The completed monastery3 had a stout4 stone wall about it, for security and peace. It enclosed an area of about four hundred yards in width, and more than twice that space in length. The longer reaches of the wall ran through high fields and woods on either side of the valley. At each end it crossed the river: at the west end was the main gate.
Beside this gate stood the gate-house. Abbot Huby, in the sixteenth century, built a house here and established in it Robert Dawson and Ellen his wife; Robert to be porter and Ellen to be laundress. Robert was to keep the gate; and Ellen was to wash or cause to be washed (lavabit vel lavari faciet) the linen6 sheets (linthiamina) of the abbot{46} and abbey guests, and to do it without unnecessary tearing—congrue et honeste sine lesione voluntaria vel ruptura eorumdem. The fact, however, that at Citeaux there was an outer as well as an inner gate-house, suggests that Abbot Huby was but erecting7 a new lodge8 in the place of an old one. Here, at the outer gate, long before Robert Dawson’s day, the almoner dispensed9 his daily alms. Here the porter, at the sound of a knock, rose up crying, Deo gratias, an expression of joy at an opportunity to be hospitable10; met the guest, blessing11 him with a Benedicite, and hastened to inform the abbot of his arrival.
The abbot led the visitor along the road, having the river on his right and the high bank on his left, until they came to the little chapel12, built in the twelfth century, a part of whose west wall remains13, with a round-headed window. There they said a prayer, after which the hospitaller took the guest in charge. The{47} stables and barns were probably hereabouts. The mill is still standing14, across the river, being now used as a dairy-house; but most of the present structure belongs to the thirteenth century. The bakehouse and the malthouse, a hundred yards to the east, supplied the brethren with bread and beer; their ovens and vats15 may be traced amidst the ruins.
Through the great gate, the visitor passed into the presence of the Abbey itself. There, across a wide expanse of green, stood the buildings of the cloister16 group: on the left, the church; then the long range of the cellarium; and on the right, the guest-houses.
I. THE GUEST-HOUSES
The guest-houses had the river on two sides, being set in a sharp angle of the stream. On the north a wall led from the river to the western guest-house, and was continued to the eastern, making{48} two secluded18 courts. Close to the corner of the eastern house a door opened in the wall, through which the hospitaller led his guest into the inner court. There at his feet rose a great staircase which gave access to the second storey of that house. From the upper landing of these stairs a bridge led to the second storey of the other house.
The two houses may have been for the use of different classes of visitors, in a day when social distinctions were scrupulously19 drawn20. In that case, the better people were probably lodged21 in the eastern house. There, entering the upper storey, they found their sleeping-rooms, with deep-set windows looking to the north and east; and with two good fire-places, one in the middle of the east wall, the other in the gable end to the north. In these rooms was never a bed, a table, a stool or a candlestick which had been made by a machine. All had come from the hands of craftsmen22 who brought{49} to their labour a determining quality of personal interest. Descending23 into the courtyard, a door near the north end brought the guest into the great hall—“a goodly brave place much like unto a church”—where a central row of fair pillars upheld a vaulted24 roof. This was for the ceremonies of the table. The arrangement of the western guest-house was according to the same plan, with two differences: it was L-shaped, the letter being turned about so that the base lay by the river, while the shaft25 extended to the north; and the hall, which was in the base of the L, was divided into two rooms. The northern wing may have been the kitchen for both houses. A small building by the river, where the two guest-houses met, may have been the office of the hospitaller.
These houses were a hostelry, wherein decent wandering persons, “both noble, and gentle, and what degree soever that came thither26 as strangers,” were{50} made welcome and given free entertainment. This was the Abbey inn, known to all instructed wayfarers27. In a day when towns were far apart, and the roads bad and beset28 with peril29, the sight of a monastery tower in the late afternoon was pleasant to a traveller’s eyes. In the guest-house hall he ate; in the guest-house chamber30 he slept; and on the following morning, after mass, refreshed and blessed, he went upon his way, thanking God for monks and monasteries31.
II. THE CELLARIUM
The long range of building, extending from the church to the river, was called the cellarium, because it was under the general charge of the cellarer or steward32 of the monastery. It is likely that he had his office in the room which stands out from this building at the middle of its length. In this chamber, having a good window to the west, and a fireplace between two narrow windows to{51} the south, he kept his office hours. St. Benedict himself, in his rule, had counselled all cellarers to be punctual in this matter, that nobody be kept waiting.
The great vaulted hall, now open from end to end, was then divided into five rooms by screens and partitions. The first room included the first two bays of the north end. Instead of pillars, it had in the midst two piers35 of masonry36 supporting a staircase, which ascended37 out of the church into the room above. These piers made this a double room, whereof the western half served as a vestibule to the church, while the eastern half, once opening from the cloister, may sometime have been the treasury38, as at Durham.
The second room began at the southern pier34 and extended to the fourth pillar, thus including four bays. This was probably the storehouse for the domestic supplies of food and drink. A door in the west wall opened conveniently upon the outer court.{52}
The third room was between the fourth pillar and the sixth. It had a door in its south wall, and appears to have been the buttery.
The wall which crossed at the sixth pillar ran between two doors, an outer door into the court and an inner door into the cloister. Thus this fourth room served as an entrance way. Its southern wall had the eighth pillar in the middle of it, and this bay beside the entrance may have been the outer parlour, the auditorium39 juxta coquinam, or room beside the kitchen, which was provided for in the Cistercian arrangements. Here in a niche40 of the east wall, now blocked, the porter sat beside the cloister door. In this room the brethren of the Abbey met their friends who lived in the world; here merchants came to show their wares41.
All the rest of the hall, from the eighth pillar to the end over the river, was open then as it is now, and served as the refectory of the lay brothers. They came in by the door in the west wall between the eighth and ninth pillars; their tables were set along the side walls under the windows; their cups and plates may have been kept in cupboards against the blank wall of the last two bays in the south-west corner; their food came in from the abbey kitchen by a hatch which opened opposite the outer door.
An outside stairway—the day stairs—rose beside the cellarer’s office at this door, and led to the dormitory of the lay brothers. At the north end of the dormitory another stairway—the night stairs—went down into the church. At the south, a room at right-angles, over the river, where they made their toilet, gave access to the infirmary where they went when they were sick, and in which they lived in peace and Christian42 comfort when they were old.
The lay brothers were monks, like the others, in that they were subject to the usual monastic vows43, amenable44 to{54} the regulations of monastic life, and clad in a habit; but they were quite distinct from their brethren of the choir45 and cloister. At the beginning of monasticism, most of the monks were laymen46. They had separated themselves not only from the world but from the church. They believed that the deserts were better places for prayer than any sanctuary47 builded by the hand of man. They felt that they could best draw near to God, each in the silence of his own soul. In an age whose faith was in salvation48 by services, they turned their back on all the services. In an institutional time, when it was commonly accounted essential to be in the communion of the church, the monks were individualists. The fact is written in the letters of their name. A monk1—monos—is a man who lives alone. The time came when a monk was never, under any circumstances, alone; but at the beginning he was a solitary49 person, living his own life by himself.{55}
It is true that the wise church quietly and patiently followed these mystics in their wanderings, followed these enthusiasts50 who had forsaken51 the priests and the sacraments, and carried to them the altars which they had left behind, and by-and-by most of the monks were priests. But that was a long process, and during a great part of the time the convents of monks were lay fraternities, having only such priests as were needed for the rites52 of the church. Thus the monastic services were composed and arranged for the use of laymen. Indeed, the monasteries were never thoroughly53 adjusted to the conventional church system. They were never under the control of the diocesan bishop54. Sometimes, they defied him openly; sometimes, they gave him the nominal55 office of visitor, and defied him privately56. In general, he had little more authority over Benedictines or Cistercians than he has at present over Presbyterians or Methodists.{56}
Accordingly, the lay brothers of Fountains were so named not to distinguish them from their brethren in priests’ orders, but to mark a difference between them and the cloister brothers. The conversi, as they were called, were divided from the monachi not by a barrier of ordination57, but by a barrier of education. They were monks who could not read. When the Cistercian Order began, there were many such persons, some of good birth, many of good ability, but ignorant of letters. It was characteristic of the Cistercians that they made a place for the piety58 of these men. Unable to read, they could not take part in the regular offices of monastic devotion. But they could work. They could plough and spade, they could brew59 and bake, they knew how to work on a farm or in a mill; at the humblest, they could fetch and carry. And these acts, the Cistercians taught, may be as religious as the recitation of a litany. So there were the lay{57} brothers, like St. Christopher at the ford60 of the river, consecrating61 their hands and their feet, their strength and their obedience62, to God. They were sanctifying the homeliest tasks by doing them as the servants of Heaven.
