The next Order of Saints had few bishops but many priests, this was the order to which Columcille belonged, and most of the saints who founded the great schools of Ireland which in[Pg 193] the following century became so flourishing and spread their fame throughout Europe, as those of Ciaran and Finnian and Brendan, and a score of others. This Order shunned12 all association with women, and would not have them in their monasteries13.[1] These saints whilst worshipping God as their head, and celebrating one Easter and having one tonsure, yet had different rites15 for celebrating, and different rules for living. The rite14 with which they celebrated16 Mass they are said to have secured from the British saints, St. David, St. Gildas, and others. They also lasted for four reigns, or, roughly speaking, during the last three quarters of the sixth century.
After these came what is called the third Order of Saints who appear in their time to have been pre-eminent amongst the other Christians, and to have been mostly anchorites, who lived on herbs and supported themselves by such alms as they were given, despising all things earthly and all things fleshly. They observed Easter differently, they had different tonsures18, they had different rules of life, and different rites for celebrating Mass. They are said to have numbered about a hundred and to have lasted down to the time of the great plague in 664.
This third Order, says the writer of the "Catalogue of Saints," who gives their names, was holy, the second holier, but the first Order was most holy. "The first glowed like the sun in the fervour of their charity, the second cast a pale radiance like the moon, the third shone like the aurora19. These three Orders the blessed Patrick foreknew, enlightened by heavenly wisdom, when in prophetic vision he saw at first all Ireland ablaze21, and afterwards only the mountains on fire, and at last saw lamps lit in the valleys."
By the middle of the sixth century Ireland had been honeycombed from shore to shore with schools, monasteries, colleges,[Pg 194] and foundations of all kinds belonging to the Christian2 community, and books had multiplied to a marvellous extent. At the same time the professional bards22 flourished in such numbers that Keating says that "nearly a third of the men of Ireland belonged, about that period, to the poetic23 order." Omitting for the present the consideration of the bards and the non-Christian literature of poem and saga—mostly anonymous24—which they produced, we must, take a rapid survey of some of the most important of the Christian schools, whose pious25 professors, whose number, and whose learning, secured for Ireland the title of the Island of Saints. We have already seen how the three patron saints of Ireland established their schools in Armagh, Kildare, and Iona, and their example was followed by hundreds.
St. Enda, the son of a king of Oriel, after having studied at some school in Great Britain (probably with St. Ninian—who is said to have been himself an Irishman—at his noble monastery26 of Candida Casa in Galloway, built about the year 400), and after travelling through various parts of Ireland, settled down finally about the year 483 in the rocky and inaccessible28 island of Aran Mór, and was the first of those holy men who have won for it the appellation29 of Aran of the Saints. "One hundred and twenty-seven saints sleep in the little square yard around Killeany Church"[2] alone, and we are told that the countless30 numbers of saints who have mingled31 their clay with the holy soil of Aran will never be known until the day of Judgment32. Here most of the saints of the second Order repaired sooner or later, to be instructed by, or to hold converse33 with St. Enda; amongst them Brendan the Voyager, whose wanderings, under the title of Navigatio Brendani, became so well known in later ages to all medi?val Europe. To him also came St. Finnian of Clonard, who was himself celebrated in later days as the "Tutor of the Saints of Erin." From the remote north came[Pg 195] Finnian of Moville, Columcille's first teacher, and Ciaran, the carpenter's son, the illustrious founder8 of Clonmacnois. St. Jarlath of Tuam was there too, with St. Carthach the elder, of Lismore, and with St. Keevin of Glendalough. St. Columcille[3] himself was amongst Enda's visitors, and tore himself away with the utmost difficulty, solacing34 himself by recourse to the Irish muse35 as was his wont—
"Farewell from me to Ara's Isle36,
Her smile is at my heart no more,
No more to me the boon37 is given
With hosts of heaven to walk her shore.
How far, alas38! how far, alas!
Have I to pass from Ara's view,
To mix with men from Mona's fen39,
With men from Alba's mountains blue.
Bright orb40 of Ara, Ara's sun,
Ah! softly run through Ara's sky,
To rest beneath thy beam were sweeter
Than lie where Paul and Peter lie.
O Ara, darling of the West,
Ne'er be he blest who loves not thee,
O God, cut short her foeman's breath,
Let Hell and Death his portion be.
O Ara, darling of the West,
Ne'er be he blest who loves not thee,
Herdless and childless may he go
In endless woe41 his doom42 is dree.
O Ara, darling of the West,
Ne'er be he blest who loves thee not,
When angels wing from heaven on high
And leave the sky for this dear spot."[4]
[Pg 196]
Another early school was that founded by St. Finnian at Cluain Eraird, better known under its corrupt43 form Clonard, a spot hard by the river Boyne, to which students from both north and south resorted in great numbers. Finnian, who was of the Clanna Rury, or Irian race, had been baptized by Bishop5 Fortchern, who—so quickly did the Christian cause progress—was a grandson of King Laeghaire, who withstood St. Patrick. This Fortchern, too, like Brigit's favourite bishop, was a skilled artificer in bronze and metal, a calling to which many of the early saints evinced a strong bias45. Clonard even during Finnian's lifetime became a great school, and three thousand students are said to have been gathered round it, amongst them the so-called Twelve Apostles of Erin. These are Ciaran of Clonmacnois and Ciaran of Saigher, who is patron saint of Ossory; Brendan of Birr, the "prophet," and Brendan of Clonfert, the "navigator"; Columba of Tir-da-glass and Columcille; Mobhí of Glasnevin and—infaustum nomen!—Rodan of Lothra or Lorrha; Senanus of Iniscathy, whose name is known to the lovers of the poet Moore; Ninnidh of Loch Erne; Lasserian, and St. Cainnech of Kilkenny, known in Scotland as Kenneth, and second in that country only to St. Columcille and St. Brigit in popularity. The school of Clonard was founded about the year 520, when, to quote the rather jingling46 hymn47 from St. Finnian's office—
"Reversus in Clonardiam
Ad cathedram lectur?
Opponit diligentiam
Ad studium scriptur?."
[Pg 197]
The numbers who attended his teaching are given in another verse—
"Trium virorum millium
Sorte fit doctor humilis,
Verbi his fudit fluvium
Ut fons emanans rivulis."
