It is not worth while going very far back to write the history of hard times and how they were met; a hundred years is quite long enough for retrospect3. Suffice it, then, that the years 1795-96 were years of great scarcity, and all classes, from the peasant to the King, felt it, and met it like men. To cope with this dearth4, the best way seemed to them to diminish, as far as possible, the use of wheaten flour, and to provide substitutes therefor. The King set his subjects a good example.
‘His Majesty5 has given orders for the bread used163 in his household to be made of meal and rye mixed. No other sort is permitted to be baked, and the royal family eat bread of the same quality as their servants do. It is extremely sweet and palatable6.
‘One half flour, and half potatoes, also make a very excellent bread.’ (Times, July 22, 1795.)
‘The writer of this paragraph has seen the bread that is eaten at his Majesty’s table. It consists of two sorts only, the one composed of wheaten flour and rye mixed; the other is half wheaten flour, half potato flour. If ever example deserved imitation, it is this.’ (Times, July 30, 1795.)
People were requested to discontinue the use of hair powder, which was made of starch7 obtained from wheat, and very many did so; in fact, this movement extended to the Army, for we read in the Times, Feb. 10, 1795: ‘In consequence of the scarcity of wheat, arising partly from such quantities of it being used for hair powder, several regiments8 have, very patriotically9, discontinued the use of hair powder, which, in these instances, was generally nothing but flour.’
Potatoes came very much to the fore10 as a substitute for wheat, and the Parliamentary Board of Agriculture proposed a premium11 of one thousand pounds to the person who would grow the largest breadth of potatoes on lands never before applied12 to the culture of that plant.
The City authorities watched the bakers13 narrowly as to short weight and amerced them 5s. per ounce short, one man having to pay, with costs, ￡106 5s. on164 420 ounces deficient14 in weight. Wheat in August, 1795, was 13s. 6d. per bushel, and the price of the quartern loaf should then have been 1s. 6d., as it was 1s. 3d. in January, 1796, when wheat was 11s. 6d. per bushel. It fell rapidly after harvest and in December, 1796, was 7s. 4d. per bushel. It must be remembered that money then had twice its present value.
In 1800 there was another scarcity, and in February of that year a Bill passed into law which enacted15 ‘That it shall not be lawful16 for any baker, or other person, or persons, residing within the cities of London and Westminster, and the Bills of Mortality, and within ten miles of the Royal Exchange, after the 26th day of February, 1800, or residing in any part of Great Britain after the 4th day of March, 1800, to sell, or offer to expose for sale, any bread, until the same shall have been baked 24 hours at the least.’
The average price of wheat this year was 14s. 1d. per bushel, and in July, just before harvest, it rose to 16s. 10d. or 134s. 8d. per quarter, and other provisions were very dear. The people were less patient than in 1795-6, and in August and September several riots took place at Birmingham, Oxford17, Nottingham, Coventry, Norwich, Stamford, Portsmouth, Sheffield, Worcester, and many other places. The markets were interrupted, and the populace compelled the farmers, etc., to sell their provisions at a low price.
At last these riots extended to London, beginning in a very small way. Late at night on Saturday, September 13, or early on Sunday, the 14th, two165 large, written placards were pasted on the Monument, the text of which was—
‘Bread will be sixpence the quartern, if the people will assemble at the Corn Market on Monday.
‘FELLOW COUNTRYMEN,
‘How long will ye quietly and cowardly suffer yourselves to be imposed upon and half-starved by a set of mercenary slaves and Government hirelings? Can you still suffer them to proceed in their extensive monopolies while your children are crying for bread? No! let them not exist a day longer. We are the sovereignty; rise then from your lethargy. Be at the Corn Market on Monday.’
By means of these placards, and handbills to the same effect, a mob of over a thousand was collected in Mark Lane by nine a.m., and their number was doubled in another hour. They hissed18 and pelted19 the corn factors; but, about eleven a.m., when they began to break windows, the Lord Mayor appeared upon the spot. In vain he assured them that their behaviour could in no way affect the market. They only yelled at him, ‘Cheap bread!’ ‘Birmingham and Nottingham for ever!’ ‘Three loaves for eighteen-pence,’ etc. They even hissed the Lord Mayor and smashed the windows close by him. This was more than he could bear, and he ordered the Riot Act to be read. The constables20 charged the mob, who, of course, fled, and the Lord Mayor returned to the Mansion21 House.
