CHAPTER I. PRE-HISTORIC BREAD.

Man, as is evidenced by his teeth, was created graminivorous, as well as carnivorous, and the earliest skull¹ yet found possesses teeth exactly the same as modern man, the carnivorous teeth not being bigger, whilst in many cases the whole of the teeth have been worn down, as if by masticating² hard substances, such as parched³ grain.

In the history of bread, the lake dwellings⁴ of Switzerland are most useful, as from them we can gather the cereals their inhabitants used, their bread, and the implements⁵ with which they crushed the corn. The men who lived in them are the earliest known civilised inhabitants of Europe—by which I mean that they cultivated several kinds of cereals—wove cloth, made mats, baskets, and fishing nets, and, besides, baked bread.

The cereals known to us, and made use of, are the result of much cultivation⁶, improved by selection;14 and Hallett’s pedigree wheat would be hardly recognised when put by the side of its humble⁷ progenitor⁸ of pre-historic times. We now use wheat, barley⁹, oats, Indian corn or maize¹⁰, rye, rice, millet¹¹, and Guinea corn, or Indian millet, besides such odds¹² and ends as the sea lyme grass (Elymus arenarius), which, though uncultivated, affords seed which is used in Iceland as a food, for want of something better.

We have been enabled to trace with certainty the cereals used by pre-historic man, as they have been found lying in the lake mud, or buried under a bed of peat several feet thick, when they had to be collected out of a soft, dark-coloured mud, which formed the ancient lake-bottom, and is now called the relic¹³ bed. Dr. Oswald Heer, in his Treatise¹⁴ on the Plants of the Lake Dwellings, says: ‘Stones and pottery¹⁵, domestic implements and charcoal¹⁶ ashes, grains of corn and bones, lie together in a confused mass. And yet they are by no means spread regularly over the bottom, but are frequently found in patches. The places where bones are plentiful¹⁷, where the seeds of raspberries and blackberries, and the stones of sloes and cherries are found in heaps, probably indicate where there were holes in the wooden platform, through which the refuse was thrown into the lake; whilst those places where burnt fruits, bread, and plaited and woven cloth are found, indicate the position of store rooms in the very places where they were burnt, and thus the contents fell into the water. The burnt fruits and seeds, therefore, unquestionably belong to the age of the lake dwellings; and a portion of them15 are in very good preservation¹⁸, for the process of burning has not essentially¹⁹ changed their form. Many of the remains²⁰ of plants, however, have been preserved in an unburnt state.’

He gives the following list of cereals that have been found, and it is a somewhat extensive one: ‘(1) Small lake-dwelling barley (Hordeum hexastichum sanctum), (2) Compact six-rowed barley (Hordeum hexastichum densum), (3) Two-rowed barley (Hordeum distichum), (4) Small lake-dwelling wheat (Triticum vulgare antiquorum), (5) Beardless compact wheat (Triticum vulgare compactum muticum), (6) Egyptian wheat (Triticum turgidum), (7) Spelt (Triticum spelta), (8) Two-grained wheat (Triticum dicoccum), (9) One-grained wheat (Triticum monococcum), (10) Rye (Secale cereale), (11) Oat (Avena sativa), (12) Millet (Panicum miliaceum), and (13) Italian millet (Setaria Italicum).’

Of these Nos. 1 and 4 were the most ancient, most important, and most generally cultivated, and next to them come Nos. 5, 12, and 13. Nos. 6, 8, and 9 were, probably, like No. 3, only cultivated, as experiments, in a few places. Nos. 7 and 11 appeared later, not until the Bronze Age, whilst No. 10 (rye) was entirely²¹ unknown amongst the lake dwellings of Switzerland.

At the lake settlement at Wangen a remarkable²² quantity of charred²³ corn was dug up. Mr. L?hle believes that, altogether, and at various times, he has collected as much as 100 bushels. Sometimes he found the entire ears, at other times the grain only. Any of my readers can see for themselves16 some of this wheat, and also some raspberry seeds, found at Wangen. In the same case in the Prehistoric²⁴ Saloon of the British Museum may be seen specimens²⁵ of beans, peas, charred straw, acorns²⁷, hazel nuts, barley in the ear, millet in ear, in seed, and made into cakes, one showing the pattern of the bottom of a basket, and another the impress of a rush mat. The cakes or bread of millet are very solid, and are made of meal coarsely crushed.

We know how this was crushed, for we have found their corn-crushers and mealing-stones. Of these the rude corn-crushers are undoubtedly²⁸ the earliest. These stones, with their rounded ends, for a time somewhat puzzled the arch?ologist as to their use; but that was at once apparent when they were taken in conjunction with the hollowed stones. They were corn-crushers, which were used for pounding the parched corn or raw grain to make a thick gruel²⁹ or porridge.