Like all the other early Irish foundations which attained48 to wealth and dignity before the ninth century, Clonard suffered in proportion to its fame. It was after that date plundered49 and destroyed twelve times, and was fourteen times burnt down either wholly or in part. That being so, it is not much to be wondered at that there only remains50 a single surviving literary work of this school, which is the "Mystical Interpretation51 of the Ancestry52 of our Lord Jesus Christ," by St. Aileran the Wise, one of Finnian's successors, who died of the great plague in 664. This piece, like so many others, was found in the Swiss monastery of St. Gall27, whither it had been brought by some monks53 from Ireland. The editors who printed it for the Benedictines in the seventeenth century say that, although the writer did not belong to their Order, they publish it because he "unfolded the meaning of sacred scripture55 with so much learning and ingenuity56 that every student of the sacred volume, and especially preachers of the Divine Word, will regard the publication as most acceptable." The learned editors could have hardly paid the Irish writer a higher compliment. "A Short Moral Explanation of the Sacred Names" is another still existing fragment of Aileran's, and "whether we consider the style of the latinity, the learning, or the ingenuity of the writer," says Dr. Healy, "it is equally marvellous and equally honourable57 to the school of Clonard." Aileran is said to have also written lives of St. Patrick, St. Brigit, and St. Fechin of Fore20, and to be the original author of a litany, part Irish, part Latin, preserved in the Yellow Book of Lecan.
Another great Irish college was Clonfert on the Shannon,[Pg 198] founded about the year 556 by Brendan the Navigator, who, like Finnian, came of the Irian race, being descended58 from Fergus mac Roy.[5] He was born towards the close of the fifth century, and his school, too, became very famous, having, it is said, produced as many as three thousand monks. The influence of the Navigatio Brendani, by whomsoever written, was immense, and was felt through all Europe, so that in many of the great continental59 libraries good MS. copies of it, sometimes very ancient, may be found.[6] But perhaps Brendan's grand-nephew and pupil may have indirectly60 influenced European literature in a still more important manner. This was Fursa, afterwards St. Fursa, whose visions were known all over Ireland, Great Britain, and France. There can be no doubt about the substantial accuracy of St. Fursa's life, for Bede himself, who dedicates a good deal of space to Fursa's visions,[7] refers to it. It must have been written within ten or fifteen years after his death, because it refers to the plague and the great eclipse of the sun which happened last year, that is 664. Now Dante was acquainted with Bede's writings, for he expressly mentions him, and Bede's account of Fursa and Fursa's own life may have been familiar to him, and furnished him with the groundwork of part of the Divine Comedy of which it seems a kind of prototype.[8]
[Pg 199]
Brendan's own adventures and his view of hell, which he was shown by the devil, may also have been known to Dante. Brendan prepared three vessels61 with thirty men in each, some clerics, some laymen63, and with these, says his Irish life in the Book of Lismore, he sailed to seek the Promised Land, which, evidently influenced by the old pagan traditions of Moy Mell[9] and Hy Brassil, he expected to find as an island in the Western Sea, and so says his Irish life poetically—
"Brendan, son of Finnlug, sailed over the wave-voice of the strong-maned sea, and over the storm of the green-sided waves, and over the mouths of the marvellous awful bitter ocean, where they saw the multitude of the furious red-mouthed monsters with abundance of the great sea-whales. And they found beautiful marvellous islands, yet they tarried not therein."
Like Sindbad in the Arabian tales,[10] they land upon the back of a great whale as if it had been solid land. There they celebrated Easter. They endured much peril64 from the sea. "On a certain day, as they were on the marvellous ocean"—this adjective is strongly indicative of the spirit in which the Celt regards the works of nature—"they beheld65 the deep bitter streams and the vast black whirlpools of the strong-maned sea, and in them their vessels were being constrained66 to founder because of the greatness of the storm." Brendan, however, cried to the sea, "It is enough for thee, O mighty67 sea, to drown me alone, but let this folk escape thee," and on hearing[Pg 200] his cry the sea grew calm. It was after this that Brendan got a view of hell.
"On a certain day," says the Irish Life, "that they were on the sea, the devil came in a form old, awful, hideous68, foul69, hellish, and sat on the rail of the vessel62 before Brendan, and none of them saw him save Brendan alone. Brendan asked him why he had come before his proper time, that is, before the time of the great resurrection. 'For this have I come,' said the devil, 'to seek my punishment in the deep closes of this black, dark sea.' Brendan inquired of him, 'What is this, where is that infernal place?' 'Sad is that,' said the devil; 'no one can see it and remain alive afterwards.' Howbeit the devil there revealed the gate of hell to Brendan, and Brendan beheld that rough, hot prison full of stench, full of flame, full of filth70, full of the camps of the poisonous demons71, full of wailing72 and screaming and hurt and sad cries and great lamentations and moaning and handsmiting of the sinful folks, and a gloomy, mournful life in hearts of pain, in igneous73 prisons, in streams of the rows of eternal fire, in the cup of eternal sorrow and death, without limit, without end; in black, dark swamps, in fonts of heavy flame, in abundance of woe and death and torments74, and fetters75, and feeble wearying combats, with the awful shouting of the poisonous demons, in a night ever-dark, ever-cold, ever-stinking76, ever-foul, ever-misty, ever-harsh, ever-long, ever-stifling, deadly, destructive, gloomy, fiery77-haired, of the loathsome78 bottom of hell. On sides of mountains of eternal fire, without rest, without stay, were hosts of demons dragging the sinners into prisons ... black demons; stinking fires; streams of poison; cats scratching; hounds rending79; dogs baying; demons yelling; stinking lakes; great swamps; dark pits; deep glens; high mountains; hard crags;... winds bitter, wintry; snow frozen, ever-dropping; flakes80 red, fiery; faces base, darkened; demons swift, greedy; tortures vast, various."[11]
This is one of the earliest attempts in literature at the pourtrayal of an Inferno81.
[Pg 201]
After a seven-years' voyage Brendan returned home to his own country without having found his Earthly Paradise, and his people and his folic at home "brought him," says the Irish Life, "treasures and gifts as if they were giving them to God"!
His foster-mother St. Ita now advised him not to put forth82 in search of that glorious land in those dead stained skins which formed his currachs, for it was a holy land he sought, and he should look for it in wooden vessels. Then Brendan built himself "a great marvellous vessel, distinguished83 and huge." He first sailed to Aran to consort84 with St. Enda, but after a month he heaved anchor and sailed once more into the West.
He reaches the Isle of Paradise after many adventures, and is invited on shore by an old man "without any human raiment, but all his body full of bright white feathers like a dove or a sea-mew, and it was almost the speech of an angel that he had." "O ye toilsome men," he said, "O hallowed pilgrims, O folk that entreat86 the heavenly rewards, O ever-weary life expecting this land, stay a little now from your labour." The land is described in terms that forcibly record the delights of the pagan Elysium of Moy Mell, and prove how intimately the Brendan legend is bound up with primitive87 pre-Christian mythological88 beliefs. "The delightful89 fields of the land" are described as "radiant, famous, lovable,"—"a land odorous, flower-smooth, blessed, a land many-melodied, musical, shouting-for-joy, unmournful." "Happy," said the old man, "shall he be with well-deservingness and with good deeds, whom Brandan, son of Finnlug, shall call into union with him on that side to inhabit for ever and ever the island whereon we stand."