They only went to other parts of the City, and,166 when night fell, they began smashing windows, etc. At last, fear of their firing the City induced the authorities to invoke22 the assistance of some Volunteers and Militia23, and by their efforts the mob was driven over London Bridge into Southwark, where they rendered the night lively by breaking windows, etc.
For a day or two there was peace; but on the morning and during the day and night of the 18th of September the mob had it all their own way, breaking windows and pillaging24. A royal proclamation was issued, calling on the civil authorities to suppress these riots, which was done at last by means of cavalry25 and Volunteers, but only after the mob having two more days’ uncontrolled possession of London. But the people in the country were not so quickly satisfied; their wages were smaller than those of their London brethren, and they proportionately felt the pinch more acutely. In some instances they were put down by force, in others the price of bread was lowered; but it is impossible at this time to take up a newspaper and not find some notice of or allusion26 to a food riot.
The importation of foreign corn supplied the deficiency of the English crops, and bread was moderately cheap; but in 1815, probably with a view to assuage27 the agricultural distress28 then prevalent, a measure was proposed and passed by which foreign corn was to be prohibited, except when wheat had reached 80s. a quarter—a price considered by the great body of consumers as exorbitant29. A resolution was passed ‘That it is the opinion of the Committee that any sort of foreign corn, meal, or flour, which167 may by law be imported into the United Kingdom shall at all times be allowed to be brought into the United Kingdom, and to be warehoused there, without payment of any duty whatever.’
The popular feeling was well worked on; and on March 6 groups of people assembled near the Houses of Parliament, about the usual time of meeting, hooting30 or cheering the members, and occasionally stopping a carriage and making its occupant walk through the crowd, which at last got so unruly that it was obliged to be dispersed31 by the military. Yet the whole night they were parading the streets, breaking windows, and yelling: ‘No Corn Bill!’ This conduct continued for two nights longer, until the rioters had almost worn themselves out, when an increase of military force finally extinguished the rising. But there were riots all over the country.
In 1828 an Act of Parliament was passed which fixed32 the duty on foreign wheat according to a ‘sliding scale,’ whereby it was diminished from 1l. 5s. 8d. per quarter whenever the average price of all England was under 62s., and was gradually reduced, as wheat rose in price, until the duty stood at 1s. when wheat was 73s. and upwards33.
Great agitation34 prevailed as to free corn; and on September 18, 1838, the Anti-Corn Law League, for procuring35 the repeal36 of the laws charging duty upon the importation of corn, was founded at Manchester. This organisation37 lectured, harangued38, distributed pamphlets, and was perpetually in evidence—and at last succeeded in its object.
The 5 Vict., c. 14 (April 29, 1842), was a revised168 sliding scale. When wheat was under 51s. the duty to be 1l.; when 73s. and over, 1s.; and this lasted until the Corn Importation Bill (9, 10, Vic., c. 22) was passed on June 26, 1846, which reduced the duty on wheat to 4s. when imported at or above 53s., until Feb. 1, 1849, when 1s. duty per quarter only was to be levied39 on all kinds of imported grain. This shilling was taken off on June 24, 1869, and there is now no hindrance40 of any sort to the importation of foreign corn.
Although there was fierce political contention41 over the Anti-Corn Law agitation physical force was not resorted to, and the next bread riots we hear of were in 1855. They seem to have begun at Liverpool, where, on Feb. 19, an unruly mob took possession of the city, clamouring for bread and looting the bakers’ shops. The police were unable to cope with the riot; therefore, special constables were sworn in and peace was restored towards evening. Next day about 60 prisoners were brought before the magistrates42; some were committed for trial, others sentenced to one, two, or three months’ imprisonment43.
The riot spread to London, and during the night of Feb. 21 and the whole day of Feb. 22 the East End and South of London were terrorised by bands of men perambulating the streets and demanding bread and money from the inhabitants; some shops were looted, but, thanks to the police and the distribution of a large quantity of bread, serious consequences were averted44. Several arrests were made and punishment duly meted45 out.
