly begins to re-advance. It might seem, indeed, that when a country draws its supply of food from so wide a surface as the whole habitable globe, so little impression can be produced on that great expanse by any increase of mouths in one small corner of it, that the inhabitants of the country may double and treble their numbers, without feeling the effect in any increased tension of the springs of production, or any enhancement of the price of food throughout the world. But in this calculation several things are overlooked.
In the first place, the foreign regions from which corn can be imported do not comprise the whole globe, but those parts of it principally which are in the immediate65 neighbourhood of coasts or navigable rivers. The coast is the part of most countries which is earliest and most thickly peopled, and has seldom any food to spare. The chief source of supply, therefore, is the strip of country along the banks of some navigable river, as the Nile, the Vistula, or the Mississippi; and of such there is not, in the productive regions of the earth, so great a multitude as to suffice during an indefinite time for a rapidly growing demand, without an increasing strain on the productive powers of the soil. To obtain auxiliary67 supplies of corn from the interior in any abundance, is, in the existing state of the communications, in most cases impracticable. By improved roads, and by canals and railways, the obstacle will eventually be so reduced as not to be insuperable: but this is a slow progress; in all the food-exporting counties except America, a very slow progress; and one which cannot keep pace with population, unless the increase of the last is very effectually restrained.
In the next place, even if the supply were drawn68 from the whole instead of a small part of the surface of the exporting counties, the quantity of food would still be limited, which could be obtained from them without an increase of the proportional cost. The countries which export food may be divided into two classes; those in which the effective desire of accumulation is strong, and those in which it is weak. In Australia and the United States of America, the effective desire of accumulation is strong; capital increases fast, and the production of food might be very rapidly extended. But in such countries population also increases with extraordinary rapidity. Their agriculture has to provide for their own expanding numbers, as well as for those of the importing countries. They must, therefore, from the nature of the case, be rapidly driven, if not to less fertile, at least what is equivalent, to remoter and less accessible lands, and to modes of cultivation like those of old countries, less productive in proportion to the labour and expense.
But the countries which have at the same time cheap food and great industrial prosperity are few, being only those in which the arts of civilized life have been transferred full-grown to a rich and uncultivated soil. Among old countries, those which are able to export food, are able only because their industry is in a very backward state; because capital, and hence population, have never increased sufficiently69 to make food rise to a higher price. Such countries are Russia, Poland, and the plains of the Danube. In those regions the effective desire of accumulation is weak, the arts of production most imperfect, capital scanty, and its increase, especially from domestic sources, slow. When an increased demand arose for food to be exported to other countries, it would only be very gradually that food could be produced to meet it. The capital needed could not be obtained by transfer from other employments, for such do not exist. The cottons or hardware which would be received from England in exchange for corn, the Russians and Poles do not now produce in the country: they go without them. Something might in time be expected from the increased exertions71 to which producers would be stimulated72 by the market opened for their produce; but to such increase of exertion70, the habits of countries whose agricultural population consists of serfs, or of peasants who have but just emerged from a servile condition, are the reverse of favourable60, and even in this age of movement these habits do not rapidly change. If a greater outlay74 of capital is relied on as the source from which the produce is to he increased, the means must either be obtained by the slow process of saving, under the impulse given by new commodities and more extended intercourse75 (and in that case the population would most likely increase as fast), or must be brought in from foreign countries. If England is to obtain a rapidly increasing supply of corn from Russia or Poland, English capital must go there to produce it. This, however, is attended with so many difficulties, as are equivalent to great positive disadvantages. It is opposed by differences of language, differences of manners, and a thousand obstacles. arising from the institutions and social relations of the country. and after all it would inevitably76 so stimulate73 population on the spot, that nearly all the increase of food produced by its means would probably be consumed without leaving the country: so that, if it were not the almost only mode of introducing foreign arts and ideas, and giving an effectual spur to the backward civilization of those countries, little reliance could be placed on it for increasing the exports, and supplying other countries with a progressive and indefinite increase of food. But to improve the civilization of a country is a slow process, and gives time for so great an increase of population both in the country itself, and in those supplied from it, that its effect in keeping down the price of food against the increase of demand, is not likely to be more decisive on the scale of all Europe, than on the smaller one of a particular nation.