But better known—at least in ecclesiastical history—than even St. Brendan, is St. Cummian, surnamed "fada" or the Long, who was one of his successors in the school of Clonfert, and who perished in or a little before the great plague of 664.[Pg 202] There are two hymns90, one by himself in Latin,[12] and one in Irish by his tutor, Colman Ua Cluasaigh [Clooasy] of Cork91, preserved in the "Liber Hymnorum." But his great achievement was his celebrated letter on the Paschal question addressed to his friend Segienus, the abbot of Iona. The question of when to celebrate Easter day was one which long sundered92 the British and Irish Churches from the rest of Europe, and has, as students of ecclesiastical history know, given rise to all sorts of conjectures93 as to the independence of these churches. The charge against the Irish was that they celebrated Easter on any day from the fourteenth to the twentieth day of the moon, even on the fourteenth if it should happen to be Sunday, but the fourteenth was a Jewish festival and the Council of Nice had, in 325, declared it to be unlawful to celebrate the Christian Easter on a Jewish festival.[13] The Irish had obtained their own doctrine94 of Easter from the East, through Gaul, which was largely open to Eastern influence; also the Irish used the old Roman cycle of 84 years, not the newer and more correct Alexandrian one of 19 years. The consequence was the scandal of having different Churches of Christendom celebrating Easter on different days, and some mourning when others were[Pg 203] feasting, a scandal which the Epistle of Cummian was designed to put an end to.
"I call this letter," says Professor G. Stokes,[14] "a marvellous composition because of the vastness of its learning; it quotes besides the Scriptures95 and Latin authors, Greek writers like Origen, and Cyril, Pachomius the head and reformer of Egyptian monasticism, and Damascius the last of the celebrated neo-Platonic philosophers of Athens, who lived about the year 500, and wrote all his works in Greek. Cummian discusses the calendars of the Macedonians, Hebrews, and Copts, giving us the Hebrew, Greek, and Egyptian names of months and cycles, and tells us that he had been sent as one of a deputation of learned men a few years before to ascertain96 the practice of the Church of Rome. When they came to Rome they lodged97 in one hospital with a Greek and a Hebrew, an Egyptian, and a Scythian, who told them that the whole world celebrated the Roman and not the Irish Easter."
Cummian throughout this letter displays the true spirit of a scholar, he humbly98 apologises for his presumption99 in addressing such holy men, and calls God to witness that he is actuated by no spirit of pride or contempt for others. When the new cycle of 532 years was first introduced into Ireland he did not at once accept it, but held his peace and took no side in the matter, because he did not think himself wiser than the Hebrews, Greeks, and Latins, nor did he venture to disdain100 the food he had not yet tasted. So he retired101 for a whole year into the study of the question, to examine for himself the facts of history, the nature of the various cycles in use, and the testimony102 of Scripture.
There is another book, "De Mensura P?nitentiarum," ascribed to Cummian and printed in Migne; and there is a poem on his death by his tutor, St. Colman, who was carried off by the same plague a short time after him.[15]
[Pg 204]
The great institution presided over by St. Cummian was flourishing in full vigour103 at the time of the first incursions of the Northmen. It is frequently mentioned in the Irish Annals as a place of note and learning. Turgesius the Dane, attracted by so fair a booty, promptly104 plundered and burnt it to the ground. Again and again it was rebuilt, and again and again the same fate befell it. The monastery and the school survived, however, until the coming of the Normans, and the "Four Masters" under the year 1170 record the death of one of its teachers, Cormac O'Lumlini, whom they pathetically designate "the remnant of the sages105 of Erin," for by this time Clonfert had been six times burnt and four times plundered.
Even a greater school, however, than Clonfert, was that founded by St. Ciaran [Keeran], the carpenter's son, beside a curve in the Shannon, at Clonmacnois, not far from Athlone, about the year 544. He had himself been educated by St. Finnian of Clonard, and he died at the early age of thirty-three, immediately after laying the foundations of what was destined106 to become the greatest Christian college in Ireland.[16]
The monastery and cells of St. Ciaran rapidly grew into a city, to which students flocked from far and near. In one sense the College of Clonmacnois had an advantage over all its rivals, for it belonged to no one race or clan44. Its abbots and teachers were drawn107 from many different tribes, and situated108 as it was, in almost the centre of the island, all the great races, Erimonians, Eberians, Irians, and Ithians, resorted to it impartially109, and it became a real university. There the O'Conors, kings of Connacht, had their own separate church; there the Southern Ui Neill reared apart their own cathedral; there the MacDermots, princes of Moylurg, and the[Pg 205] O'Kellys, kings of Hy Mainy, had each their own mortuary chapels110; there the Southerns built one round tower, the O'Rorkes another; and there too the Mac Carthys of Munster had a burial-place. Who, even at this day, has not heard of the glories of Clonmacnois, of its ruins, its graves, its crosses; of its churchyard, which possesses a greater variety of sculptured and decorated stones than perhaps all the rest of Ireland put together, and of which the Irish poet beautifully sang so long ago—
"In a quiet watered land, a land of roses,
Stands St. Ciaran's city fair,
And the warriors113 of Erin in their famous generations,
Slumber114 there.
There beneath the dewy hill-side sleep the noblest
Of the clan of Conn,
Each below his stone, with name in branching Ogham,
And the sacred knot thereon.
There they laid to rest the seven kings of Tara,
There the sons of Cairbré sleep,
Battle-banners of the Gael that in Ciaran's Plain of Crosses,
Now their final hosting keep.
And in Clonmacnois they laid the men of Teffia,
And right many a lord of Breagh.
Deep the sod above Clan Creidé and Clan Conaill,
Kind in hall and fierce in fray115.
Many and many a son of Conn the Hundred-Fighter
In the red earth lies at rest,
Many a blue eye of Clan Colman the turf covers,
Many a swan-white breast."[17]
[Pg 206]
Some of the most distinguished scholars of Ireland, if not of Europe, were educated at Clonmacnois, including Alcuin, the most learned man at the French court, who remembered his alma mater so affectionately that he extracted from King Charles of France a gift of fifty shekels of silver, to which he added fifty more of his own, and sent them to the brotherhood116 of Clonmacnois as a gift, with a quantity of olive oil for the Irish bishops. His affectionate letter to "his blessed master and pious father" Colgan, chief professor at Clonmacnois, is still extant.