The lay brothers were in the department of the cellarer, to whom they were responsible, as the cloister brothers were to the prior. They attended to the secular63 side of the common life. Having to work hard, they did not rise so early as the others; in summer, not till dawn. But they said prayers at night, coming down into the nave64, where their stalls were ranged along on either side against the great pillars. In the day, they might recite their appointed offices, stopping in the midst of their work in the mill or in the field. When it was possible, however, they had their service in the church, chanting softly in the nave while the other monks were singing in the choir, and having{58} forms of their own which they had learned by heart.
III. THE CHURCH
The essential purpose for which Fountains Abbey was founded was the pursuit of religion. The prevailing66 interpretation67 which was put upon religion made it to consist, in great measure, of the saying of services. Out of the confused noises of the common street, the monks had retired68 into the quiet of the monastery in the hope of meeting God. And they sought God in the church.
The church had a western porch, a dozen feet in width, extending along the whole front. Part of the porch floor was made of gravestones, beneath which lay the dust of devout69 laymen, who had begged the privilege of being buried at the door of the house of prayer. The porch roof touched the base of the great window, which was filled with the glorious colours of the inimitable glass of the{59} middle ages. Over the window, in a niche, was a figure of the Mother and Child. Abbot John Darnton had this made, and inscribed70 his name upon the supporting corbel: an eagle, the symbol of the fourth evangelist, to mean John, perched on a cask or tun, with a scroll72 beneath marked dern 1494.
Entering beneath the Norman arch of the west door, the visitor found over his head a gallery which carried the great organ. A screen supported the gallery, making a vestibule for the church, keeping out the wind. A fragment of the base of this screen remains on the south side, near a bit of the pavement which was put in by John of Kent. Standing in the screen door and looking to the east, the high roof reached over the nave, the choir, the presbytery, and the chapel of the nine altars, to the splendour of the east window. The Norman nave and transepts, with their great pillars and round-headed clerestory windows, repre{60}sent the primitive73 Puritan simplicity74 of the Cistercians. The choir and presbytery and the nine-altars chapel are in the style called Early English. The great windows, east and west, replacing plainer windows, are, like the tower, in the style called Perpendicular75. To-day, by the destruction of the choir and presbytery, the whole church in its great length lies open to the view, but in the middle ages it was crossed by three stone screens.
The first partition, called the rood screen, crossed the middle alley5 between the seventh pair of pillars, counting from the west door. It had two openings, between which stood an altar. Over the altar, on a beam which topped the screen from pillar to pillar, was a great cross or rood. This screen formed the east end of that part of the church which was assigned to the lay brothers. On the right hand and on the left, this sanctuary was shut off from the aisles77 by walls, which ran along the inner side of the pillars,{61} making a long narrow chapel, with the stalls of the lay brothers set against them. Thus the pillars were hidden in the aisles, an observer at the west door seeing only the capitals and upper portions of them above the walls.
The second partition, called the choir screen, crossed the tenth pair of pillars, and a door in the middle of it gave access to the choir. The space between these two screens, called the retro-choir, was intended especially for aged78 and convalescent brethren from the infirmary. There was probably a great bench for them against the back of the rood screen.
In the midst of the retro-choir, between the eighth and ninth pairs of pillars, stood two altars, one on the north dedicated79 to St. Mary, and the other on the south dedicated to St. Bernard. The reredoses of these altars made a screen between the ninth pillars, having a doorway80 between them. In this passage, be{62}tween the altars of the saints, three abbots were buried, in the fifteenth century. From the top of the two reredoses to the top of the choir screen, a loft81 was built, called the pulpitum, extending from the ninth and tenth pillars on the north to the ninth and tenth pillars on the south, and on the north side carried out over the aisle76. Here, over the aisle, stood the choir organ.
Passing under this gallery, through the door of the choir screen, the visitor stood in the central sanctuary, the church of the monks of the cloister. On either side were twenty stalls, and against the screen, facing the east, were three stalls on the right of the entrance, and three on the left. The number of the stalls is determined82 by the discovery of nine earthen pots buried in the masonry which underlay83 them. These pots were, no doubt, as in several other churches, an acoustic84 experiment. The distances between them indicate how many there{63} were in the whole range. In front of the stalls of the monks were lower seats for the novices85. In addition to the entrance through the choir screen, there were two other ways of access, at the east end of the stalls, on either side. Here is still on either side a stone step, significantly worn. On the north side, stairs led to a high seat over the door. In the middle alley, where the lecturn may have stood at which the lessons were read at matins, an abbot was buried.
The presbytery, or chancel, began at these choir doors, and was raised a step or two. Across the long space of its shining floor stood the third partition, called the altar screen. Against it was the high altar.
Thus the church was divided into three churches; one for the brothers of the cellarium, ending at the rood screen; one for the infirmary brethren, ending at the choir screen; one for the brethren of the cloister, ending at the altar{64} screen. On the two sides of this three-fold sanctuary ran long aisles, from the west wall to the chapel of the nine altars. In the middle of this distance, the aisles opened into transepts, north and south. The nave aisles, at first unobstructed for passage around the church, were presently cut up by cross partitions into chapels86; but the choir aisles continued to be used as ambulatories. The transepts served as antechambers for the chapels which opened out from them to the east.
Each transept had originally three of these chapels, but the building of the new chancel had taken away the inner one on each side. Of the two which thus remained, the outer chapel of the north transept had been changed into a store-house when the tower was built, so that only the chapel which was in the middle remained. Over the door, under a bracket, is still to be read an inscription88 which informs us that it was dedicated to the Archangel Michael.{65}
The north transept ended in the noble tower of four storeys, the third of which was probably for the bells, whilst the second may have served as the sleeping-room of the men who rung them. The inscriptions89 which ran round the outside of the tower are still in great part legible.
“Blessed be the name of Jesus Christ,” said the stones above.
“Blessing and wisdom and honour and power be to our God for ever”; “To the King, eternal, immortal90, invisible, be honour and glory for ever,” said the middle lines.
“To God alone, to Jesus Christ, be honour and glory for ever,” was thrice repeated, east and north and west, below.
The words were part in praise, part in apology. The beautiful tower was forbidden by the ancient regulations of the Order. The Cistercian chapel was to have but a modest tower, rising no more than a single storey over the roof. These high parapets were a symbol of the pride{66} of life: they indicated that the ambitions of the outer world had successfully invaded the monastery. Not so! cried the abbot who built them, repeating again and again in great letters on the tower the assertion that it was raised solely91 for God’s glory.
In the south transept, out of which, in the south-west corner, stairs led up to the dormitory of the monks, the chapel which was originally the middle one of three, was turned into a sacristy; and a narrow door in the south wall gave access to a large room built against the chancel, which may have been the office of the sacrist. In the sacristy, and in other safe places, were kept the Abbey treasures. Here were the copes which the monks wore when they went in procession, on great days. At the time of the suppression, when an inventory92 was taken, there were eighty of them. Six were made of cloth of gold, twenty-six of white damask, four of white velvet93,{67} two of white fustian94. Five old copes were of embroidered95 work, and six of flowered work. One was “very well wrought96 with images”; one, wrought with images, was of green damask; six were of red silk, worked with flowers and stars; one was of black velvet. Some of these splendid cloaks may have been given by noble benefactors97 out of their own wardrobes. For Richard of the Lion Heart presented to the prior of Durham his Parliament robe “of blue velvet, wrought with great lions of pure gold”; whilst Queen Philippa, making a visit to Ely, gave the prior her “jewelled robes of State, powdered with golden squirrels.”
Here, also, hung surplices, and eucharistic vestments of cloth of gold and silk and velvet and serge. Here the abbot may have kept his two mitres, one for common days, the other for high feasts; but both of them shining with plates of silver, and garnished98 with pearls. Each had its cushion; a word which the writer{68} of the inventory laboriously99 spelled “qweshan.” Here were processional crosses; chalices101 and patens reserved for great festivals; shrines102 to be borne about the church on the festival of Corpus Christi, one containing a rib71 of St. Lawrence, another a bit of St. Anne’s scalp set in a plate of silver; and an image of St. James, and another of our Lady, both of silver-gilt103; a table, or reredos, for the high altar at great services, bearing three images of silver-gilt, embellished104 with gold and precious stones; and, most precious of all, a cross of solid gold, set with gems105, and having in it a piece of the true cross of Calvary.
