IT IS BUT a small portion of the public business of a country which can be well done, or safely attempted, by the central authorities; and even in our own government, the least centralised in Europe, the legislative1 portion at least of the governing body busies itself far too much with local affairs, employing the supreme2 power of the State in cutting small knots which there ought to be other and better means of untying3. The enormous amount of private business which takes up the time of Parliament, and the thoughts of its individual members, distracting them from the proper occupations of the great council of the nation, is felt by all thinkers and observers as a serious evil, and what is worse, an increasing one.
It would not be appropriate to the limited design of this treatise4 to discuss at large the great question, in no way peculiar5 to representative government, of the proper limits of governmental action. I have said elsewhere14 what seemed to me most essential respecting the principles by which the extent of that action ought to be determined6. But after subtracting from the functions performed by most European governments those which ought not to be undertaken by public authorities at all, there still remains7 so great and various an aggregate8 of duties that, if only on the principle of division of labour, it is indispensable to share them between central and local authorities. Not only are separate executive officers required for purely9 local duties (an amount of separation which exists under all governments), but the popular control over those officers can only be advantageously exerted through a separate organ. Their original appointment, the function of watching and checking them, the duty of providing, or the discretion10 of withholding11, the supplies necessary for their operations, should rest, not with the national Parliament or the national executive, but with the people of the locality. In some of the New England States these functions are still exercised directly by the assembled people; it is said with better results than might be expected; and those highly educated communities are so well satisfied with this primitive12 mode of local government, that they have no desire to exchange it for the only representative system they are acquainted with, by which all minorities are disfranchised. Such very peculiar circumstances, however, are required to make this arrangement work tolerably in practice, that recourse must generally be had to the plan of representative sub-Parliaments for local affairs. These exist in England, but very incompletely, and with great irregularity and want of system: in some other countries much less popularly governed their constitution is far more rational. In England there has always been more liberty, but worse organisation14, while in other countries there is better organisation, but less liberty. It is necessary, then, that in addition to the national representation there should be municipal and provincial15 representations: and the two questions which remain to be resolved are, how the local representative bodies should be constituted, and what should be the extent of their functions.
14 On Liberty, concluding chapter; and, at greater length, in the final chapter of Principles of Political Economy.
In considering these questions two points require an equal degree of our attention: how the local business itself can be best done; and how its transaction can be made most instrumental to the nourishment16 of public spirit and the development of intelligence. In an earlier part of this inquiry17 I have dwelt in strong language — hardly any language is strong enough to express the strength of my conviction — on the importance of that portion of the operation of free institutions which may be called the public education of the citizens. Now, of this operation the local administrative18 institutions are the chief instrument. Except by the part they may take as jurymen in the administration of justice, the mass of the population have very little opportunity of sharing personally in the conduct of the general affairs of the community. Reading newspapers, and perhaps writing to them, public meetings, and solicitations of different sorts addressed to the political authorities, are the extent of the participation20 of private citizens in general politics during the interval21 between one parliamentary election and another. Though it is impossible to exaggerate the importance of these various liberties, both as securities for freedom and as means of general cultivation22, the practice which they give is more in thinking than in action, and in thinking without the responsibilities of action; which with most people amounts to little more than passively receiving the thoughts of some one else. But in the case of local bodies, besides the function of electing, many citizens in turn have the chance of being elected, and many, either by selection or by rotation23, fill one or other of the numerous local executive offices. In these positions they have to act for public interests, as well as to think and to speak, and the thinking cannot all be done by proxy24. It may be added, that these local functions, not being in general sought by the higher ranks, carry down the important political education which they are the means of conferring to a much lower grade in society. The mental discipline being thus a more important feature in local concerns than in the general affairs of the State, while there are not such vital interests dependent on the quality of the administration, a greater weight may be given to the former consideration, and the latter admits much more frequently of being postponed25 to it than in matters of general legislation and the conduct of imperial affairs.