The law, therefore, of diminishing return to industry, whenever population makes a more rapid progress than improvement, is not solely77 applicable to countries which are fed from their own soil, but in substance applies quite as much to those which are willing to draw their food from any accessible quarter that can afford it cheapest. A sudden and great cheapening of food, indeed, in whatever manner produced, would, like any other sudden improvement in the arts of life, throw the natural tendency of affairs a stage or two further back, though without altering its course. There is one contingency78 connected with freedom of importation, which may yet produce temporary effects greater than were ever contemplated79 either by the bitterest enemies or the most ardent80 adherents81 of free-trade in food. Maize82, or Indian corn, is a product capable of being supplied in quantity sufficient to feed the whole country, at a cost, allowing for difference of nutritive quality, cheaper even than the potato. If maize should ever substitute itself for wheat as the staple83 food of the poor, the productive power of labour in obtaining food would be so enormously increased, and the expense of maintaining a family so diminished, that it would require perhaps some generations for population, even if it started forward at an American pace, to overtake this great accession to the facilities of its support.
§4. Besides the importation of corn, there is another resource which can he invoked84 by a nation whose increasing numbers press hard, not against their capital, but against the productive capacity of their land: I mean Emigration, especially in the form of Colonization85. Of this remedy the efficacy as far as it goes is real, since it consists in seeking elsewhere those unoccupied tracts of fertile land, which if they existed at home would enable the demand of an increasing population to be met without any falling off in the productiveness of labour. Accordingly, when the region to be colonized86 is near at hand, and the habits and tastes of the people sufficiently migratory87, this remedy is completely effectual. The migration64 from the older parts of the American Confederation to the new territories, which is to all intents and purposes colonization, is what enables population to go on unchecked throughout the union without having yet diminished the return to industry, or increased the difficulty of earning a subsistence. If Australia or the interior of Canada were as near to Great Britain as Wisconsin and Iowa to New York; if the superfluous88 people could remove to it without crossing the sea, and were of as adventurous89 and restless a character, and as little addicted90 to staying at home, as their kinsfolk of New England, those unpeopled continents would render the same service to the United Kingdom which the old states of America derive91 from the new. But, these things being as they are — though a judiciously92 conducted emigration is a most important resource for suddenly lightening the pressure of population by a single effort — and though in such an extraordinary case as that of Ireland under the threefold operation of the potato failure, the poor law, and the general turning out of tenant93 throughout the country, spontaneous emigration may at a particular crisis remove greater multitudes than it was ever proposed to remove at once by any national scheme; it still remains94 to be shown by experience whether a permanent steam of emigration can be kept up, sufficient to take off, as in America, all that portion of the annual increase (when proceeding95 at its greatest rapidity) which being in excess of the progress made during the same short period in the arts of life, tends to render living more difficult for every averagely-situated individual in the community. And unless this can be done, emigration cannot, even in an economical point of view, dispense96 with the necessity of checks to population. Further than this we have not to speak of it in this place. The general subject of colonization as a practical question, its importance to old countries, and the principles on which it should be conducted, will be discussed at some length in a subsequent portion of this Treatise97.