Later on they improved upon them by using mealing-stones, which ground out the meal by rubbing one stone on another, accompanied with pressure. The stones are in the British Museum. Such mealing-stones were used by the Egyptians and Assyrians, as we shall see, and are employed to this day in Central Africa. ‘The mill consists of a block of granite³⁰, syenite, or even mica³¹ schist, 15in. or 18in. square and five or six thick, with a piece of quartz³² or other hard rock about the size of a half-brick, one side of which has a convex surface, and fits into a concave hollow in the larger, and stationary³³, stone. The workwoman, kneeling, grasps this upper 17
18millstone with both hands, and works it backwards³⁴ and forwards in the hollow of the lower millstone, in the same way that a baker³⁵ works his dough³⁶, when pressing it and pushing from him. The weight of the person is brought to bear on the movable stone, and while it is pressed and pushed forwards and backwards one hand supplies, every now and then, a little grain, to be thus at first bruised³⁷, and then ground on the lower stone, which is placed on the slope, so that the meal, when ground, falls on to a skin or mat spread for the purpose. This is, perhaps, the most primitive³⁸ form of mill, and anterior³⁹ to that in Oriental countries, where two women grind at one mill, and may have been that used by Sarah of old when she entertained the angels.’

Pre-Historic Mills and Corn-Crushers.

To these mealing-stones succeeded the quern. This was a basin, or hollowed stone, with another—oviform—for grinding. The quern has survived to this day. In London, at the west end of Cheapside, by Paternoster Row, was a church, destroyed by the Great Fire of 1666, and never rebuilt, called St. Michael le Quern. It was close by Panyer Alley⁴⁰, so called from the baker’s basket, and a stone is still in the alley on which is sculptured a naked boy sitting on a panyer. Querns have been found in the remains of the lake dwellings in Switzerland, and in the Crannoges, or lake dwellings of Scotland and Ireland. They are still in use in out-of-the-way places in Norway, in remote districts in Ireland, and some parts of the western islands of Scotland. In the latter 19country, as early as 1284, an effort was made by the Legislature to supersede⁴¹ the quern by the water-mill, the use of the former being prohibited, except in case of storm, or where there was a lack of mills of the new species. Whoever used the quern was to ’gif the threttein measure as multer2;’ and the transgressor⁴² was to ‘time3 his hand mylnes perpetuallie.’ Querns were not always made of stone, for one made of oak was found in 1831, whilst removing Blair Drummond Moss⁴³. It is 19 in. in height by 14 in. in diameter, and the centre is hollowed about a foot, so as to form a mortar⁴⁴.

To sum up this notice of pre-historic bread, I may mention that at Robenhausen, Meisskomer discovered 8lbs. weight of bread, and also at Wangen has been found baked bread or cake made of crushed corn exactly similar. Of course, it has been burnt, or charred, and thus these interesting specimens have been preserved to the present day. The form of these cakes is somewhat round, and about an inch to an inch and a half thick; one small specimen²⁶, nearly perfect, is about four or five inches in diameter. The dough did not consist of meal, but of grains of corn more or less crushed. In some specimens the halves of grains of barley are plainly discernible. The under side of these cakes is sometimes flat, sometimes concave, and there appears no doubt that the mass of dough was baked by being laid on hot stones, and covered over with glowing ashes.

1 skull   

n.头骨；颅骨

参考例句：

• The skull bones fuse between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five.头骨在15至25岁之间长合。
• He fell out of the window and cracked his skull.他从窗子摔了出去，跌裂了颅骨。

2 masticating   

v.咀嚼( masticate的现在分词 )；粉碎，磨烂

参考例句：

• Her mouth was working, as if she was masticating some tasty titbit. 她的嘴在动，好像在嚼什么好吃的。 来自辞典例句

3 parched   

adj.焦干的；极渴的；v.（使）焦干

参考例句：

• Hot winds parched the crops.热风使庄稼干透了。
• The land in this region is rather dry and parched.这片土地十分干燥。

4 dwellings   

n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• The development will consist of 66 dwellings and a number of offices. 新建楼区将由66栋住房和一些办公用房组成。
• The hovels which passed for dwellings are being pulled down. 过去用作住室的陋屋正在被拆除。 来自《简明英汉词典》

5 implements   

n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效

参考例句：

• Primitive man hunted wild animals with crude stone implements. 原始社会的人用粗糙的石器猎取野兽。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》
• They ordered quantities of farm implements. 他们订购了大量农具。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》