This Colgu, or Colgan, himself wrote a book in Irish, called "The Besom of Devotion," which appears to be now lost. A litany of his still remains. The great eleventh-century annalist, Tighearnach, was an alumnus of Clonmacnois. So, too, was the reputed author of the "Chronicon Scotorum," O'Malone, in 1123. The Annals of Clonmacnois was one of the books in the hands of the "Four Masters," but it is now lost, and a different book called by the same name (the original[Pg 207] of which has also perished) was translated into English by Macgeoghegan in 1627.[18] The celebrated Leabhar na h-Uidhre [Lowar na Heera] or "Book of the Dun Cow," compiled about the year 1100, emanated117 from this centre of learning. Like Clonfert, and every other home of Irish civilisation118, the city of Clonmacnois fell a prey119 to the barbarians120. The Northmen plundered it or burnt it, or both, on ten separate occasions. Turgesius, their leader, set up his wife Ota as a kind of priestess to deliver oracles121 from its high altar;[19] and some of the Irish themselves, reduced to a state of barbarism by the horrors of the period, laid their sacrilegious hands upon its holy places; and afterwards the English of Athlone stepped in and completed its destruction. It now remains only a ruin and a name.
Another very celebrated school was that of Bangor, on Belfast Loch, founded by Comgall, the friend of Columcille, between 550 and 560. It soon became crowded with scholars, and next to Armagh it was certainly the greatest school of the northern province, and produced men of the highest eminence122 at home and abroad. Its fame reached far across the sea. St. Bernard called it "a noble institution, which was inhabited by many thousands of monks;" and Joceline of Furness, in the twelfth century, called it "a fruitful vine breathing the odour of salvation123, whose offshoots extended not only over all Ireland, but far beyond the seas into foreign countries, and filled many lands with its abounding124 fruitfulness."
The most distinguished of Bangor's sons of learning were Columbanus, the evangeliser of portions of Burgundy and Lombardy; St. Gall, the evangeliser of Switzerland; Dungal, the astronomer125; and later on, in the twelfth century, Malachy[Pg 208] O'Morgair, who, though not known as an author, distinguished himself in the province of Church discipline.
The lives of St. Columbanus and of St. Gall belong rather to foreign than to Irish history, but we may glance at them again in another place. Dungal, poet, astronomer, and theologian, was also like them, for a time, an exile. His identity is uncertain; the "Four Masters" mention twenty-two persons of the same name between the years 744 and 1015, but his Irish nationality is certain, and he calls himself "Hibernicus exul" in his poem addressed to his patron Charlemagne. He appears to have died in the Irish monastery at Bobbio, in North Italy, to which he left his library, and amongst other books the celebrated Antiphonary of Bangor, his possession of which seems to warrant us in supposing that Bangor was his original college. He appears to have been a close friend of Charlemagne's, and in 811 he wrote him his celebrated letter, explanatory of the two solar eclipses which had taken place the year before. The emperor could apparently126 find at his court no other astronomer of sufficient learning to explain the phenomena127. Later on we find Dungal, at the request of Lothaire, Charlemagne's grandson, opening a school at Pavia to civilise the Lombards, to which institution great numbers of students flocked from every quarter. Dungal may, in fact, be regarded as the founder of the University of Pavia. His greatest effort whilst in Pavia was his work against the Iconoclasts128. Dungal's attack upon the cultured Spanish bishop, Claudius, who championed them, as it was the first, so it appears to have been the ablest blow struck; and Western iconoclasm seemed to have for the time received a mortal wound from his hand.[20] Besides his long eulogy129 on his friend and patron Charlemagne, several other smaller[Pg 209] poems of his survive, showing him to have been—like almost all Irishmen of that date—no mere130 pedant131 and student.
Like almost all the more famous and attractive of the Irish colleges, Bangor suffered fearfully from the attacks of the northern pirates, who, according to St. Bernard, slew132 there as many as nine hundred monks. "Not a cross, not even a stone," says Dr. Healy, "now remains to mark the site of the famous monastery, whose crowded cloisters133 for a thousand years overlooked the pleasant islets and broad waters of Inver Becne." It has shared the fate of its compeers:
etiam periere ruin?.
It would prove too tedious to enumerate134 the other Irish colleges which dotted the island in the sixth and seventh centuries. The most remarkable135 of them besides those that I have mentioned were Moville, at the head of Loch Cuan or Strangford Lough, in the County Down, founded by St. Finnian, who was born before 500, and who afterwards became known as Frigidius, Bishop of Lucca, in Switzerland. Colman, whose hymn is preserved in the "Liber Hymnorum," and Marianus Scotus, the Chronicler, were alumni of Moville.
Cluain Eidnech, or Clonenagh, the "Ivy136 Meadow," was founded by St. Fintan, near Maryborough, in the present Queen's County. Angus the Culdee, who with its Abbot Maelruain is said to have composed the Martyrology of Tallaght prior to 792, was its greatest ornament137. Of his Irish works we shall have more to say later on. Clonenagh suffered so much from the Northmen, that its great foundation had already in the twelfth century dwindled138 to a parochial church; in the nineteenth it is a green mound139.
Glendalough, founded by the celebrated St. Kevin,[21] became also a college of much note. St. Moling, to whom a great[Pg 210] number of Irish poems[22] are ascribed, was one of his successors in the seventh century, and his life seems to have taken peculiar140 hold upon the imagination of the populace, for he has more poems—many of them evident forgeries—attributed to him than we find ascribed to any of the saints except to Columcille; and he has a place amongst the four great prophets of Erin.[23] It was he who procured141 the remission of[Pg 211] the Boru tribute from King Finnachta about the year 693. Glendalough was plundered and destroyed by the Danes five times over, within a period of thirty years, yet it to some extent recovered itself, and the great St. Laurence O'Toole, who was Archbishop of Dublin at the coming of the Normans, had been there educated.