The proper constitution of local representative bodies does not present much difficulty. The principles which apply to it do not differ in any respect from those applicable to the national representation. The same obligation exists, as in the case of the more important function, for making the bodies elective; and the same reasons operate as in that case, but with still greater force, for giving them a widely democratic basis: the dangers being less, and the advantages, in point of popular education and cultivation, in some respects even greater. As the principal duty of the local bodies consists of the imposition and expenditure26 of local taxation27, the electoral franchise13 should vest in all who contribute to the local rates, to the exclusion28 of all who do not. I assume that there is no indirect taxation, no octroi duties, or that if there are, they are supplementary29 only; those on whom their burden falls being also rated to a direct assessment30. The representation of minorities should be provided for in the same manner as in the national Parliament, and there are the same strong reasons for plurality of votes. Only, there is not so decisive an objection, in the inferior as in the higher body, to making the plural31 voting depend (as in some of the local elections of our own country) on a mere32 money qualification: for the honest and frugal33 dispensation of money forms so much larger a part of the business of the local than of the national body, that there is more justice as well as policy in allowing a greater proportional influence to those who have a larger money interest at stake.
In the most recently established of our local representative institutions, the Boards of Guardians34, the justices of peace of the district sit ex officio along with the elected members, in number limited by law to a third of the whole. In the peculiar constitution of English society I have no doubt of the beneficial effect of this provision. It secures the presence, in these bodies, of a more educated class than it would perhaps be practicable to attract thither35 on any other terms; and while the limitation in number of the ex officio members precludes36 them from acquiring predominance by mere numerical strength, they, as a virtual representation of another class, having sometimes a different interest from the rest, are a check upon the class interests of the farmers or petty shopkeepers who form the bulk of the elected Guardians. A similar commendation cannot be given to the constitution of the only provincial boards we possess, the Quarter Sessions, consisting of the justices of peace alone; on whom, over and above their judicial37 duties, some of the most important parts of the administrative business of the country depend for their performance. The mode of formation of these bodies is most anomalous38, they being neither elected, nor, in any proper sense of the term, nominated, but holding their important functions, like the feudal39 lords to whom they succeeded, virtually by right of their acres: the appointment vested in the Crown (or, speaking practically, in one of themselves, the Lord Lieutenant) being made use of only as a means of excluding any one who it is thought would do discredit40 to the body, or, now and then, one who is on the wrong side in politics. The institution is the most aristocratic in principle which now remains in England; far more so than the House of Lords, for it grants public money and disposes of important public interests, not in conjunction with a popular assembly, but alone. It is clung to with proportionate tenacity41 by our aristocratic classes; but is obviously at variance42 with all the principles which are the foundation of representative government. In a County Board there is not the same justification43 as in Boards of Guardians, for even an admixture of ex officio with elected members: since the business of a county being on a sufficiently44 large scale to be an object of interest and attraction to country gentlemen, they would have no more difficulty in getting themselves elected to the Board than they have in being returned to Parliament as county members. In regard to the proper circumscription45 of the constituencies which elect the local representative bodies; the principle which, when applied46 as an exclusive and unbending rule to parliamentary representation, is inappropriate, namely community of local interests, is here the only just and applicable one. The very object of having a local representation is in order that those who have any interest in common, which they do not share with the general body of their countrymen, may manage that joint47 interest by themselves: and the purpose is contradicted if the distribution of the local representation follows any other rule than the grouping of those joint interests. There are local interests peculiar to every town, whether great or small, and common to all its inhabitants: every town, therefore, without distinction of size, ought to have its municipal council. It is equally obvious that every town ought to have but one. The different quarters of the same town have seldom or never any material diversities of local interest; they all require to have the same things done, the same expenses incurred48; and, except as to their churches, which it is probably desirable to leave under simply parochial management, the same arrangements may be made to serve for all. Paving, lighting49, water supply, drainage, port and market regulations, cannot without great waste and inconvenience be different for different quarters of the same town. The subdivision of London into six or seven independent districts, each with its separate arrangements for local business (several of them without unity19 of administration even within themselves), prevents the possibility of consecutive50 or well regulated cooperation for common objects, precludes any uniform principle for the discharge of local duties, compels the general government to take things upon itself which would be best left to local authorities if there were any whose authority extended to the entire metropolis51, and answers no purpose but to keep up the fantastical trappings of that union of modern jobbing and antiquated52 foppery, the Corporation of the City of London.