6 cultivation   

n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成

参考例句：

• The cultivation in good taste is our main objective.培养高雅情趣是我们的主要目标。
• The land is not fertile enough to repay cultivation.这块土地不够肥沃，不值得耕种。

7 humble   

adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低

参考例句：

• In my humble opinion,he will win the election.依我拙见，他将在选举中获胜。
• Defeat and failure make people humble.挫折与失败会使人谦卑。

8 progenitor   

n.祖先，先驱

参考例句：

• He was also a progenitor of seven presidents of Nicaragua.他也是尼加拉瓜7任总统的祖先。
• Schoenberg was a progenitor of modern music.勋伯格是一位现代音乐的先驱。

9 barley   

n.大麦，大麦粒

参考例句：

• They looked out across the fields of waving barley.他们朝田里望去,只见大麦随风摇摆。
• He cropped several acres with barley.他种了几英亩大麦。

10 maize   

n.玉米

参考例句：

• There's a field planted with maize behind the house.房子后面有一块玉米地。
• We can grow sorghum or maize on this plot.这块地可以种高粱或玉米。

11 millet   

n.小米，谷子

参考例句：

• Millet is cultivated in the middle or lower reaches of the Yellow River.在黄河中下游地区，人们种植谷子。
• The high quality millet flour was obtained through wet milling.采用湿磨法获得了高品质的小米粉。

12 odds   

n.让步，机率，可能性，比率；胜败优劣之别

参考例句：

• The odds are 5 to 1 that she will win.她获胜的机会是五比一。
• Do you know the odds of winning the lottery once?你知道赢得一次彩票的几率多大吗？

13 relic   

n.神圣的遗物，遗迹，纪念物

参考例句：

• This stone axe is a relic of ancient times.这石斧是古代的遗物。
• He found himself thinking of the man as a relic from the past.他把这个男人看成是过去时代的人物。

14 treatise   

n.专著；(专题)论文

参考例句：

• The doctor wrote a treatise on alcoholism.那位医生写了一篇关于酗酒问题的论文。
• This is not a treatise on statistical theory.这不是一篇有关统计理论的论文。

15 pottery   

n.陶器，陶器场

参考例句：

• My sister likes to learn art pottery in her spare time.我妹妹喜欢在空余时间学习陶艺。
• The pottery was left to bake in the hot sun.陶器放在外面让炎热的太阳烘晒焙干。

16 charcoal   

n.炭，木炭，生物炭

参考例句：

• We need to get some more charcoal for the barbecue.我们烧烤需要更多的碳。
• Charcoal is used to filter water.木炭是用来过滤水的。

17 plentiful   

adj.富裕的，丰富的

参考例句：

• Their family has a plentiful harvest this year.他们家今年又丰收了。
• Rainfall is plentiful in the area.这个地区雨量充足。

18 preservation   

n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持

参考例句：

• The police are responsible for the preservation of law and order.警察负责维持法律与秩序。
• The picture is in an excellent state of preservation.这幅画保存得极为完好。

19 essentially   

adv.本质上，实质上，基本上

参考例句：

• Really great men are essentially modest.真正的伟人大都很谦虚。
• She is an essentially selfish person.她本质上是个自私自利的人。

20 remains   

n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹

参考例句：

• He ate the remains of food hungrily.他狼吞虎咽地吃剩余的食物。
• The remains of the meal were fed to the dog.残羹剩饭喂狗了。

21 entirely   

ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地

参考例句：

• The fire was entirely caused by their neglect of duty. 那场火灾完全是由于他们失职而引起的。
• His life was entirely given up to the educational work. 他的一生统统献给了教育工作。

22 remarkable   

adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的

参考例句：

• She has made remarkable headway in her writing skills.她在写作技巧方面有了长足进步。
• These cars are remarkable for the quietness of their engines.这些汽车因发动机没有噪音而不同凡响。

23 charred   

v.把…烧成炭( char的过去式)；烧焦

参考例句：

• the charred remains of a burnt-out car 被烧焦的轿车残骸
• The intensity of the explosion is recorded on the charred tree trunks. 那些烧焦的树干表明爆炸的强烈。 来自《简明英汉词典》

24 prehistoric   

adj.（有记载的）历史以前的，史前的，古老的

参考例句：

• They have found prehistoric remains.他们发现了史前遗迹。
• It was rather like an exhibition of prehistoric electronic equipment.这儿倒像是在展览古老的电子设备。

25 specimens   

n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人

参考例句：

• Astronauts have brought back specimens of rock from the moon. 宇航员从月球带回了岩石标本。
• The traveler brought back some specimens of the rocks from the mountains. 那位旅行者从山上带回了一些岩石标本。 来自《简明英汉词典》