Lismore, the great college of the south-east, was founded by St. Carthach in the beginning of the seventh century, who left behind him, according to O'Curry, a monastic rule of 580 lines of Irish verse.[24] Cathal, or Cathaldus, born in the beginning of the seventh century, who afterwards became bishop and patron saint of Tarentum, in Italy, was a student, and perhaps professor in this college. The office of St. Cathaldus states that Gauls, Angles, Irish, and Teutons, and very many people of neighbouring nations came to hear his lectures at Lismore, and Morini's life of him expresses in poetic terms the tradition of Lismore's greatness.[25] St. Cuanna, another member of Lismore, was probably the author of the Book of[Pg 212] Cuanach, now lost, but often quoted in the Annals of Ulster. He died in 650, and the book is not quoted after the year 628, which makes it more than probable that he was the author. Lismore was burnt down by the Danes, but recovered itself in the general revival142 of native institutions that took place prior to the conquest of the Anglo-Normans. However, when these latter came upon the Irish stage it fared ill with Lismore. Strongbow, indeed, was bought off from burning its churches in 1173 by a great sum of money, but in the following year his son, in spite of this, plundered the place. Four years later the English forces again attacked it, plundered it, and set it on fire. In 1207 the whole town and all about it was finally consumed, so that at the present day not a vestige143 remains behind of its schools, its cloisters, or its twenty churches.
Cork college was founded by St. Finnbarr towards the end of the sixth century. One of its professors, Colman O'Cluasaigh, who died in 664, wrote the curious Irish hymn or prayer mixed with Latin, preserved in the Book of Hymns.[26] The place was burned four times between 822 and 840, but in the twelfth century the ancient monastery which had fallen into decay was rebuilt by Cormac Mac Carthy, king[Pg 213] of Munster, and builder of the celebrated Cormac's Chapel111 at Cashel.
The school of Ross was founded by St. Fachtna for the Ithian tribes[27] of Corca Laidhi [Cor-ka-lee] in South-west Munster. Ross is frequently referred to in the Annals up to the tenth century. There is extant an interesting geographical144 poem in Irish, of 136 lines, written by one of the teachers there in the tenth century, and apparently intended as a kind of simple text to be learned by heart by the students.[28] Ross was plundered by the Danes in 840, but appears to have been flourishing until North-west Munster was laid waste by the Anglo-Normans under FitzStephen, after which no more is heard of its schools or colleges.
Innisfallen was founded upon an exquisite145 site on the lower lake of Killarney by St. Finan.[29] The well-known "Annals of Innisfallen," preserved in the Bodleian Library, were probably written by Maelsuthain [Calvus Perennis] O'Carroll, the "soul-friend" of Brian Boru, who inserted the famous entry in the Book of Armagh.[30] It is probable that Brian himself was also educated there. This monastery, owing to its secure retreat in the Kerry mountains, appears to have remained unplundered by the Norsemen, and to have been accounted "a paradise and a secure sanctuary146."
Iniscaltra is a beautiful island in the south-west angle of Loch Derg, between Galway and Clare, still famous for its splendid round tower. It was here Columba of Terryglass, who died in 552, established a school and monastery which became so famous that in the life of St. Senan seven ships are mentioned as arriving at the mouth of the Shannon crowded with students for Iniscaltra. It was this Columba who, when asked by one of his disciples147 why the birds that frequented the island were not afraid of him, made the somewhat dramatic answer,[Pg 214] "Why should they fear me? am I not a bird myself, for my soul always flies to heaven as they fly through the sky." Columba had a celebrated successor called Caimin, who died in 653. Ussher, who calls him St. Caminus, tells us that part of his Psalter was extant in his own time, and that he had himself seen it "having a collation148 of the Hebrew text placed on the upper part of each page, and with brief scholia added on the exterior149 margin150."[31]
A great number of lesser151 monastic institutions and schools seem to have existed alongside of these more famous ones, and it is hardly too much to say that during the sixth, seventh, eighth, and perhaps ninth centuries Ireland had caught and held aloft the torch of learning in the lampadia of mankind, and procured for herself the honourable title of the island of saints and scholars.
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[1] It is a common tradition that Columcille would not allow a cow on Iona, because, said he, "where there is a cow there will be a woman"! This tradition is entirely152 contradicted, however, by Adamnan's life.
[2] Dr. Healy's "Ireland's Schools and Scholars," p. 169.
[3] There is a story of Columcille when in Aran discovering the grave of an "abbot of Jerusalem" who had come to see Enda, and died there, printed by Kuno Meyer from Rawlinson B. 512 in the "Gaelic Journal," vol. iv. p. 162.
[4] Literally153: "Farewell from me to Ara, it is it anguishes154 my heart not to be in the west among her waves, amid groups of the saints of heaven. It is far, alas! it is far, alas! I have been sent from Ara West, out towards the population of Mona to visit the Albanachs. Ara sun, oh Ara sun, my affection lies buried in her in the west, it is the same to be beneath her pure soil as to be beneath the soil of Paul and Peter. Ara blessed, O Ara blessed, woe to him who is hostile to her, may he be given for it shortness of life and hell. Ara blessed, O Ara blessed, woe to him who is hostile to her, may their cattle decay and their children, and be he himself on the other side (of this life) in evil plight155. O Ara blessed, O Ara blessed, woe to him who is hostile to her," etc.
[5] See ch. VII, note 1.
[6] It has been edited both by a Frenchman, M. Jubinal, and a German, Karl Schroeder, from eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth century MSS. preserved in Paris, Leipsic, and Wolfenbuttel, and by Cardinal156 Moran from, I believe, a ninth-century one in the Vatican. Giraldus Cambrensis alludes157 to it as well known in his time, "H?c autem si quis audire gestierit qui de vita Brendani scriptus est libellum legat" ("Top. Hib.," II. ch. 43). There is a copy of Brendan's acts in the so-called Book of Kilkenny in Marsh's Library, Dublin, a MS. of probably the fourteenth century.
[7] "Eccles. Hist.," lib. iii. c. 19. He calls him "Furseus, verbo et actibus clarus sedet egregiis insignis virtutibus," and dedicates five pages of Mayer and Lumby's edition to an account of him and his visions.
[8] Father O'Hanlon, in his great work on the Irish saints, has pointed158 out a large number of close parallels between Fursa's vision and Dante's poem which seem altogether too striking to be fortuitous. (See vol. i. pp. 115-120.) There are a poem and a litany attributed to St. Fursa in the MS. H. 1. 11. in Trinity College, Dublin. The visions of Purgatory159 seen by Dryhthelm, a monk54 of Melrose, as recorded by Bede, which are later than St. Fursa's vision, are conceived very much in the same style, only are much more doctrinal in their purgatorial160 teaching. "Tracing the course of thought upwards," says Sir Francis Palgrave ("History of Normandy and England"), "we have no difficulty in deducing the poetic genealogy161 of Dante's 'Inferno' to the Milesian Furs?us."
[9] See above, p. 97.
[10] The same story, as Whitley Stokes points out, is told in two ninth-century lives of St. Machut, so that a tenth-century version of Sindbad's first voyage cannot have been the origin of it.