Another equally important principle is, that in each local circumscription there should be but one elected body for all local business, not different bodies for different parts of it. Division of labour does not mean cutting up every business into minute fractions; it means the union of such operations as are fit to be performed by the same persons, and the separation of such as can be better performed by different persons. The executive duties of the locality do indeed require to be divided into departments, for the same reason as those of the State; because they are of diverse kinds, each requiring knowledge peculiar to itself, and needing, for its due performance, the undivided attention of a specially53 qualified54 functionary55. But the reasons for subdivision which apply to the execution do not apply to the control. The business of the elective body is not to do the work, but to see that it is properly done, and that nothing necessary is left undone56. This function can be fulfilled for all departments by the same superintending body; and by a collective and comprehensive far better than by a minute and microscopic57 view. It is as absurd in public affairs as it would be in private that every workman should be looked after by a superintendent58 to himself. The Government of the Crown consists of many departments, and there are many ministers to conduct them, but those ministers have not a Parliament apiece to keep them to their duty. The local, like the national Parliament, has for its proper business to consider the interest of the locality as a whole, composed of parts all of which must be adapted to one another, and attended to in the order and ratio of their importance.
There is another very weighty reason for uniting the control of all the business of a locality under one body. The greatest imperfection of popular local institutions, and the chief cause of the failure which so often attends them, is the low calibre of the men by whom they are almost always carried on. That these should be of a very miscellaneous character is, indeed, part of the usefulness of the institution; it is that circumstance chiefly which renders it a school of political capacity and general intelligence. But a school supposes teachers as well as scholars; the utility of the instruction greatly depends on its bringing inferior minds into contact with superior, a contact which in the ordinary course of life is altogether exceptional, and the want of which contributes more than anything else to keep the generality of mankind on one level of contented59 ignorance. The school, moreover, is worthless, and a school of evil instead of good, if through the want of due surveillance, and of the presence within itself of a higher order of characters, the action of the body is allowed, as it so often is, to degenerate60 into an equally unscrupulous and stupid pursuit of the self-interest of its members. Now it is quite hopeless to induce persons of a high class, either socially or intellectually, to take a share of local administration in a corner by piece-meal, as members of a Paving Board or a Drainage Commission. The entire local business of their town is not more than a sufficient object to induce men whose tastes incline them and whose knowledge qualifies them for national affairs to become members of a mere local body, and devote to it the time and study which are necessary to render their presence anything more than a screen for the jobbing of inferior persons under the shelter of their responsibility. A mere Board of Works, though it comprehend the entire metropolis, is sure to be composed of the same class of persons as the vestries of the London parishes; nor is it practicable, or even desirable, that such should not form the majority; but it is important for every purpose which local bodies are designed to serve, whether it be the enlightened and honest performance of their special duties, or the cultivation of the political intelligence of the nation, that every such body should contain a portion of the very best minds of the locality: who are thus brought into perpetual contact, of the most useful kind, with minds of a lower grade, receiving from them what local or professional knowledge they have to give, and in return inspiring them with a portion of their own more enlarged ideas, and higher and more enlightened purposes.