The “chapel of nine altars” had seven of these holy tables against its east wall, the three which would naturally have stood under the great window being combined into one. Each altar had its aumbry or closet for the sacred vessels107, and was parted from its neighbour by a low barrier of wood, while a similar wall{69} ran along the front of the whole row, with doors admitting to the altars. There was a gallery over the altar screen which parted the chapel from the presbytery; and a little gallery over the door in the south-west corner, which was connected by a long overhead passage with the abbot’s lodgings109. It is likely that at Fountains, as at Durham, there was a closet against the south wall, where at the time of saying mass the sacristan provided the monks with bread and wine for their various altars.
Having thus examined the church, we may imagine ourselves at service in it upon some high occasion. The lay brothers in their brown gowns are in their stalls. The monks are in their places in the choir. They are dressed in white woollen cassocks, tied with a black girdle, and have over breast and back a scapulary—a straight breadth of black cloth before and behind, the two pieces fastened at the shoulders. Over{70} this plain garb110, each monk now wears one of the gorgeous copes of the sacristy. There are two candles on the high altar, and behind them is the tablet with the three images, probably our Lord on the Cross, with St. Mary on one side and St. John on the other, with “beads and plate of silver-gilt, and some part gold and set with stones.” Back of the altar, suspended high against the screen and falling to the floor, is a tapestry111 hanging, of Arras work. The holy table is spread with white damask embroidered with flowers. On a shelf in a carved recess112 of the south wall are a basin and ewer113 for washing the priest’s hands; a boat-shaped vessel106 for incense114, with a spoon; two cruets, a pair of silver censers, and a chalice100 and a paten for the bread and wine. Over the head of the celebrant as he prays hangs a silver basin in which burns a candle. All these things were in the Abbey when the final inventory was made.{71}
Thus the service begins; the commemoration of the supreme115 self-sacrifice. The smoke of incense drifts across the light of the east window; and there is a sound of chanting, imploring116, adoring voices. Hands are outstretched to receive the mystic bread and wine. And presently they go out to undertake again their homely117 tasks in the name of Him to whom belong the church and themselves.
To these repeated acts of worship, the monks came with a faith which asked no questions. The services, it is true, were very frequent, and human nature was with them what we know it to be with us; the thoughts of the brethren would sometimes wander, and the devout words would be words only. They were of our own kin17 and kind. Thomas Kydde and Lawrence Benne, and Henry Jackson and John Walworth, and their fellows who were here at the time of the suppression had their bad and their good, as{72} we have, and in about the same proportion. They were trying, the best way they knew, to magnify the good, to make the ideal real, and to gain the approbation118 of God. In the church they found assistance. There it was, with doors open, day after day; its aisles fragrant119 with holy associations, as with the incense of the prayers of the saints; its shining altars, its appealing music, its mute assurance of divine nearness. To it they brought their trials, their perplexities, their hopes, their aspirations120, their resolutions. It was the house of prayer and the sanctuary of blessing. It was the heart of their life.
IV. THE CLOISTER
Out of the nave, near the south transept, a door opens into the cloister. At the corner, where nave and transept met, is the pedestal which held a bowl for holy water. Here the brothers stopped to dip their fingers and sign their foreheads with the sign of the cross. The green cloister court, without, had a porch about it on its four sides, and these covered places, whose width is now indicated by the grading of the turf, were called walks.
In the west walk, against the cellarium wall, sat the novices, busy with their books, studying church music and grammar and theology. Apt students, when they became monks, were sometimes sent to complete their education at Oxford121, where they lived in the Cistercian Abbey of Bewley (founded in 1280), or in the Cistercian College of St. Bernard, now St. John’s (founded in 1432). There they learned to preach, and teach some simple theology to the novices who succeeded them. There they learned also to interpret and apply the canon law: they became the lawyers of the monastery.
It is likely that Fountains, like other great houses, maintained a grammar school for the sons of the neighbours. The master of such a school would not{74} be a monk but a secular person, employed by the Abbey but not a member of the family. The school-house has not been identified. The building which once stood across the river at the south end of the cellarium would have been conveniently placed for this purpose. A glimpse of the discipline of such a school is had in the fact that, in the sixteenth century, a schoolmaster, receiving his degree of bachelor of arts, was presented with a birch as a symbol of his office, and was required forthwith, in the presence of his examiners, to flog a boy hired for that exercise.
Over the roof of the east walk, a line of windows opened out of the dormitory. This was a long room, with two rows of beds from end to end, like a ward33 in a hospital. The beds were provided with sheets of linsey-woolsey, and the monks lay on straw which was emptied out of its blue ticking and renewed once every year. At Durham, the custom was to{75} carry his blue bed to the brother’s funeral, and hold it as a canopy122 over the grave during the service; so that every night when he lay down to rest he was profitably reminded of his last sleep. The monks laid aside their scapulars, but slept in their woollen cassocks, so that they woke ready dressed. The day stairs to the dormitory are in the south-east corner of the cloister. There was a room at the head of the stairs, extending south to the end of the dormitory, which may have corresponded to the master’s chamber in a like position in a school. Here the prior may have slept with an attentive123 ear for any breach124 of order. It is uncertain whether there were partitions between the beds, or whether the brethren were denied even such scanty125 privacy as that. It is plain that they had no “cells.” The building which opened at right angles with the dormitory beside the river was the toilet room, the necessarium. Through its hall communica{76}tion was had with the abbot’s lodgings. The abbot, according to rule, must sleep in the common dormitory. He probably gave this regulation a liberal interpretation, as the house grew great, and considered that this hall made his room “constructively” a part of the chamber of the monks.
At two o’clock in the morning a great bell rang in the tower, and a little bell in the dormitory answered it. Then every brother bestirred himself. He threw a cloak about him, thrust his feet into his shoes, and descended126 the night stairs at the end of the room into the dark church.
The night service, called matins, consisted of a reading of many lessons and a chanting of many psalms128, and was performed to the accompaniment of the organ. A light burned before the high altar, and there was a light in the loft at the organ, and another for the reader at the lecturn, perhaps still another at the chant-book of the precentor. But other{77}wise the great church was in darkness. The psalms were sung from memory. Now and then some one went about among the singing brothers to make sure that no man slept. This lasted for an hour or more.
After this service, the monks came out into the north walk of the cloister, where cressets flamed uncertainly against the walls, and there continued until dawn, reading or meditating129, but having their hoods130 well pulled back from their faces to make it evident that they were wide awake. This study-hour was, of course, short in summer, but long in winter. When the weather was very bad, they sought refuge in the chapter-house. In some cloisters132 there was glass in the open stone-work of the porch; but, at best, this was a cold place of an early morning. The dormitory was cold, the church was cold, and the cloister was as cold as the sky; but they were used to it, like all their neighbours.{78}
This north walk was the living-room and study of the monastery. The books in most frequent use were kept in a case which stood in a shallow recess still to be seen in the transept wall. Others were stored in two capacious closets on either side of the chapter-house door. Every year, at the beginning of Lent, all the books of the monastery were spread out on a carpet on the floor of the chapter-house, and a general accounting133 was had. A roll was called of brothers and of books. Each monk rose at the sound of his name, produced the book which had been assigned to him the year before, and returned it, humbly134 confessing if he had not read it through. Then the books were newly distributed and charged. At Ripley Castle, bound in an octavo volume, are several of the Fountains books: a Latin grammar, some sermons and some music, and a paraphrase135 of Ovid, in which that irresponsible writer is made to serve as a{79} medi?val moralist. There is also a fragment of a book on medecine, to which they might profitably have added, as at Meaux Abbey, a book on eating,—De Edendo. No catalogue remains, but we can guess at the titles from the lists of other medi?val libraries. There were writings of the fathers, ancient and modern, with a pretty full set of the works of St. Bernard; and several commentaries on the Bible; and a good deal of biography, mostly ecclesiastical; and books on law and ritual.
So the brethren sat in the cold cloister reading their good books. The Benedictines, who were scholars and literary persons, provided by rule that these precious manuscript volumes should be handled with becoming care. “When the religious are engaged in reading in cloister or church, they shall if possible hold the books in their left hands, wrapped in the sleeve of their tunics136, and resting on their knees.”{80}
Who were these men? Whence had they come? and why?
As for their origin, they belonged, so far as we can now discover, to the same class from which the ministry137 is still mainly recruited: to the great company of those who are neither rich nor poor, who neither earn their living by their hands nor inherit the means of living from their fathers, represented in medi?val England by the gentry138, as distinguished139 on the one side from the peasantry, and on the other side from the aristocracy.