[11] This is evidently the passage upon which Keating's description of hell in the "Three Shafts162 of Death," Leabh. III. allt. ix., x., xi., is modelled. He quite outdoes his predecessor163 in declamation164 and exuberance165 of alliterative adjectives. Compare also the description in the vision of Adamnan of the infernal regions as it is elaborated in the copy in the Leabhar Breac, in contradistinction to the more sober colouring of the older Leabhar na h-Uidhre.
[12] Beginning:—
"Celebra Juda festa Christi gaudia
Apostulorum exultans memoria.
Claviculari Petri primi pastoris
Piscium rete evangelii corporis
Alleluia."
This hymn, says Dr. Todd, "bears evident marks of the high antiquity166 claimed for it, and there seem no reasonable grounds for doubting its authenticity167."
[13] "The correct system lays down three principles. First, Easter day must be always a Sunday, never on but next after the fourteenth day of the moon; secondly168, that fourteenth day of the full moon should be that on or next after the vernal equinox; and thirdly, the equinox itself was invariably assigned to the 21st of March" (Dr. Healy's "Ireland's Schools and Scholars," p. 234). At Rome the 18th had been regarded as the equinox; St. Patrick, however, rightly laid it down that the equinox took place on the 21st.
[14] Late professor of Ecclesiastical History in Dublin University. See "Proceedings169 of the Royal Irish Academy," May, 1892, p. 195.
[15] The first verse runs thus:—
"Ni beir Luimneach for a druim
Di sil Muimhneach i Leth Cuinn
Marbán in noi bu fiú do
Do Cuimmine mac Fiachno"—
"The lower Shannon bears not upon its surface, of Munster race in Leath Cuinn, any corpse170 in boat, equal to him, to Cuimin, son of Fiachna." His corpse was apparently brought home by water.
[16] There is a verse ascribed to Ciaran in the "Chronicon Scotorum," beginning "Darerca mo mháthair-si," and a poem ascribed to him in H. 1. 11. Trinity College, Dublin.
[17] Thus admirably translated by my friend Mr. Rolleston in "Poems and Ballads171 of Young Ireland," Dublin, 1888, a little volume which seems to have been the precursor172 of a considerable literary movement in Ireland. Literally: "The city of Ciaran of Clonmacnois, a dewy-bright red-rose town, of its royal seed, of lasting173 fame, the hosts in the pure-streamed peaceful town. The nobles of the clan of Conn are in the flag-laid brown-sloped churchyard, a knot or a branch above each body and a fair correct name in Ogam. The sons of Cairbré over the seven territories, the seven great princes from Tara, many a sheltering standard on a field of battle is with the people of Ciaran's Plain of Crosses. The men of Teffia, the tribes of Breagh were buried beneath the clay of Cluain[macnois]. The valiant174 and hospitable175 are yonder beneath the sod, the race of Creidé and the Clan Conaill. Numerous are the sons of Conn of the Battles, with red clay and turf covering them, many a blue eye and white limb under the earth of Clan Colman's tomb." The first verses run in modern spelling thus:
"Cáthair Chiaráin Chluain-mic-Nóis
Baile drucht-solas, dearg-rois.
Da shíl rioghraidh is buan bládh
Sluaigh fá'n sith-bhaile sruth-ghlan.
Atáid uaisle cloinne Chuinn
Fa'n reilig leacaigh learg-dhuinn
Snaoidhm no Craobh os gach cholain
Agus ainm caomh ceart Oghaim."
The clan of Conn here mentioned are principally the Ui Neill and their correlatives. Teffia is something equivalent to Longford, and Breagh to Meath. Clan Creidé are the O'Conors of Connacht, and the Clan Colman principally means the O'Melaughlins and their kin17. "Colman mor, a quo Clann Cholmáin ie Maoileachlain cona fflaithibh" (Mac Firbis MS. Book of Genealogies176, p. 161 of O'Curry's transcript). Colman was the brother of King Diarmuid, who was slain177 in 552.
[18] Published a couple of years ago by the late Father Murphy, S.J., for the Royal Antiquarian Society of Ireland.
[19] "Airgid cealla ardnaomh Ereann uile ocus as ar altoir Cluana mac Nois do bhereadh Otta bean Tuirghes uirigheall do gach ae[n]" (Mac Firbis MS. of Genealogies, p. 768 in O'Curry's transcript). Also "Gael and Gall," p. 13.
[20] Claudius was Bishop of Turin, and a man of much culture and ability; so disgusted was he with the congregation of ignorant Italian bishops—culture was then at the lowest ebb178 in Italy—before whom he argued his case that he called them a congregatio asinorum, and says Zimmer, "Ein Ire, Dungal, musste für sie die Vertheidigung des Bilderdienstes übernehmen."
[21] Pronounced "Keevin," not "K?vin." The Irish form is Caoimh-[= keev, "aoi" being in Irish always pronounced like ee, and "mh" like v] ghinn, the "g" being aspirated is scarcely pronounced.
[22] The celebrated Evangelistarium, or Book of Moling, was, with its case or cover, deposited in Trinity College, Dublin, in the last century by the Kavanaghs of Borris. Giraldus Cambrensis classes Moling as a prophet with Merlin, and as a saint with Patrick and Columba. One of the prophecies assigned to him is given by O'Curry, MS. Mat., p. 427. The oldest copy of any of Moling's poems is in the monastery of St. Paul in Carinthia, contained in a MS. originally brought from Augia Dives, or Reichenau. It is in the most perfect metre, and runs:—
"Is en immo niada sás
Is nau tholl diant eslinn guas,
Is lestar fás, is crann crín
Nach digni toil85 ind rig tuas."
("He is a bird round which a trap closes,
He is a leaky bark in weakness of peril,
He is an empty vessel, he is a withered179 tree
Who doth not do the will of the King above.")
I.e., "Is eán um a n-iadhann sás / is nau (long) thollta darb' éislinn guais. Is leastar fas (folamh) is crann crion, [an te] nach ndeanann toil an righ shuas."
The poem is also given in the Book of Leinster, and contains eight verses. One would perhaps have expected the third line to run, "is crann crín is lestar fás." The St. Paul MS., which is of the eighth century, contains two of Molling's poems, and they scarcely differ in wording or orthography180 from copies in MSS. six hundred years later.