A mere village has no claim to a municipal representation. By a village I mean a place whose inhabitants are not markedly distinguished61 by occupation or social relations from those of the rural districts adjoining, and for whose local wants the arrangements made for the surrounding territory will suffice. Such small places have rarely a sufficient public to furnish a tolerable municipal council: if they contain any talent or knowledge applicable to public business, it is apt to be all concentrated in some one man, who thereby62 becomes the dominator of the place. It is better that such places should be merged63 in a larger circumscription. The local representation of rural districts will naturally be determined by geographical64 considerations; with due regard to those sympathies of feeling by which human beings are so much aided to act in concert, and which partly follow historical boundaries, such as those of counties or provinces, and partly community of interest and occupation, as in agriculture, maritime65, manufacturing, or mining districts. Different kinds of local business require different areas of representation. The unions of parishes have been fixed66 on as the most appropriate basis for the representative bodies which superintend the relief of indigence67; while, for the proper regulation of highways, or prisons, or police, a large extent, like that of an average county, is not more than sufficient. In these large districts, therefore, the maxim68, that an elective body constituted in any locality should have authority over all the local concerns common to the locality, requires modification69 from another principle — as well as from the competing consideration of the importance of obtaining for the discharge of the local duties the highest qualifications possible. For example, if it be necessary (as I believe it to be) for the proper administration of the Poor Laws that the area of rating should not be more extensive than most of the present unions, a principle which requires a Board of Guardians for each union — yet, as a much more highly qualified class of persons is likely to be obtainable for a County Board than those who compose an average Board of Guardians, it may on that ground be expedient70 to reserve for the County Boards some higher descriptions of local business, which might otherwise have been conveniently managed within itself by each separate union.
Besides the controlling council, or local sub-Parliament, local business has its executive department. With respect to this, the same questions arise as with respect to the executive authorities in the State; and they may, for the most part, be answered in the same manner. The principles applicable to all public trusts are in substance the same. In the first place, each executive officer should be single, and singly responsible for the whole of the duty committed to his charge. In the next place, he should be nominated, not elected. It is ridiculous that a surveyor, or a health officer, or even a collector of rates, should be appointed by popular suffrage71. The popular choice usually depends on interest with a few local leaders, who, as they are not supposed to make the appointment, are not responsible for it; or on an appeal to sympathy, founded on having twelve children, and having been a rate-payer in the parish for thirty years. If in cases of this description election by the population is a farce72, appointment by the local representative body is little less objectionable. Such bodies have a perpetual tendency to become joint-stock associations for carrying into effect the private jobs of their various members. Appointments should be made on the individual responsibility of the Chairman of the body, let him be called Mayor, Chairman of Quarter Sessions, or by whatever other title. He occupies in the locality a position analogous73 to that of the prime minister in the State, and under a well organised system the appointment and watching of the local officers would be the most important part of his duty: he himself being appointed by the Council from its own number, subject either to annual re-election, or to removal by a vote of the body.
From the constitution of the local bodies I now pass to the equally important and more difficult subject of their proper attributions. This question divides itself into two parts: what should be their duties, and whether they should have full authority within the sphere of those duties, or should be liable to any, and what, interference on the part of the central government.
It is obvious, to begin with, that all business purely local — all which concerns only a single locality — should devolve upon the local authorities. The paving, lighting, and cleansing75 of the streets of a town, and in ordinary circumstances the draining of its houses, are of little consequence to any but its inhabitants. The nation at large is interested in them in no other way than that in which it is interested in the private well-being76 of all its individual citizens. But among the duties classed as local, or performed by local functionaries77, there are many which might with equal propriety78 be termed national, being the share, belonging to the locality, of some branch of the public administration in the efficiency of which the whole nation is alike interested: the gaols79, for instance, most of which in this country are under county management; the local police; the local administration of justice, much of which, especially in corporate81 towns, is performed by officers elected by the locality, and paid from local funds. None of these can be said to be matters of local, as distinguished from national, importance. It would not be a matter personally indifferent to the rest of the country if any part of it became a nest of robbers or a focus of demoralisation, owing to the maladministration of its police; or if, through the bad regulations of its gaol80, the punishment which the courts of justice intended to inflict82 on the criminals confined therein (who might have come from, or committed their offences in, any other district) might be doubled in intensity83, or lowered to practical impunity84. The points, moreover, which constitute good management of these things are the same everywhere; there is no good reason why police, or gaols, or the administration of justice, should be differently managed in one part of the kingdom and in another; while there is great peril85 that in things so important, and to which the most instructed minds available to the State are not more than adequate, the lower average of capacities which alone can be counted on for the service of the localities might commit errors of such magnitude as to be a serious blot86 upon the general administration of the country.