As for their motive140, each had his own. “What are you here for, Bernard?”—the great saint of the Cistercians had the question written on his wall. Ad quid venisti, Bernarde? To this inquiry141 the abbey might have returned as many as fifty different answers. Some of the white-gowned men came in pure love of God, deeming a life of continual prayer the most blessed of all lives, delighting in it all, finding in the cloister the four-square city of God which is pictured in the Book of the Revelation. Some came from love of leisure, or of simple peace and quiet: the worse ones, disposed to be respectably idle; the better, finding the outer world too boisterous142 for their gentle souls. Some came because they were disappointed; some because they had failed; some because they had suddenly seen the emptiness of common life, the baseness of much of it, the flagrant evil of some of it, and had come out of it that they might live to a good purpose.
Thus Ralph, the seventh abbot, had begun life as a soldier. He was a contemporary of Robin143 Hood131, who in the ballad144 met a friar of Fountains and by him was soundly ducked in the middle of the little river. Richard of the Lion Heart was at that time ruling England after his fashion. Men were marching across Europe to the Holy Land. The profession of arms must have appealed{82} strongly in those days to the heroic, and even to the religious nature of many men. But Ralph did not like it. It displeased145 him much. And one day, coming to Fountains, where his father had already become a monk, he consulted a lay-brother, whose name was Sunnulph, homo simplex et illiteratus but wise in the counsels of God. And presently, the soldier and the brother each had a dream in the same day. The knight146 dreamed that he was in a church, and that the figure on the crucifix cried saying, “Why do you not come? Why do you wait?” To which he replied with tears, “Behold, Lord, I come!” The monk, sleeping in the long dormitory over the storehouse, saw the soldier dressed in a monastic habit. So Ralph became a monk, and presently an abbot.
The possibility of that promotion147 brought some men into the monastery. In a world hopelessly divided into classes, the monastery was the residence{83} of democracy. Here the humblest man, if he could but read and write, might rise as he deserved, to be the kitchener, the hospitaller, the sacrist, the cellarer; some day—who could tell?—the abbot, wearing a mitre, consorting148 on terms of equality with the noblest in the realm, ruling his fellow men.
But here are the brethren sitting in the chill cloister, reading their good books, and awaiting the day. At the first light the bell rang and they went again into the church for the psalms of lauds149. After that, they returned to the dormitory and washed their hands and faces in the room over the river. By this time the sun was fairly up, and the hour was come for the psalms of prime. The first psalm127, according to the gracious arrangement of St. Benedict, they said very slowly, in order to give late-comers time to get in. Prime was followed by mass or by chapter meeting, the order differing with the season of the year. The monastic{84} year was in two parts: winter began on September 14, being Holy Cross day, a date still used in the Prayer-Book for determining the autumnal ember days; summer began at Easter.
Out of the church, from prime or mass, the brethren proceeded to the chapter-house. This great hall opened through three noble arches from the east walk of the cloister. Two of these arches were blocked, as it appears, by book closets; but not at the beginning. The books were probably stored at first, as in other Cistercian abbeys, in the room between the transept and the chapter-house. Afterwards this room was put to other uses.
At the further end and on the sides the brothers sat on triple tiers of stone benches. The meeting began with a reading from the monastic book of martyrs150, how this brother and that in the old time had lain down his life for his Master. Then there were prayers; and sometimes{85} a sermon, to the hearing of which the lay brothers might be summoned. Then was read a chapter from the Rule of St. Benedict, a custom which gave its name both to the meeting and to the house in which it was held. Thus their high ideal was kept continually before them. Once a week a list was read of the household duties and of the brethren to whom they were assigned. For these homely tasks came to the monks in turn. One after another, they cooked the dinner, or waited on the table, or swept the dormitory. Finally, cases of discipline were considered.
In a life which at best was somewhat monotonous151 and narrow, the minor152 annoyances153 of human fellowship would easily be exaggerated. The rule of silence could not restrain the brothers from thinking; and some of the thoughts would naturally take the direction which is indicated in Browning’s “Soliloquy in a Spanish Cloister.” The chapter{86} meeting was, accordingly, a place for the summary adjustment of all the petty grievances154. Brother Robert made his complaint against Brother William, and Brother William confessed or explained, and whoever was adjudged to be at fault was properly punished: sometimes by loss of precedence, sometimes by lack of dinner; in serious cases, by flogging. Down got the brother on the cold floor, paved with tombstones of past abbots, and there was soundly whipped, for the good of his soul and for the edification of the brethren. When whipping was not sufficient, he was put in prison. Under the abbot’s lodgings, beneath the ground, were three convenient dungeons155, in whose walls and floor are to be seen to this day the staples157 for the chains.
It is not likely that these dungeons were in frequent use. Many hard things were, indeed, said about the monks at the time of the suppression, but it must be remembered that they were said by{87} interested persons in the heat of controversy158. Even then, it was agreed that in the “great and solemn monasteries,” such as Fountains, religion was “right well kept.” The monks were slandered159 that they might the more conveniently be robbed. Henry VIII. desired for various reasons, good and bad, to destroy the monasteries and take possession of their lands and treasures. He desired also, like all the Tudors, to keep the good will of the people. The royal commissioners160, sent to visit the religious houses and report upon them, understood the situation and met it. They showed that the monasteries were so bad that a good nation ought to be happy to have its king suppress them. It is true that the enthusiasm for the monastic life was waning161; the best men were turning their energies and finding their ideals in other directions. The strength and devotion of the people were being put into politics, into preaching, into the practical life of{88} the parish. Moreover, there had gradually grown up a social as well as a religious separation between the monks and their neighbours. Fountains Abbey, for example, was built, as we have seen, by the benefactions of rich and noble persons. It was on that side an aristocratic institution. It differed in this respect from the parish churches which were erected162 and maintained by the plain people, and especially by prosperous citizens of the mercantile order. Mr. Micklethwaite has put the situation clearly in his paper on “The Cistercian Order.” “To a citizen or a franklin,” he says, “a monk was a dignitary, but the parish priest was his neighbour and friend, and the parish church was his own.” This fact, that the great substantial middle class were no longer deeply interested in the abbeys, not only accounts in some measure for the indifference163 with which they witnessed their destruction, but for the difficulty which the{89} monasteries found at last in getting recruits among men of this good kind. The personal quality deteriorated164. There were bad monks, no doubt, as there are still bad ministers; and the few bad ones attracted more attention than all the cloistered165 saints. And, anyhow, the life which they were endeavouring to live was an abnormal life, apart from the wholesome166 influences of natural human society, and from the helpful engagements of the common routine. The monasteries inevitably167 degenerated168. But “an enemy,” as Burke said, “is a bad witness; a robber is a worse.” The quiet judgment169 of the modern historian is in favour of the monks, and finds most of them to have been men of respectable and pious170 lives. The sober persons in white cassocks, who confessed faults in the chapter meeting and cheerfully suffered chastisement171 for them to which the man in the street gave not a moment’s thought, had a passionate172 longing173 to be{90} good. They were intent upon the living of a righteous life.
The day’s work would begin about seven o’clock. In the winter it continued until three in the afternoon, making an eight-hour day. In the summer there was a long intermission while the sun was high and hot, but two hours of it were occupied in study. During the day the church bell rang for the offices of terce and sext and nones; but these were brief services, and men who were hard at work at a distance stopped where they stood, and said them under the sky. There was a bite of breakfast called mixtum—a piece of bread and somewhat wherewith to wash it down—which was served before the work of the day began to those who were so old or so young as to be unfit for their tasks without it. In the summer the meal of the day was eaten at noon, and after it the brethren lay on their beds in the dormitory and slept for an hour; or, if they chose, read a book{91} during that time, lying down, being careful not to stretch out their feet into the passage between the beds, and turning the leaves quietly so as not to disturb their sleeping neighbours. Late in the summer afternoon there was a slight repast of bread and fruit. In the winter, until Lent, the one meal was served when the brethren came in from work; that is after three o’clock; in Lent, not until about five.
The monastic ideal of seclusion174 from the world demanded economic independence. Everything that was needed in the monastery was to be produced upon the premises175. That, at the least, implied a garden for vegetables, and an orchard176 for fruit, and a field for corn with a mill in which to grind it, and ponds for fish, and woods for fuel. It meant architects, builders, masons, carpenters and plumbers177. In the infirmary, which was the abbey hospital, there must be physicians and attendants. In the guest-house,{92} which was the abbey inn, there must be porters, hostlers, cooks. The common details of a domestic establishment of a hundred men were enough to keep many persons busy. It is true that much of the heavy work was done by the lay brothers; but every choir brother had his share also, and went out daily with axe178 or spade, with fishing-rod or pruning-hook, with basket or barrow, to his appointed task. The crops must be planted or garnered179, the apples must be picked, the hay must be got in, the wood must be cut, the buildings must be kept in repair, horses must be shod, sheep must be shorn, and at all seasons, in all weather, and under all circumstances, dinner must be cooked.