[23] Patrick, Columcille, and Berchan of Clonsast, are the others. Even the English settlers had heard of their fame. Baron181 Finglas, writing in Henry VIII.'s reign11, says, "The four saints, St. Patrick, St. Columb, St. Braghane [i.e., Berchan], and St. Moling, which many hundred years agone made prophecy that Englishmen should have conquered Ireland, and said that the said Englishmen should keep their owne laws, and as soon as they should leave, and fall to Irish order, then they should decay, the experience whereof is proved true." (From Ryan's "History and Antiquities182 of the co. Carlow," p. 93.) A still more curious allusion183 to the four Irish prophets is one in the Book of Howth, a small vellum folio of the sixteenth century, written in thirteen different hands, published in the Calendar of State Papers. "Men say," recounts the anonymous writer, "that the Irishmen had four prophets in their time, Patrick, Marten [sic], Brahen [i.e., Berchan], and Collumkill. Whosoever hath books in Irish written every of them speak of the fight of this conquest, and saith that long strife184 and oft fighting shall be for this land, and the land shall be harried185 and stained with great slaughter186 of men, but the Englishmen fully112 shall have the mastery a little before doomsday, and that land shall be from sea to sea i-castled and fully won, but the Englishmen shall be after that well feeble in the land and disdained187; so Barcan [Berchan] saith: that through a king shall come out of the wild mountains of St. Patrick's, that much people shall slew and afterwards break a castle in the wooden of Affayle, with that the Englishmen of Ireland shall be destroyed by that." The prophecy that the Englishmen fully shall have the mastery a little before Doomsday is amusingly equivocal!
[24] Described in O'Curry's MS. Materials, p. 375, but I do not know where the original is.
[25] Quoted in O'Halloran's "History of Ireland," bk. ix. chap. 4. "Celeres vastissima Rheni / jam vada Teutonici, jam deseruere Sicambri; / Mittit ab extremo gelidos Aquilone Boemos / Albis et Arvenni c?eunt, Batavi-que frequentes, / Et quicunque colunt alta sub rupe Gehennas. / ... Certatim hi properunt diverso tramite ad urbem / Lesmoriam [Lismore] juvenis primos ubi transigit annos." See also corroborative188 proof of the numbers of Gauls, Teutons, Swiss, and Italians visiting Lismore about the year 700 in Ussher's "Antiquities," Works, vi., p. 303.
[26] Reprinted by Windisch in his "Irische Texte," Heft 1., p. 5. The first verse runs—
"Sén De don fe for don te
Mac maire ron feladar!
For a fhoessam dún anocht
Cia tiasam, cain temadar,"
which is in no wise easy to translate! There are fifty-six verses not all in the same metre. Another acknowledges St. Patrick as a patron saint, it would run thus, in modernised orthography—
"Beannacht ar erlám [pátrún] Pádraig
Go naomhaib Eireann uime
Beannacht ar an gcáthair-se
Agus ar chách bhfuil innti!"
A three-quarter Latin verse runs thus—
"Regem regum rogamus / in nostris sermonibus
Anacht Noe a luchtlach / diluvi temporibus."
[27] See p. 67.
[28] See "Proceedings of R. I. Academy for 1884."
[29] Whose name is preserved in O'Connell's residence, "Derrynane," which is really "Derry-finan" (Doire-Fhionáin).
[30] See p. 140 and Ch. XIII note 12.
[31] "Habebatur psalterium, cujus unicum tantum quaternionem mihi videre contigit, obelis et asteriscis diligentissime distinctum; collatione cum veritate Hebraica in superiore parte cujusque pagin? posita, et brevibus scholiis ad exteriorem marginem adjectis." (See "Works," vol. vi. p. 544. Quoted by Professor G. Stokes, "Proceedings R. I. Academy," May, 1892.)
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Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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founders
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| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
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Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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tonsure
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| n.削发；v.剃 | |
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reigns
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| n.君主的统治( reign的名词复数 )；君主统治时期；任期；当政期 | |
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reign
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shunned
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monasteries
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rite
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| n.典礼，惯例，习俗 | |
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rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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kin
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| n.家族，亲属，血缘关系；adj.亲属关系的，同类的 | |
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tonsures
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| vt.剃（tonsure的第三人称单数形式） | |
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aurora
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fore
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ablaze
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bards
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poetic
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anonymous
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pious
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monastery
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gall
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inaccessible
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appellation
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countless
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mingled
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| 混合，混入( mingle的过去式和过去分词 )； 混进，与…交往[联系] | |
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judgment
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converse
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solacing
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muse
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| n.缪斯（希腊神话中的女神），创作灵感 | |
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isle
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boon
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alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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fen
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orb
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woe
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doom
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corrupt
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clan
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| n.氏族，部落，宗族，家族，宗派 | |
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bias
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| n.偏见，偏心，偏袒；vt.使有偏见 | |
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jingling
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| 叮当声 | |
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hymn
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| n.赞美诗，圣歌，颂歌 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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plundered
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| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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ancestry
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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scripture
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| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
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ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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descended
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continental
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| adj.大陆的，大陆性的，欧洲大陆的 | |
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indirectly
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| adv.间接地，不直接了当地 | |
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vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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62
vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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63
laymen
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| 门外汉，外行人( layman的名词复数 )； 普通教徒（有别于神职人员） | |
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64
peril
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| n.(严重的)危险；危险的事物 | |
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65
beheld
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| v.看，注视( behold的过去式和过去分词 )；瞧；看呀；（叙述中用于引出某人意外的出现）哎哟 | |
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66
constrained
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| adj.束缚的,节制的 | |
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67
mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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68
hideous
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| adj.丑陋的，可憎的，可怕的，恐怖的 | |
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69
foul
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| adj.污秽的；邪恶的；v.弄脏；妨害；犯规；n.犯规 | |
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70
filth
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| n.肮脏，污物，污秽；淫猥 | |
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71
demons
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| n.恶人( demon的名词复数 )；恶魔；精力过人的人；邪念 | |
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72
wailing
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| v.哭叫，哀号( wail的现在分词 )；沱 | |
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73
igneous
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| adj.火的，火绒的 | |
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74
torments
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| （肉体或精神上的）折磨，痛苦( torment的名词复数 )； 造成痛苦的事物[人] | |
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75
fetters
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| n.脚镣( fetter的名词复数 )；束缚v.给…上脚镣，束缚( fetter的第三人称单数 ) | |
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76
stinking
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| adj.臭的，烂醉的，讨厌的v.散发出恶臭( stink的现在分词 )；发臭味；名声臭；糟透 | |
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77
fiery
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| adj.燃烧着的，火红的；暴躁的；激烈的 | |
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78
loathsome
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| adj.讨厌的，令人厌恶的 | |
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79
rending
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| v.撕碎( rend的现在分词 )；分裂；（因愤怒、痛苦等而）揪扯（衣服或头发等）；（声音等）刺破 | |
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80
flakes
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| 小薄片( flake的名词复数 )； （尤指）碎片； 雪花； 古怪的人 | |
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81
inferno
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| n.火海；地狱般的场所 | |
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82
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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83
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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84
consort
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| v.相伴；结交 | |
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85
toil
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| vi.辛劳工作，艰难地行动；n.苦工，难事 | |
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86
entreat
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| v.恳求，恳请 | |
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87
primitive
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|
| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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88
mythological
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| adj.神话的 | |
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89
delightful
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| adj.令人高兴的，使人快乐的 | |
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90
hymns
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| n.赞美诗，圣歌，颂歌( hymn的名词复数 ) | |
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91
cork
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| n.软木，软木塞 | |
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92
sundered
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| v.隔开，分开( sunder的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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93
conjectures
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| 推测，猜想( conjecture的名词复数 ) | |
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94