Security of person and property, and equal justice between individuals, are the first needs of society, and the primary ends of government: if these things can be left to any responsibility below the highest, there is nothing, except war and treaties, which requires a general government at all. Whatever are the best arrangements for securing these primary objects should be made universally obligatory87, and, to secure their enforcement, should be placed under central superintendence. It is often useful, and with the institutions of our own country even necessary, from the scarcity88, in the localities, of officers representing the general government, that the execution of duties imposed by the central authority should be entrusted89 to functionaries appointed for local purposes by the locality. But experience is daily forcing upon the public a conviction of the necessity of having at least inspectors90 appointed by the general government to see that the local officers do their duty. If prisons are under local management, the central government appoints inspectors of prisons to take care that the rules laid down by Parliament are observed, and to suggest others if the state of the gaols shows them to be requisite91: as there are inspectors of factories, and inspectors of schools, to watch over the observance of the Acts of Parliament relating to the first, and the fulfilment of the conditions on which State assistance is granted to the latter.
But, if the administration of justice, police and gaols included, is both so universal a concern, and so much a matter of general science independent of local peculiarities92, that it may be, and ought to be, uniformly regulated throughout the country, and its regulation enforced by more trained and skilful93 hands than those of purely local authorities — there is also business, such as the administration of the poor laws, sanitary94 regulation, and others, which, while really interesting to the whole country, cannot consistently with the very purposes of local administration, be, managed otherwise than by the localities. In regard to such duties the question arises, how far the local authorities ought to be trusted with discretionary power, free from any superintendence or control of the State.
To decide this question it is essential to consider what is the comparative position of the central and the local authorities as capacity for the work, and security against negligence95 or abuse. In the first place, the local representative bodies and their officers are almost certain to be of a much lower grade of intelligence and knowledge than Parliament and the national executive. Secondly96, besides being themselves of inferior qualifications, they are watched by, and accountable to, an inferior public opinion. The public under whose eyes they act, and by whom they are criticised, is both more limited in extent, and generally far less enlightened, than that which surrounds and admonishes97 the highest authorities at the capital; while the comparative smallness of the interests involved causes even that inferior public to direct its thoughts to the subject less intently, and with less solicitude98. Far less interference is exercised by the press and by public discussion, and that which is exercised may with much more impunity be disregarded in the proceedings99 of local than in those of national authorities.
Thus far the advantage seems wholly on the side of management by the central government. But, when we look more closely, these motives100 of preference are found to be balanced by others fully101 as substantial. If the local authorities and public are inferior to the central ones in knowledge of the principles of administration, they have the compensating102 advantage of a far more direct interest in the result. A man's neighbours or his landlord may be much cleverer than himself, and not without an indirect interest in his prosperity, but for all that his interests will be better attended to in his own keeping than in theirs. It is further to be remembered, that even supposing the central government to administer through its own officers, its officers do not act at the centre, but in the locality: and however inferior the local public may be to the central, it is the local public alone which has any opportunity of watching them, and it is the local opinion alone which either acts directly upon their own conduct, or calls the attention of the government to the points in which they may require correction. It is but in extreme cases that the general opinion of the country is brought to bear at all upon details of local administration, and still more rarely has it the means of deciding upon them with any just appreciation103 of the case. Now, the local opinion necessarily acts far more forcibly upon purely local administrators104. They, in the natural course of things, are permanent residents, not expecting to be withdrawn105 from the place when they cease to exercise authority in it; and their authority itself depends, by supposition, on the will of the local public. I need not dwell on the deficiencies of the central authority in detailed106 knowledge of local persons and things, and the too great engrossment of its time and thoughts by other concerns, to admit of its acquiring the quantity and quality of local knowledge necessary even for deciding on complaints, and enforcing responsibility from so great a number of local agents. In the details of management, therefore, the local bodies will generally have the advantage; but in comprehension of the principles even of purely local management, the superiority of the central government, when rightly constituted, ought to be prodigious107: not only by reason of the probably great personal superiority of the individuals composing it, and the multitude of thinkers and writers who are at all times engaged in pressing useful ideas upon their notice, but also because the knowledge and experience of any local authority is but local knowledge and experience, confined to their own part of the country and its modes of management, whereas the central government has the means of knowing all that is to be learnt from the united experience of the whole kingdom, with the addition of easy access to that of foreign countries.