Accordingly, after the daily mass and chapter, this substantial activity engaged the mind and muscle of the monastery. The abbot betook himself to his executive affairs, the prior and the sub-prior to their daily inspection180 of the establishment,{93} the cellarer to his house-keeping, the sacrist to his care of the church, the bursar to his accounts, the infirmarius to his hospital, the terrararius to his inn, the almoner to his dependents at the gate, the master of the novices to his school, the scriptor to his copying, the kitchener to his cooking, others to the fields and forests. For such as were unemployed181 about these matters, there was the cloister with its books, and the church with its frequent services. It is likely that there were idle monks; for the monk was of like passions with us, and was beset by the same temptations which assail182 us. As the Abbey increased in wealth, and the early ardour of the monastic life began to cool, there was, no doubt, a disposition183 to hire men to do some of the homely tasks which at first the monks had done themselves. But the ideal of the monastic life was an active day, wherein from dawn till dark there should not be an idle moment. Indolence, as St. Benedict{94} declared, is an enemy of the soul; and all his arrangements of time and task were made with that in mind. Eastern monasticism had two dominant184 notes, of pain and prayer. St. Benedict took pain out and put work in the place of it. No man was to afflict185 his soul or body needlessly, but every man was to devote himself, for his physical and spiritual good, to vigorous exercise. The idle monk was like the idle minister: he existed, but not often.
All the work was done, as far as was possible, in silence. Out of the east walk of the cloister, beside the chapter-house, opened the parlour. There, as the name indicates, the monks could talk. The original rule specified186 only the dormitory and the refectory as places wherein speech was forbidden; but silence came to be the common habit of the monastic life, its enforcement depending much upon the disposition of the abbot. The monastery was the abode187 of blessed stillness. Within its walls men lived in{95} peace and quiet. They did their tasks without conversation. They read their books, and ate their meals, thinking their own uninterrupted thoughts. They sat in the cloister, where the wind and the sun played in the grass, and were altogether undisturbed. It was not so much a penitential as a protective silence, good for the soul, and restful.
There was even a bit of quiet pleasure in the midst of these silent labours. In the south walk of the cloister, between the dormitory stairs and the refectory, was the warming house, the abbey fireside. Here, in the cold weather, the monks came to warm their hands. The abbot had a fire-place of his own; the cellarer had one in his office; and the infirmary and the guest houses were cheerfully warmed; but the common brotherhood188 had but this one hearth189. Here was concentrated all the heat of the place, in the huge fire-places. One of these great openings is now blocked, having been{96} disused before the suppression, when the number of monks was growing smaller, but the other is still ready for a load of logs, whose smoke would pour out of the tall chimney. Two large openings in the west wall gave some heat to the refectory. Here, in the warming house, in Advent190, the brothers kept a “solemn banquet” of “figs191 and raisins192, cakes and ale,” of whose celebration at Durham it is said that there was “no superfluity or excess, but a scholastical and moderate congratulation amongst themselves.” A door in the south-west corner opened upon a little court; the woodhouse stood in the eastern part of it, and a wooden bridge, from the refectory corner, led across the river. Over this bridge came the stout brothers in their gowns of brown or white, their arms full of wood. At Durham, near the warming house, there was a garden and a bowling193 alley.
The muniment room at Studley Royal contains among its treasures a book of accounts of the bursar, kept in the time of Abbot Grenewell (1442-1471). There it appears that they had “a pair of clavichords” at the Abbey—the pianoforte of the Middle Ages. This would seem to imply domestic music. Somebody must have played, while the brethren stood about and sang. There are also various records of fees paid to persons who went about the country from abbey to castle, from manor-house to market-square, for the entertainment of their neighbours. Minstrels came from Beverley, with those of Lord Arundell, of Lord Beaumont, of Lord Fitzhugh, even of the King; who not only sang but acted as conjurers, gymnasts, contortionists, and variety showmen. Sometimes the audience of the Abbey was given to a story-teller—fabulator—“the story-teller of the Earl of Salisbury”; with selections from the Hundred Merry Tales or the Gesta Romanorum. Players came from Thirsk and{98} Ripon. Sometimes the entertainer was a jester, or, as they said, a fool. One of the bursar’s items shows a payment of fourpence “to a fool called Solomon (who came again).” These diversions would perhaps be given on the cellarer’s terrace; that is, in the space to the west of the cellarium, which was once enclosed within a wall, from the church porch to the cellarer’s office.
One of Abbot Grenewell’s purchases was a great clock, made by John Ripley, and probably set in the south transept of the church. In the middle of the hot day in summer, after the service of sext, and late in the afternoon in winter, after nones, when the clock pointed65 to the proper hour, a bell in the cloister rang for dinner; either a bell or a board struck with a mallet194. Outside the refectory door, on either hand, were stone troughs with running water from the river. In the middle of the cloister is a great stone bason. When that welcome sound was{99} heard, the brothers washed their hands in the troughs or in the bason, wiping them on a roller towel which hung beside the door. Then they entered their noble dining-hall, lofty as a church, with ceiling of wood and floor of stone, wainscoted above the height of a man’s head, and having down the midst a row of marble pillars. At the end opposite the door, and along the wall on both sides, were stone benches, and in front of them were tables of oak, covered with linen cloth. The prior commonly presided, the abbot dining in his own lodgings. All stood in silence till the prior was in his place, and remained standing while he rang a little bell during a time sufficient for the saying of the fifty-first psalm. When the bell stopped, the priest of the week said grace, and they all sat down.
In the fair gallery of stone in the west wall, deeply recessed195 and lighted by great windows, reached by a short flight of stone steps, the reader stood to ac{100}company the silent meal with words of Holy Scripture196 and of ancient authors. The kitchen adjoined the refectory on the west, having its great ovens in the middle of the room, and entered from the refectory by a service door which had a round revolving197 shelf across the middle of it. Between the door to the gallery and the door to the kitchen there was perhaps a sideboard; and in the corners toward the cloister were cupboards for cups and plates and spoons, each provided with a sink. There were forty-five silver spoons here when the inventory was made, but only three small cups or mazers, and one big one, of silver. This would appear to indicate that the cups and plates were of some cheap material and not worth counting.
The bill of fare showed bread and vegetables and fruit and fish. Sometimes there was meat, but this was cooked in the kitchen of the infirmary, and served in the misericord, or House of Merciful{101} Meals. No flesh which had ever walked about upon four feet was dressed in the cloister kitchen or served in the cloister refectory. But fowls198 were eaten, and eggs were a staple156 of monastic diet. The monks had wine and beer for drink, according to the custom of the country. In the book of signs—De Signis—which shows how the monks of Ely indicated their wishes at the silent table, four gestures are set down to mean beer: signifying good beer, bona servisia, small beer, mediocris servisia, smaller beer, debilis servisia, and a very common beer called skagmen. In the “Mirroure of Our Ladye,” the sister of Sion House who desired an apple was directed to “put thy thumb in thy fist, and close thy hand, and move afore thee to and fro”; for milk, “draw thy left little finger in the manner of milking”; for mustard, “hold thy nose in the upper part of thy right fist, and rub it”; for salt, “philip with thy right thumb and his forefinger199 over the left thumb”{102}; for wine, “move thy forefinger up and down upon the end of thy thumb before thine eye.” A dinner to the accompaniment of these cheerful communications, while one read aloud from a good book, may well have been a pleasant meal.
At Ely, during the week beginning August 5, 1336, the brethren of the monastery had on Sunday eggs, chickens, pigeons and dripping; on Monday, pottage and cod200; on Tuesday, fresh meat and mutton; on Wednesday, fresh fish, white herring and cod; on Thursday, fresh meat, white herring and cod; on Friday, white herring and cod; and on Saturday, dripping, milk, white herring and cod.
When Abbot Grenewell went to attend the assizes at York, as he did in 1455, at the March session of the court, he dined the first day on fish alone; on the second day, having guests at his table, he added salt and mustard to the fish; on the third day, fish was served with figs, raisins and{103} gingerbread; the fare of the fourth day was like that of the second, and the fifth day followed the third. With this were bread and beer and wine.
Monastic meals, though monotonous, were wholesome; and there was a good deal of variety in the preparation of the fish. St. Bernard, in his day, complained of the ingenuity201 with which eggs were cooked in religious houses. “Who can describe,” he cries, “in how many ways the very eggs are tossed and tormented202, with what eager care they are turned over and under, made soft and hard, beaten up, fried, roasted, stuffed, now served minced203 with other things, and now by themselves! The very external appearance of the thing is cared for, so that the eye may be charmed as well as the palate.” As the monasteries increased in wealth, there would be a constant temptation to dine more abundantly. Eating is not only one of the earliest but one of the most universal of arts, and no cook{104} nor convert could completely resist its allurements204. For the most part, however, the abbey fare was fit food for soldiers, for men in training for a war with Satan.