26 specimen   

n.样本，标本

参考例句：

• You'll need tweezers to hold up the specimen.你要用镊子来夹这标本。
• This specimen is richly variegated in colour.这件标本上有很多颜色。

27 acorns   

n.橡子，栎实( acorn的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• Great oaks from little acorns grow. 万丈高楼平地起。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• Welcome to my new website!It may not look much at the moment, but great oaks from little acorns grow! 欢迎来到我的新网站。它现在可能微不足道，不过万丈高楼平地起嘛。 来自《简明英汉词典》

28 undoubtedly   

adv.确实地，无疑地

参考例句：

• It is undoubtedly she who has said that.这话明明是她说的。
• He is undoubtedly the pride of China.毫无疑问他是中国的骄傲。

29 gruel   

n.稀饭，粥

参考例句：

• We had gruel for the breakfast.我们早餐吃的是粥。
• He sat down before the fireplace to eat his gruel.他坐到壁炉前吃稀饭。

30 granite   

adj.花岗岩，花岗石

参考例句：

• They squared a block of granite.他们把一块花岗岩加工成四方形。
• The granite overlies the older rocks.花岗岩躺在磨损的岩石上面。

31 mica   

n.云母

参考例句：

• It could not pass through material impervious to water such as mica.它不能通过云母这样的不透水的物质。
• Because of its layered structure,mica is fissile.因为是层状结构，云母很容易分成片。

32 quartz   

n.石英

参考例句：

• There is a great deal quartz in those mountains.那些山里蕴藏着大量石英。
• The quartz watch keeps good time.石英表走时准。

33 stationary   

adj.固定的，静止不动的

参考例句：

• A stationary object is easy to be aimed at.一个静止不动的物体是容易瞄准的。
• Wait until the bus is stationary before you get off.你要等公共汽车停稳了再下车。

34 backwards   

adv.往回地，向原处，倒，相反，前后倒置地

参考例句：

• He turned on the light and began to pace backwards and forwards.他打开电灯并开始走来走去。
• All the girls fell over backwards to get the party ready.姑娘们迫不及待地为聚会做准备。

35 baker   

n.面包师

参考例句：

• The baker bakes his bread in the bakery.面包师在面包房内烤面包。
• The baker frosted the cake with a mixture of sugar and whites of eggs.面包师在蛋糕上撒了一层白糖和蛋清的混合料。

36 dough   

n.生面团；钱，现款

参考例句：

• She formed the dough into squares.她把生面团捏成四方块。
• The baker is kneading dough.那位面包师在揉面。

37 bruised   

[医]青肿的，瘀紫的

参考例句：

• his bruised and bloodied nose 他沾满血的青肿的鼻子
• She had slipped and badly bruised her face. 她滑了一跤，摔得鼻青脸肿。

38 primitive   

adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物

参考例句：

• It is a primitive instinct to flee a place of danger.逃离危险的地方是一种原始本能。
• His book describes the march of the civilization of a primitive society.他的著作描述了一个原始社会的开化过程。

39 anterior   

adj.较早的；在前的

参考例句：

• We've already finished the work anterior to the schedule.我们已经提前完成了工作。
• The anterior part of a fish contains the head and gills.鱼的前部包括头和鳃。

40 alley   

n.小巷，胡同；小径，小路

参考例句：

• We live in the same alley.我们住在同一条小巷里。
• The blind alley ended in a brick wall.这条死胡同的尽头是砖墙。

41 supersede   

v.替代；充任

参考例句：

• We must supersede old machines by new ones.我们必须以新机器取代旧机器。
• The use of robots will someday supersede manual labor.机器人的使用有一天会取代人力。

42 transgressor   

n.违背者

参考例句：

• We expect the transgressor to make any atonement possible to him. 我们期待犯了过失的人有可能做到的赎罪行为。 来自辞典例句
• We expect transgressor to make any atonement possible to him. “我深信，”西丝又重说一遍，“这是你能做的唯一的赎罪的办法。” 来自互联网

43 moss   

n.苔，藓，地衣

参考例句：

• Moss grows on a rock.苔藓生在石头上。
• He was found asleep on a pillow of leaves and moss.有人看见他枕着树叶和苔藓睡着了。

44 mortar   

n.灰浆，灰泥；迫击炮；v.把…用灰浆涂接合

参考例句：

• The mason flushed the joint with mortar.泥工用灰浆把接缝处嵌平。
• The sound of mortar fire seemed to be closing in.迫击炮的吼声似乎正在逼近。