The practical conclusion from these premises108 is not difficult to draw. The authority which is most conversant109 with principles should be supreme over principles, while that which is most competent in details should have the details left to it. The principal business of the central authority should be to give instruction, of the local authority to apply it. Power may be localised, but knowledge, to be most useful, must be centralised; there must be somewhere a focus at which all its scattered110 rays are collected, that the broken and coloured lights which exist elsewhere may find there what is necessary to complete and purify them. To every branch of local administration which affects the general interest there should be a corresponding central organ, either a minister, or some specially appointed functionary under him; even if that functionary does no more than collect information from all quarters, and bring the experience acquired in one locality to the knowledge of another where it is wanted. But there is also something more than this for the central authority to do. It ought to keep open a perpetual communication with the localities: informing itself by their experience, and them by its own; giving advice freely when asked, volunteering it when seen to be required; compelling publicity111 and recordation of proceedings, and enforcing obedience112 to every general law which the legislature has laid down on the subject of local management.
That some such laws ought to be laid down few are likely to deny. The localities may be allowed to mismanage their own interests, but not to prejudice those of others, nor violate those principles of justice between one person and another of which it is the duty of the State to maintain the rigid113 observance. If the local majority attempts to oppress the minority, or one class another, the State is bound to interpose. For example, all local rates ought to be voted exclusively by the local representative body; but that body, though elected solely114 by rate-payers, may raise its revenues by imposts of such a kind, or assess them in such a manner, as to throw an unjust share of the burden on the poor, the rich, or some particular class of the population: it is the duty, therefore, of the legislature, while leaving the mere amount of the local taxes to the discretion of the local body, to lay down authoritatively115 the modes of taxation, and rules of assessment, which alone the localities shall be permitted to use.
Again, in the administration of public charity the industry and morality of the whole labouring population depend, to a most serious extent, upon adherence116 to certain fixed principles in awarding relief. Though it belongs essentially117 to the local functionaries to determine who, according to those principles, is entitled to be relieved, the national Parliament is the proper authority to prescribe the principles themselves; and it would neglect a most important part of its duty if it did not, in a matter of such grave national concern, lay down imperative118 rules, and make effectual provision that those rules should not be departed from. What power of actual interference with the local administrators it may be necessary to retain, for the due enforcement of the laws, is a question of detail into which it would be useless to enter. The laws themselves will naturally define the penalties, and fix the mode of their enforcement. It may be requisite, to meet extreme cases, that the power of the central authority should extend to dissolving the local representative council, or dismissing the local executive: but not to making new appointments, or suspending the local institutions. Where Parliament has not interfered119, neither ought any branch of the executive to interfere74 with authority; but as an adviser120 and critic, an enforcer of the laws, and a denouncer to Parliament or the local constituencies of conduct which it deems condemnable121, the functions of the executive are of the greatest possible value.