Thus the silent meal progressed, the level voice of the reader at his desk in the gallery, accompanying the cheerful sounds of honest eating and drinking. No brother was permitted to leave until the meal was ended, nor walk about while his companions were eating. Neither was he allowed to wash his cup with his fingers, though he might wipe it with his hand. He was forbidden to wipe either his hands or his knife on the table-cloth,—until he had first cleansed205 them on his bread. When he helped himself to salt it must be with his knife; when he drank, he must hold the cup with both hands. “Eyes on your plates, hands on the table, ears to the reader, heart to God”: thus ran the rule. Then the prior rang a sharp note on his bell. If the great mazer of silver with a gilt band, which is mentioned{105} in the inventory, was a grace cup, then it was at this moment that it went its round, each brother lifting it to his lips, holding its two handles. Then, two by two, they marched into the church and said the miserere psalm.
Out of the cloister, in the south-east corner, between the parlour and the day-stairs to the dormitory, a passage led to the buildings which lay beyond. The beginning of this passage crossed a long room which extended to the south, whose central line of pillars upheld the dormitory floor. The ceiling was low and the windows were at the south end, so that its use is not apparent. It may have been the chamber of the novices; it may have been the tool-house. It may have been an office or checker, wherein the master of the warming house kept his hogshead of wine, and his spices, figs and walnuts206, with which to mitigate207 the austerities of Lent. Or the chamberlain may have used it, whose charge was to furnish the{106} brethren with linsey-woolsey for their shirts and sheets; in which case, the tailor may have sat in the light of the south windows, mending frayed208 scapularies and darning holes in cowls and gowns.
The passage led into a gallery, with open arcading209 of stone on either side, and a second storey over. Out of the gallery, to the right, opened the abbot’s lodgings, where a long hall gave entrance into several rooms. Beside the door a stairway rose to the upper chambers87, which appear to have been large and light, with comfortable fireplaces, and oriel windows looking out to east and south over the river. In one of these rooms, or in the misericord which was connected with this building by a hall, the abbot dined with visitors of state. Here, at the time of the inventory, were two gilded210 basins of silver, three silver ewers211, eight “standing pieces” with covers, nine “flat pieces,” all of silver, with a goblet212 and some spoons: so that the{107} abbot’s table must have presented a shining and sumptuous213 appearance. The open space bounded by the dormitory basement on the west, the arcaded214 passage on the north, the rere-dorter or necessarium on the south, and the abbot’s lodgings on the east, may have been the abbot’s garden, his hortus inclusus. Somewhere, at a convenient distance, must have been the abbot’s stable for his six horses—sex equi ad stabulum domini abbatis,—in charge of his boy, whose russet suit cost fifteen pence. The chalice, paten and cruets which were in the abbot’s house would seem to mean that one of the rooms was an oratory215, with an altar. Under the abbot’s lodgings were the cells for offenders216.
From the north-west corner of the second story, over the entrance, a passage opened into the upper course of the long gallery. Here was a hall with many windows, warmed here and there with fire-places, extending east to the infirmary,{108} north to the chapel of nine altars, and west to the dormitory. Here the abbot could walk; here, in the oriel which projected into the chapel, he could say his prayers and hear mass quite by himself. He was the only member of the monastic family who had the privilege of privacy.
The gallery is almost entirely217 ruined, but a comparison with the arrangements of other monastic houses suggests that the upper storey of the western part, next to the dormitory, was the library or the writing-room. Here, where there was plenty of light, the records and accounts may have been kept. Here the books may have been copied which were used in the choir, and in the cloister and in the school. The completed records, especially such as related to the abbey lands, may have been stored in the room over the warming house, now used as a museum for fragments of pottery218 and broken carvings219 found in the ruins.{109} This room, reached by the day stairs to the dormitory, had a bar at the door by which the occupant could lock himself in. This bar is a perplexing fact, and nobody has as yet explained why any official of the abbey should need to defend himself against intrusion in this peremptory220 fashion. If this was the muniment room, it held the great books of the Chartulary of Fountains, of which the volume A to C is in the British Museum. D to J is at Ripley Castle, and K to M is in the library of the late Sir Thomas Phillips. The remaining volumes are not yet traced. Here were kept the bundles of title-deeds, now at Studley Hall; with pendant seals, which show that there were neighbouring farmers who attested221 their signatures with impressions of Roman gems which their forefathers222 had turned up with the plough. The President Book would be kept here, with its dated list of abbots up to 1471; and the Coucher Book, with{110} its register of the dealings of the monks with their manors223. These two probably lay by the abbot’s side as he sat in his place in the chapter house at business meetings. They are now preserved in the muniment room at Studley Hall.
The long corridor, which connected the cloister with the infirmary, passed, as we have seen, the abbot’s lodging108 on the right and the entrance-way to the chapel of the nine altars on the left. Opposite the chapel entrance there was an opening into the coal-yard. Coal was found here when the recent excavations224 were made. In the south-east corner of this yard lay the abbey rubbish heap, the materials of which were apparently225 shovelled226 out from the window beside it, whose sill shows the marks of this daily exercise. Here were found various broken dishes, a sickle227 blade, a copper228 can, bushels of oyster229 shells, and bones identified as belonging to beef, mutton,{111} pork and venison, together with a great quantity of ashes.
The room out of which this refuse was thrown is reached by a passage which opens out of the long corridor close by the infirmary door. Here, according to Mr. Walbran, stood the reservoir, fed by a lead pipe from a spring on the high bank.
The meat bones in the rubbish heap suggest the near neighbourhood of the House of Merciful Meals. This is the room which lies to the south of the reservoir and the coal-yard. A screen extended across the east end of the misericord, and there was a dais for the high table at the west end. Along the north wall are still remains of one of the stone benches. Tables stood here, as in the refectory of the cloister.
The long corridor ended at the door of the infirmary. This was a noble group of buildings, now ruined almost to the ground. There was a great hall, one of{112} the finest in the kingdom, with two rows of stately pillars. It had a fire-place at each end, and the aisles were divided by partitions into small rooms, some having fire-places of their own. Back of it, to the east, reached by broad stone steps, eight of which remain, stood a two-storied structure, with vaulted basement probably for domestic stores, and with upper apartments which may have served for the entertainment of guests of unusual distinction. Up these stairs, then, attended by officers of the Abbey, went the Nevilles, the Marmions, the Mauleverers, on their visits to the monastery. In the chamber above slept the abbot of Clairvaux, when he came on his round of inspection of the Cistercian houses. Adjoining this lodging, on the south, was the chapel, into which a flight of narrow stairs descended from this guest-room. The base of the altar is still in situ. Next the chapel, with a yard between, was the spacious230 kitchen, whose{113} great round ovens are still in place. Here, was cooked the food for the infirmary, for the misericord, and for the occupants of the lodging. A staircase beside the chapel-door seems to have led from the kitchen to the guest-room, over the arch of the entrance.
Here, in the infirmary, were gathered the old men, who had been monks for fifty years. Here the sick were cared for. Here regularly, in groups, a fourth part of the brethren at a time, came all the monks in succession for the periodical minutio, or letting of blood, according to the medical discipline of the time. In this comfortable seclusion they regained231 their strength. The doors of the infirmary were shut against the harsher regulations of the monastic life. Fires blazed on the hearth and roared up the great chimneys, and there were good things on the table at dinner time. The place was both a hospital and an old men’s home. The buildings extended over the river,{114} which flowed in four tunnels beneath. To the north, beside the chapel of the nine altars, lay the cemetery232. In this quiet place, remote from even the peaceful stir of the cloister, the monks expected to end their days. Their longest journey out of this blessed haven233 was when they crept along the corridor, and the nine-altars chapel, and the presbytery aisle, to their place on the stout oak bench against the back of the rood screen, to hear mass on some high festival. They awaited only one longer journey, when they should be carried out of the infirmary chapel to the green cemetery.
When the time for that last journey drew near, the abbot came to administer the sacrament, with all the brethren assembled. Then a cross of ashes was traced upon the floor, with a merciful covering of straw upon it and a quilt on that; there the sick man was laid. When the brother’s breath grew faint and difficult, and it was plain that the moment of{115} his departure was at hand, a board in the cloister was struck repeated blows with a mallet, and all the monks hastened to their brother’s side. Thus he closed his eyes, amidst the prayers of his friends, and passed from the peace of the monastery to the rest of paradise.