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1
scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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drudgery
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| n.苦工，重活，单调乏味的工作 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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adoption
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| n.采用，采纳，通过；收养 | |
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exaction
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| n.强求，强征；杂税 | |
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advantageous
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| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
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tenure
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| n.终身职位；任期；(土地)保有权，保有期 | |
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secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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derivable
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| adj.可引出的，可推论的，可诱导的 | |
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thrift
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| adj.节约，节俭；n.节俭，节约 | |
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providence
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| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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stimulating
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| adj.有启发性的，能激发人思考的 | |
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instilling
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| v.逐渐使某人获得（某种可取的品质），逐步灌输( instil的现在分词 )；逐渐使某人获得（某种可取的品质），逐步灌输( instill的现在分词 ) | |
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ration
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| n.定量(pl.)给养，口粮；vt.定量供应 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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industrious
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| adj.勤劳的，刻苦的，奋发的 | |
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toil
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| vi.辛劳工作，艰难地行动；n.苦工，难事 | |
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thriftiness
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| 节俭，节约 | |
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abatement
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| n.减(免)税，打折扣，冲销 | |
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diminution
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| n.减少；变小 | |
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deterioration
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| n.退化；恶化；变坏 | |
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tracts
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| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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postponed
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| vt.& vi.延期，缓办，（使）延迟vt.把…放在次要地位；[语]把…放在后面（或句尾）vi.（疟疾等）延缓发作（或复发） | |
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extort
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| v.勒索，敲诈，强要 | |
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engross
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| v.使全神贯注 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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niggardliness
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injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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aggravate
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| vt.加重(剧)，使恶化；激怒，使恼火 | |
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joint
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| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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laborious
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| adj.吃力的，努力的，不流畅 | |
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scantily
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| adv.缺乏地；不充足地；吝啬地；狭窄地 | |
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remunerative
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| adj.有报酬的 | |
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cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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deteriorating
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| 恶化，变坏( deteriorate的现在分词 ) | |
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density
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| n.密集，密度，浓度 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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counteracting
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| 对抗，抵消( counteract的现在分词 ) | |
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45
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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46
sterile
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| adj.不毛的，不孕的，无菌的，枯燥的，贫瘠的 | |
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47
compensated
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| 补偿，报酬( compensate的过去式和过去分词 )； 给（某人）赔偿（或赔款） | |
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48
aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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49
interval
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| n.间隔，间距；幕间休息，中场休息 | |
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50
considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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51
conclusive
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| adj.最后的，结论的；确凿的，消除怀疑的 | |
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52
extrinsic
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| adj.外部的；不紧要的 | |
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53
amends
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| n. 赔偿 | |
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54
watt
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| n.瓦，瓦特 | |
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55
multiplication
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| n.增加，增多，倍增；增殖，繁殖；乘法 | |
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56
repeal
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| n.废止，撤消；v.废止，撤消 | |
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57
dividend
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| n.红利，股息；回报，效益 | |
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58
wrung
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| 绞( wring的过去式和过去分词 )； 握紧（尤指别人的手）； 把（湿衣服）拧干； 绞掉（水） | |
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59
outstrips
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| v.做得比…更好，（在赛跑等中）超过( outstrip的第三人称单数 ) | |
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60
favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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onerous
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| adj.繁重的 | |
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expedients
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| n.应急有效的，权宜之计的( expedient的名词复数 ) | |
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mitigate
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| vt.（使）减轻，（使）缓和 | |
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migration
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| n.迁移，移居，（鸟类等的）迁徙 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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receded
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| v.逐渐远离( recede的过去式和过去分词 )；向后倾斜；自原处后退或避开别人的注视；尤指问题 | |
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auxiliary
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| adj.辅助的，备用的 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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exertion
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| n.尽力，努力 | |
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exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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stimulated
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| a.刺激的 | |
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stimulate
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| vt.刺激，使兴奋；激励，使…振奋 | |
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outlay
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| n.费用，经费，支出；v.花费 | |
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intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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contingency
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| n.意外事件，可能性 | |
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contemplated
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| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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adherents
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| n.支持者，拥护者( adherent的名词复数 )；党羽；徒子徒孙 | |
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maize
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| n.玉米 | |
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staple
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| n.主要产物，常用品，主要要素，原料，订书钉，钩环；adj.主要的，重要的；vt.分类 | |
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invoked
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| v.援引( invoke的过去式和过去分词 )；行使（权利等）；祈求救助；恳求 | |
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colonization
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| 殖民地的开拓，殖民，殖民地化； 移殖 | |
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colonized
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| 开拓殖民地，移民于殖民地( colonize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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migratory
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| n.候鸟，迁移 | |
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superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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adventurous
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| adj.爱冒险的；惊心动魄的，惊险的，刺激的 | |
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addicted
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| adj.沉溺于....的，对...上瘾的 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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judiciously
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| adv.明断地，明智而审慎地 | |
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tenant
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| n.承租人；房客；佃户；v.租借，租用 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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dispense
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| vt.分配，分发；配(药)，发(药)；实施 | |
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treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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