Some may think that however much the central authority surpasses the local in knowledge of the principles of administration, the great object which has been so much insisted on, the social and political education of the citizens, requires that they should be left to manage these matters by their own, however imperfect, lights. To this it might be answered, that the education of the citizens is not the only thing to be considered; government and administration do not exist for that alone, great as its importance is. But the objection shows a very imperfect understanding of the function of popular institutions as a means of political instruction. It is but a poor education that associates ignorance with ignorance, and leaves them, if they care for knowledge, to grope their way to it without help, and to do without it if they do not. What is wanted is, the means of making ignorance aware of itself, and able to profit by knowledge; accustoming122 minds which know only routine to act upon, and feel the value of principles: teaching them to compare different modes of action, and learn, by the use of their reason, to distinguish the best. When we desire to have a good school, we do not eliminate the teacher. The old remark, "as the schoolmaster is, so will be the school," is as true of the indirect schooling123 of grown people by public business as of the schooling of youth in academies and colleges. A government which attempts to do everything is aptly compared by M. Charles de Remusat to a schoolmaster who does all the pupils' tasks for them; he may be very popular with the pupils, but he will teach them little. A government, on the other hand, which neither does anything itself that can possibly be done by any one else, nor shows any one else how to do anything, is like a school in which there is no schoolmaster, but only pupil teachers who have never themselves been taught.
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legislative
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| n.立法机构，立法权；adj.立法的，有立法权的 | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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untying
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| untie的现在分词 | |
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treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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discretion
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| n.谨慎；随意处理 | |
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withholding
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| 扣缴税款 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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franchise
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| n.特许，特权，专营权，特许权 | |
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organisation
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| n.组织，安排，团体，有机休 | |
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provincial
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| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
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nourishment
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| n.食物，营养品；营养情况 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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administrative
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| adj.行政的，管理的 | |
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unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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participation
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| n.参与，参加，分享 | |
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interval
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| n.间隔，间距；幕间休息，中场休息 | |
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cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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rotation
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| n.旋转；循环，轮流 | |
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24
proxy
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| n.代理权，代表权；（对代理人的）委托书；代理人 | |
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25
postponed
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| vt.& vi.延期，缓办，（使）延迟vt.把…放在次要地位；[语]把…放在后面（或句尾）vi.（疟疾等）延缓发作（或复发） | |
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26
expenditure
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| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
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taxation
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| n.征税，税收，税金 | |
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28
exclusion
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| n.拒绝，排除，排斥，远足，远途旅行 | |
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29
supplementary
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| adj.补充的，附加的 | |
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30
assessment
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| n.评价；评估；对财产的估价，被估定的金额 | |
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31
plural
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| n.复数；复数形式；adj.复数的 | |
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32
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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33
frugal
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| adj.节俭的，节约的，少量的，微量的 | |
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34
guardians
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| 监护人( guardian的名词复数 )； 保护者，维护者 | |
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35
thither
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| adv.向那里；adj.在那边的，对岸的 | |
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36
precludes
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| v.阻止( preclude的第三人称单数 )；排除；妨碍；使…行不通 | |
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37
judicial
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| adj.司法的，法庭的，审判的，明断的，公正的 | |
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38
anomalous
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| adj.反常的；不规则的 | |
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39
feudal
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| adj.封建的，封地的，领地的 | |
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40
discredit
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| vt.使不可置信；n.丧失信义；不信，怀疑 | |
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41
tenacity
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| n.坚韧 | |
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42
variance
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| n.矛盾，不同 | |
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43
justification
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| n.正当的理由；辩解的理由 | |
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44
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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45
circumscription
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| n.界限；限界 | |
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46
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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47
joint
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| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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48
incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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49
lighting
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| n.照明，光线的明暗，舞台灯光 | |
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50
consecutive
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| adj.连续的，联贯的，始终一贯的 | |
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51
metropolis
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| n.首府；大城市 | |
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52
antiquated
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| adj.陈旧的，过时的 | |
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53
specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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54
qualified
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| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
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55
functionary
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| n.官员；公职人员 | |
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56
undone
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| a.未做完的，未完成的 | |
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57
microscopic
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| adj.微小的，细微的，极小的，显微的 | |
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58
superintendent
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| n.监督人，主管，总监；(英国)警务长 | |