This quiet end of life was continually symbolised in the quiet ending of the monastic day. Late in the afternoon, the office of vespers was said in the church, somewhat elaborately, with much singing and organ-playing. After vespers, in the twilight234, the monks sat in the cloister, about the refectory door, and somebody read aloud from a good book, preferably the Collations of Cassian. On Saturday afternoons during the reading, the brothers by turns sat in a row on the stone benches which were over the lavatory235 troughs on either side of the refectory door, and had their feet washed in the running water by the cooks of that week and of the week to come. Then the{116} compline prayers were said, in the summer about seven o’clock, in the winter about eight. And at the end of the service, every monk pulled his cowl over his head and went to bed.
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monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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alley
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| n.小巷，胡同；小径，小路 | |
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linen
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| n.亚麻布，亚麻线，亚麻制品；adj.亚麻布制的，亚麻的 | |
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erecting
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| v.使直立，竖起( erect的现在分词 )；建立 | |
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8
lodge
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| v.临时住宿，寄宿，寄存，容纳；n.传达室，小旅馆 | |
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dispensed
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| v.分配( dispense的过去式和过去分词 )；施与；配（药） | |
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10
hospitable
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| adj.好客的；宽容的；有利的，适宜的 | |
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11
blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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12
chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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13
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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14
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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15
vats
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| varieties 变化，多样性，种类 | |
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16
cloister
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| n.修道院；v.隐退，使与世隔绝 | |
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17
kin
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| n.家族，亲属，血缘关系；adj.亲属关系的，同类的 | |
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18
secluded
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| adj.与世隔绝的；隐退的；偏僻的v.使隔开，使隐退( seclude的过去式和过去分词) | |
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19
scrupulously
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| adv.一丝不苟地；小心翼翼地，多顾虑地 | |
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20
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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21
lodged
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| v.存放( lodge的过去式和过去分词 )；暂住；埋入；（权利、权威等）归属 | |
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22
craftsmen
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| n. 技工 | |
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23
descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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24
vaulted
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| adj.拱状的 | |
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25
shaft
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| n.(工具的)柄，杆状物 | |
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26
thither
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| adv.向那里；adj.在那边的，对岸的 | |
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27
wayfarers
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| n.旅人，（尤指）徒步旅行者( wayfarer的名词复数 ) | |
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28
beset
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| v.镶嵌；困扰，包围 | |
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29
peril
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| n.(严重的)危险；危险的事物 | |
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30
chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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31
monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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32
steward
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| n.乘务员，服务员；看管人；膳食管理员 | |
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33
ward
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| n.守卫，监护，病房，行政区，由监护人或法院保护的人（尤指儿童）；vt.守护，躲开 | |
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34
pier
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| n.码头；桥墩，桥柱；[建]窗间壁，支柱 | |
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35
piers
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| n.水上平台( pier的名词复数 )；（常设有娱乐场所的）突堤；柱子；墙墩 | |
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36
masonry
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| n.砖土建筑；砖石 | |
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37
ascended
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| v.上升，攀登( ascend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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38
treasury
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| n.宝库；国库，金库；文库 | |
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39
auditorium
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| n.观众席，听众席；会堂，礼堂 | |
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40
niche
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| n.壁龛；合适的职务(环境、位置等) | |
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41
wares
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| n. 货物, 商品 | |
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42
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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43
vows
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| 誓言( vow的名词复数 )； 郑重宣布，许愿 | |
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44
amenable
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| adj.经得起检验的；顺从的；对负有义务的 | |
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45
choir
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| n.唱诗班，唱诗班的席位，合唱团，舞蹈团；v.合唱 | |
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46
laymen
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| 门外汉，外行人( layman的名词复数 )； 普通教徒（有别于神职人员） | |
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47
sanctuary
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| n.圣所，圣堂，寺庙；禁猎区，保护区 | |
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48
salvation
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| n.（尤指基督）救世，超度，拯救，解困 | |
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49
solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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50
enthusiasts
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| n.热心人，热衷者( enthusiast的名词复数 ) | |
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51
Forsaken
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| adj. 被遗忘的, 被抛弃的 动词forsake的过去分词 | |
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52
rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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53
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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54
bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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55
nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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56
privately
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| adv.以私人的身份，悄悄地，私下地 | |
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57
ordination
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| n.授任圣职 | |
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58
piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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59
brew
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| v.酿造，调制 | |
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60
Ford
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| n.浅滩，水浅可涉处；v.涉水，涉过 | |
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61
consecrating
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| v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的现在分词 )；奉献 | |
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62
obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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63
secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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64
nave
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| n.教堂的中部；本堂 | |
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65
pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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66
prevailing
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| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
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67
interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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68
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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69
devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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70
inscribed
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| v.写，刻( inscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；内接 | |
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71
rib
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| n.肋骨，肋状物 | |
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72
scroll
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| n.卷轴，纸卷；(石刻上的)漩涡 | |
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73
primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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74
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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75
perpendicular
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| adj.垂直的，直立的；n.垂直线，垂直的位置 | |
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76
aisle
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| n.（教堂、教室、戏院等里的）过道，通道 | |
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77
aisles
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| n. (席位间的)通道, 侧廊 | |
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78
aged
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| adj.年老的，陈年的 | |
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79
dedicated
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| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
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80
doorway
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| n.门口，(喻)入门；门路，途径 | |
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81
loft
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| n.阁楼，顶楼 | |
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82
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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83
underlay
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| v.位于或存在于（某物）之下( underlie的过去式 )；构成…的基础（或起因），引起n.衬垫物 | |
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84
acoustic
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| adj.听觉的，声音的；(乐器)原声的 | |
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85
novices
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| n.新手( novice的名词复数 )；初学修士（或修女）；（修会等的）初学生；尚未赢过大赛的赛马 | |
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86
chapels
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| n.小教堂， （医院、监狱等的）附属礼拜堂( chapel的名词复数 )；（在小教堂和附属礼拜堂举行的）礼拜仪式 | |
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87
chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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88
inscription
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| n.（尤指石块上的）刻印文字，铭文，碑文 | |
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89
inscriptions
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| （作者）题词( inscription的名词复数 )； 献词； 碑文； 证劵持有人的登记 | |
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90
immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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91
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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92
inventory
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| n.详细目录，存货清单 | |
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93
velvet
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| n.丝绒，天鹅绒；adj.丝绒制的，柔软的 | |
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94
fustian
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| n.浮夸的；厚粗棉布 | |
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95
embroidered
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| adj．绣花的 | |
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96
wrought
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| v.引起；以…原料制作；运转；adj.制造的 | |
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97
benefactors
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| n.捐助者，施主( benefactor的名词复数 )；恩人 | |
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98
garnished
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| v.给（上餐桌的食物）加装饰( garnish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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99
laboriously
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| adv.艰苦地；费力地；辛勤地；（文体等）佶屈聱牙地 | |
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100
chalice
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| n.圣餐杯；金杯毒酒 | |
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101
chalices
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| n.高脚酒杯( chalice的名词复数 )；圣餐杯；金杯毒酒；看似诱人实则令人讨厌的事物 | |
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102
shrines
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| 圣地，圣坛，神圣场所( shrine的名词复数 ) | |
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103
gilt
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| adj.镀金的；n.金边证券 | |
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104
embellished
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| v.美化( embellish的过去式和过去分词 )；装饰；修饰；润色 | |
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105
gems
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| growth； economy； management； and customer satisfaction 增长 | |
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106
vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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107
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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108
lodging
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| n.寄宿，住所；(大学生的)校外宿舍 | |
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109
lodgings
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| n. 出租的房舍, 寄宿舍 | |
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110
garb
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| n.服装，装束 | |
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111
tapestry
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| n.挂毯，丰富多采的画面 | |
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112
recess
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| n.短期休息，壁凹（墙上装架子，柜子等凹处） | |
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113
ewer
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| n.大口水罐 | |
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114
incense
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| v.激怒；n.香，焚香时的烟，香气 | |
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115
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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116
imploring
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| 恳求的，哀求的 | |
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117
homely
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| adj.家常的，简朴的；不漂亮的 | |
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118
approbation
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| n.称赞；认可 | |
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119
fragrant
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| adj.芬香的，馥郁的，愉快的 | |
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120
aspirations