On September 14, 1855, there were bread riots169 in Nottingham, where the mob broke the bakers’ windows and proceeded to such extremities46 that special constables were sworn in and peace was restored.
On three successive Sundays, October 14, 21, and 28, 1855, there were disorderly meetings on account of the dearness of bread held in Hyde Park; the windows of many houses were smashed, but the disturbances47 hardly amounted to riot; and the same occurred on November 4, 11, and 18, but the police prevented the mob from doing much mischief48. Since then we have never known a bread riot, although the unemployed49, Anarchists50, etc., have at times been troublesome.
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1
scarcity
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| n.缺乏，不足，萧条 | |
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baker
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| n.面包师 | |
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3
retrospect
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| n.回顾，追溯；v.回顾，回想，追溯 | |
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dearth
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| n.缺乏，粮食不足，饥谨 | |
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majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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6
palatable
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| adj.可口的，美味的；惬意的 | |
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starch
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| n.淀粉；vt.给...上浆 | |
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8
regiments
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| （军队的）团( regiment的名词复数 )； 大量的人或物 | |
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9
patriotically
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| 爱国地；忧国地 | |
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fore
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| adv.在前面；adj.先前的；在前部的；n.前部 | |
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premium
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| n.加付款；赠品；adj.高级的；售价高的 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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13
bakers
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| n.面包师( baker的名词复数 )；面包店；面包店店主；十三 | |
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14
deficient
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| adj.不足的，不充份的，有缺陷的 | |
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15
enacted
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| 制定（法律），通过（法案）( enact的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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lawful
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| adj.法律许可的，守法的，合法的 | |
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17
Oxford
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| n.牛津（英国城市） | |
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18
hissed
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| 发嘶嘶声( hiss的过去式和过去分词 )； 发嘘声表示反对 | |
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pelted
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| （连续地）投掷( pelt的过去式和过去分词 )； 连续抨击； 攻击； 剥去…的皮 | |
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constables
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| n.警察( constable的名词复数 ) | |
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21
mansion
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| n.大厦，大楼；宅第 | |
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22
invoke
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| v.求助于(神、法律)；恳求，乞求 | |
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23
militia
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| n.民兵，民兵组织 | |
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24
pillaging
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| v.抢劫，掠夺( pillage的现在分词 ) | |
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25
cavalry
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| n.骑兵；轻装甲部队 | |
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26
allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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assuage
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| v.缓和，减轻，镇定 | |
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28
distress
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| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
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29
exorbitant
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| adj.过分的；过度的 | |
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30
hooting
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| （使）作汽笛声响，作汽车喇叭声( hoot的现在分词 )； 倒好儿； 倒彩 | |
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31
dispersed
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| adj. 被驱散的, 被分散的, 散布的 | |
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32
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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34
agitation
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| n.搅动；搅拌；鼓动，煽动 | |
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35
procuring
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的现在分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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36
repeal
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| n.废止，撤消；v.废止，撤消 | |
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organisation
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| n.组织，安排，团体，有机休 | |
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38
harangued
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| v.高谈阔论( harangue的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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39
levied
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| 征（兵）( levy的过去式和过去分词 )； 索取； 发动（战争）； 征税 | |
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40
hindrance
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| n.妨碍，障碍 | |
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41
contention
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| n.争论，争辩，论战；论点，主张 | |
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42
magistrates
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| 地方法官，治安官( magistrate的名词复数 ) | |
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43
imprisonment
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| n.关押，监禁，坐牢 | |
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44
averted
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| 防止，避免( avert的过去式和过去分词 )； 转移 | |
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45
meted
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| v.（对某人）施以，给予（处罚等）( mete的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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46
extremities
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| n.端点( extremity的名词复数 )；尽头；手和足；极窘迫的境地 | |
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47
disturbances
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| n.骚乱( disturbance的名词复数 )；打扰；困扰；障碍 | |
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48
mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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49
unemployed
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| adj.失业的，没有工作的；未动用的，闲置的 | |
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50
anarchists
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| 无政府主义者( anarchist的名词复数 ) | |
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