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contented
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| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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degenerate
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| v.退步，堕落；adj.退步的，堕落的；n.堕落者 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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merged
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| （使）混合( merge的过去式和过去分词 )； 相融； 融入； 渐渐消失在某物中 | |
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geographical
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| adj.地理的；地区(性)的 | |
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maritime
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| adj.海的，海事的，航海的，近海的，沿海的 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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67
indigence
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| n.贫穷 | |
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68
maxim
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| n.格言，箴言 | |
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69
modification
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| n.修改，改进，缓和，减轻 | |
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expedient
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| adj.有用的，有利的；n.紧急的办法，权宜之计 | |
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71
suffrage
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| n.投票，选举权，参政权 | |
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72
farce
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| n.闹剧，笑剧，滑稽戏；胡闹 | |
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73
analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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74
interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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75
cleansing
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| n. 净化(垃圾) adj. 清洁用的 动词cleanse的现在分词 | |
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76
well-being
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| n.安康，安乐，幸福 | |
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77
functionaries
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| n.公职人员，官员( functionary的名词复数 ) | |
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78
propriety
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| n.正当行为；正当；适当 | |
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79
gaols
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| 监狱，拘留所( gaol的名词复数 ) | |
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80
gaol
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| n.(jail)监狱；(不加冠词)监禁；vt.使…坐牢 | |
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81
corporate
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| adj.共同的，全体的；公司的，企业的 | |
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82
inflict
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| vt.(on)把…强加给，使遭受，使承担 | |
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83
intensity
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| n.强烈，剧烈；强度；烈度 | |
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84
impunity
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| n.(惩罚、损失、伤害等的)免除 | |
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85
peril
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| n.(严重的)危险；危险的事物 | |
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86
blot
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| vt.弄脏（用吸墨纸）吸干；n.污点，污渍 | |
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87
obligatory
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| adj.强制性的，义务的，必须的 | |
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88
scarcity
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| n.缺乏，不足，萧条 | |
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89
entrusted
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| v.委托，托付( entrust的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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90
inspectors
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| n.检查员( inspector的名词复数 )；（英国公共汽车或火车上的）查票员；（警察）巡官；检阅官 | |
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91
requisite
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| adj.需要的，必不可少的；n.必需品 | |
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92
peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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93
skilful
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| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
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94
sanitary
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| adj.卫生方面的，卫生的，清洁的，卫生的 | |
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95
negligence
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| n.疏忽，玩忽，粗心大意 | |
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96
secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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97
admonishes
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| n.劝告( admonish的名词复数 )；训诫；（温和地）责备；轻责v.劝告( admonish的第三人称单数 )；训诫；（温和地）责备；轻责 | |
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98
solicitude
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| n.焦虑 | |
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99
proceedings
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| n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报 | |
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100
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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101
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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102
compensating
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| 补偿，补助，修正 | |
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103
appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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104
administrators
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| n.管理者( administrator的名词复数 )；有管理（或行政）才能的人；（由遗嘱检验法庭指定的）遗产管理人；奉派暂管主教教区的牧师 | |
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105
withdrawn
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| vt.收回；使退出；vi.撤退，退出 | |
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106
detailed
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| adj.详细的，详尽的，极注意细节的，完全的 | |
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107
prodigious
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| adj.惊人的，奇妙的；异常的；巨大的；庞大的 | |
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108
premises
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| n.建筑物，房屋 | |
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109
conversant
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| adj.亲近的，有交情的，熟悉的 | |
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110
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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111
publicity
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| n.众所周知，闻名；宣传，广告 | |
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112
obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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113
rigid
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| adj.严格的，死板的；刚硬的，僵硬的 | |
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114
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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115
authoritatively
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| 命令式地，有权威地，可信地 | |
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116
adherence
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| n.信奉，依附，坚持，固着 | |
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117
essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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118
imperative
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| n.命令，需要；规则；祈使语气；adj.强制的；紧急的 | |
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119
interfered
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| v.干预( interfere的过去式和过去分词 )；调停；妨碍；干涉 | |
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120
adviser
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| n.劝告者，顾问 | |
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121
condemnable
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| adj.该罚的，该受责备的 | |
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122
accustoming
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| v.（使）习惯于( accustom的现在分词 ) | |
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123
schooling
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| n.教育；正规学校教育 | |
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