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| 强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音 | |
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121
Oxford
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| n.牛津（英国城市） | |
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122
canopy
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| n.天篷，遮篷 | |
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123
attentive
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| adj.注意的，专心的；关心(别人)的，殷勤的 | |
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124
breach
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| n.违反，不履行；破裂；vt.冲破，攻破 | |
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125
scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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126
descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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127
psalm
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| n.赞美诗，圣诗 | |
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128
psalms
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| n.赞美诗( psalm的名词复数 )；圣诗；圣歌；(中的) | |
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129
meditating
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| a.沉思的，冥想的 | |
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130
hoods
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| n.兜帽( hood的名词复数 )；头巾；（汽车、童车等的）折合式车篷；汽车发动机罩v.兜帽( hood的第三人称单数 )；头巾；（汽车、童车等的）折合式车篷；汽车发动机罩 | |
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131
hood
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| n.头巾，兜帽，覆盖；v.罩上，以头巾覆盖 | |
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132
cloisters
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| n.（学院、修道院、教堂等建筑的）走廊( cloister的名词复数 )；回廊；修道院的生活；隐居v.隐退，使与世隔绝( cloister的第三人称单数 ) | |
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133
accounting
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| n.会计，会计学，借贷对照表 | |
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134
humbly
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| adv. 恭顺地，谦卑地 | |
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135
paraphrase
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| vt.将…释义，改写；n.释义，意义 | |
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136
tunics
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| n.（动植物的）膜皮( tunic的名词复数 )；束腰宽松外衣；一套制服的短上衣；（天主教主教等穿的）短祭袍 | |
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137
ministry
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| n.(政府的)部；牧师 | |
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138
gentry
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| n.绅士阶级，上层阶级 | |
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139
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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140
motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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141
inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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142
boisterous
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| adj.喧闹的，欢闹的 | |
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143
robin
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| n.知更鸟，红襟鸟 | |
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144
ballad
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| n.歌谣，民谣，流行爱情歌曲 | |
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145
displeased
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| a.不快的 | |
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146
knight
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| n.骑士，武士；爵士 | |
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147
promotion
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| n.提升，晋级；促销，宣传 | |
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148
consorting
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| v.结伴( consort的现在分词 )；交往；相称；调和 | |
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149
lauds
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| v.称赞，赞美( laud的第三人称单数 ) | |
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150
martyrs
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| n.martyr的复数形式；烈士( martyr的名词复数 )；殉道者；殉教者；乞怜者（向人诉苦以博取同情） | |
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151
monotonous
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| adj.单调的，一成不变的，使人厌倦的 | |
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152
minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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153
annoyances
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| n.恼怒( annoyance的名词复数 )；烦恼；打扰；使人烦恼的事 | |
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154
grievances
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| n.委屈( grievance的名词复数 )；苦衷；不满；牢骚 | |
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155
dungeons
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| n.地牢( dungeon的名词复数 ) | |
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156
staple
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| n.主要产物，常用品，主要要素，原料，订书钉，钩环；adj.主要的，重要的；vt.分类 | |
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157
staples
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| n.（某国的）主要产品( staple的名词复数 )；钉书钉；U 形钉；主要部份v.用钉书钉钉住( staple的第三人称单数 ) | |
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158
controversy
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| n.争论，辩论，争吵 | |
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159
slandered
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| 造谣中伤( slander的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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160
commissioners
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| n.专员( commissioner的名词复数 )；长官；委员；政府部门的长官 | |
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161
waning
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| adj.（月亮）渐亏的，逐渐减弱或变小的n.月亏v.衰落( wane的现在分词 )；（月）亏；变小；变暗淡 | |
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162
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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163
indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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164
deteriorated
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| 恶化，变坏( deteriorate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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165
cloistered
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| adj.隐居的，躲开尘世纷争的v.隐退，使与世隔绝( cloister的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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166
wholesome
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| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
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167
inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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168
degenerated
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| 衰退，堕落，退化( degenerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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169
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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170
pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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171
chastisement
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| n.惩罚 | |
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172
passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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173
longing
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| n.（for）渴望 | |
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174
seclusion
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| n.隐遁，隔离 | |
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175
premises
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| n.建筑物，房屋 | |
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176
orchard
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| n.果园，果园里的全部果树，(美俚)棒球场 | |
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177
plumbers
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| n.管子工，水暖工( plumber的名词复数 )；[美][口]（防止泄密的）堵漏人员 | |
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178
axe
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| n.斧子；v.用斧头砍，削减 | |
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179
garnered
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| v.收集并（通常）贮藏（某物），取得，获得( garner的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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180
inspection
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| n.检查，审查，检阅 | |
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181
unemployed
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| adj.失业的，没有工作的；未动用的，闲置的 | |
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182
assail
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| v.猛烈攻击，抨击，痛斥 | |
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183
disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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184
dominant
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| adj.支配的，统治的；占优势的；显性的；n.主因，要素，主要的人(或物)；显性基因 | |
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185
afflict
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| vt.使身体或精神受痛苦，折磨 | |
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186
specified
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| adj.特定的 | |
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187
abode
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| n.住处，住所 | |
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188
brotherhood
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| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
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189
hearth
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| n.壁炉炉床，壁炉地面 | |
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190
advent
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| n.(重要事件等的)到来，来临 | |
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191
figs
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| figures 数字，图形，外形 | |
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192
raisins
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| n.葡萄干( raisin的名词复数 ) | |
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193
bowling
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| n.保龄球运动 | |
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194
mallet
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| n.槌棒 | |
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195
recessed
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| v.把某物放在墙壁的凹处( recess的过去式和过去分词 )；将（墙）做成凹形，在（墙）上做壁龛；休息，休会，休庭 | |
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196
scripture
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| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
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197
revolving
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| adj.旋转的，轮转式的；循环的v.（使）旋转( revolve的现在分词 )；细想 | |
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198
fowls
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| 鸟( fowl的名词复数 )； 禽肉； 既不是这； 非驴非马 | |
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199
forefinger
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| n.食指 | |
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200
cod
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| n.鳕鱼；v.愚弄；哄骗 | |
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201
ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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202
tormented
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| 饱受折磨的 | |
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203
minced
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| v.切碎( mince的过去式和过去分词 )；剁碎；绞碎；用绞肉机绞（食物，尤指肉） | |
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204
allurements
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| n.诱惑( allurement的名词复数 )；吸引；诱惑物；有诱惑力的事物 | |
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205
cleansed
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| 弄干净，清洗( cleanse的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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206
walnuts
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| 胡桃（树）( walnut的名词复数 )； 胡桃木 | |
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207
mitigate
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| vt.（使）减轻，（使）缓和 | |
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208
frayed
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| adj.磨损的v.（使布、绳等）磨损，磨破( fray的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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209
arcading
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| 连拱饰 | |
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210
gilded
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| a.镀金的，富有的 | |
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211
ewers
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| n.大口水壶，水罐( ewer的名词复数 ) | |
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212
goblet
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| n.高脚酒杯 | |
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213
sumptuous
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| adj.豪华的，奢侈的，华丽的 | |
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214
arcaded
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| adj.成为拱廊街道的，有列拱的 | |
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215
oratory
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| n.演讲术；词藻华丽的言辞 | |
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216
offenders
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| n.冒犯者( offender的名词复数 )；犯规者；罪犯；妨害…的人（或事物） | |
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217
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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218
pottery
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| n.陶器，陶器场 | |
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219
carvings
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| n.雕刻( carving的名词复数 )；雕刻术；雕刻品；雕刻物 | |
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220
peremptory
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| adj.紧急的，专横的，断然的 | |
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221
attested
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| adj.经检验证明无病的，经检验证明无菌的v.证明( attest的过去式和过去分词 )；证实；声称…属实；使宣誓 | |
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222
forefathers
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| n.祖先，先人；祖先，祖宗( forefather的名词复数 )；列祖列宗；前人 | |
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223
manors
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| n.庄园（manor的复数形式） | |
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224
excavations
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| n.挖掘( excavation的名词复数 )；开凿；开凿的洞穴（或山路等）；（发掘出来的）古迹 | |
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225
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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226
shovelled
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| v.铲子( shovel的过去式和过去分词 )；锹；推土机、挖土机等的)铲；铲形部份 | |
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227
sickle
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| n.镰刀 | |
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228
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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229
oyster
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| n.牡蛎；沉默寡言的人 | |
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230
spacious
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| adj.广阔的，宽敞的 | |
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231
regained
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| 复得( regain的过去式和过去分词 )； 赢回； 重回； 复至某地 | |
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232
cemetery
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| n.坟墓，墓地，坟场 | |
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233
haven
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| n.安全的地方，避难所，庇护所 | |
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234
twilight
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| n.暮光，黄昏；暮年，晚期，衰落时期 | |
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235
lavatory
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| n.盥洗室，厕所 | |
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