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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95
scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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96
ascertain
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| vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清 | |
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97
lodged
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| v.存放( lodge的过去式和过去分词 )；暂住；埋入；（权利、权威等）归属 | |
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98
humbly
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| adv. 恭顺地，谦卑地 | |
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99
presumption
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| n.推测，可能性，冒昧，放肆，[法律]推定 | |
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100
disdain
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| n.鄙视，轻视；v.轻视，鄙视，不屑 | |
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101
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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102
testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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103
vigour
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| （=vigor）n.智力，体力，精力 | |
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104
promptly
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| adv.及时地，敏捷地 | |
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105
sages
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| n.圣人( sage的名词复数 )；智者；哲人；鼠尾草（可用作调料） | |
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106
destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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107
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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108
situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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109
impartially
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| adv.公平地，无私地 | |
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110
chapels
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| n.小教堂， （医院、监狱等的）附属礼拜堂( chapel的名词复数 )；（在小教堂和附属礼拜堂举行的）礼拜仪式 | |
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111
chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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112
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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113
warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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114
slumber
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| n.睡眠，沉睡状态 | |
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115
fray
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| v.争吵；打斗；磨损，磨破；n.吵架；打斗 | |
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116
brotherhood
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| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
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117
emanated
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| v.从…处传出，传出( emanate的过去式和过去分词 )；产生，表现，显示 | |
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118
civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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119
prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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120
barbarians
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| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
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121
oracles
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| 神示所( oracle的名词复数 )； 神谕； 圣贤； 哲人 | |
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122
eminence
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| n.卓越，显赫；高地，高处；名家 | |
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123
salvation
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| n.（尤指基督）救世，超度，拯救，解困 | |
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124
abounding
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| adj.丰富的，大量的v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的现在分词 ) | |
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125
astronomer
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| n.天文学家 | |
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126
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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127
phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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128
iconoclasts
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| n.攻击传统观念的人( iconoclast的名词复数 )；反对崇拜圣像者 | |
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129
eulogy
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| n.颂词；颂扬 | |
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130
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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131
pedant
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| n.迂儒；卖弄学问的人 | |
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132
slew
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| v.（使）旋转；n.大量，许多 | |
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133
cloisters
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| n.（学院、修道院、教堂等建筑的）走廊( cloister的名词复数 )；回廊；修道院的生活；隐居v.隐退，使与世隔绝( cloister的第三人称单数 ) | |
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134
enumerate
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| v.列举，计算，枚举，数 | |
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135
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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136
ivy
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| n.常青藤，常春藤 | |
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137
ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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138
dwindled
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| v.逐渐变少或变小( dwindle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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139
mound
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| n.土墩，堤，小山；v.筑堤，用土堆防卫 | |
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140
peculiar
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|
| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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141
procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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142
revival
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| n.复兴，复苏，（精力、活力等的）重振 | |
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143
vestige
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| n.痕迹，遗迹，残余 | |
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144
geographical
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| adj.地理的；地区(性)的 | |
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145
exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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146
sanctuary
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| n.圣所，圣堂，寺庙；禁猎区，保护区 | |
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147
disciples
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| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
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148
collation
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| n.便餐；整理 | |
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149
exterior
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| adj.外部的，外在的；表面的 | |
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150
margin
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| n.页边空白；差额；余地，余裕；边，边缘 | |
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151
lesser
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| adj.次要的，较小的；adv.较小地，较少地 | |
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152
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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153
literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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154
anguishes
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| v.（尤指心理上的）极度的痛苦( anguish的第三人称单数 ) | |
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155
plight
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| n.困境，境况，誓约，艰难；vt.宣誓，保证，约定 | |
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156
cardinal
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| n.(天主教的)红衣主教；adj.首要的，基本的 | |
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157
alludes
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| 提及，暗指( allude的第三人称单数 ) | |
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158
pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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159
purgatory
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| n.炼狱；苦难；adj.净化的，清洗的 | |
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160
purgatorial
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| adj.炼狱的，涤罪的 | |
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161
genealogy
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| n.家系，宗谱 | |
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162
shafts
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| n.轴( shaft的名词复数 )；（箭、高尔夫球棒等的）杆；通风井；一阵（疼痛、害怕等） | |
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163
predecessor
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| n.前辈，前任 | |
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164
declamation
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| n. 雄辩，高调 | |
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165
exuberance
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| n.丰富；繁荣 | |
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166
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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167
authenticity
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| n.真实性 | |
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168
secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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169
proceedings
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| n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报 | |
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170
corpse
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| n.尸体，死尸 | |
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171
ballads
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| 民歌，民谣，特别指叙述故事的歌( ballad的名词复数 )； 讴 | |
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172
precursor
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| n.先驱者；前辈；前任；预兆；先兆 | |
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173
lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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174
valiant
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| adj.勇敢的，英勇的；n.勇士，勇敢的人 | |
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175
hospitable
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| adj.好客的；宽容的；有利的，适宜的 | |
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176
genealogies
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| n.系谱，家系，宗谱( genealogy的名词复数 ) | |
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177
slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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178
ebb
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| vi.衰退，减退；n.处于低潮，处于衰退状态 | |
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179
withered
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| adj. 枯萎的，干瘪的，（人身体的部分器官）因病萎缩的或未发育良好的 动词wither的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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180
orthography
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| n.拼字法，拼字式 | |
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181
baron
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| n.男爵；(商业界等)巨头，大王 | |
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182
antiquities
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| n.古老( antiquity的名词复数 )；古迹；古人们；古代的风俗习惯 | |
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183
allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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184
strife
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| n.争吵，冲突，倾轧，竞争 | |
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185
harried
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| v.使苦恼( harry的过去式和过去分词 )；不断烦扰；一再袭击；侵扰 | |
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186
slaughter
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| n.屠杀，屠宰；vt.屠杀，宰杀 | |
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187
disdained
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| 鄙视( disdain的过去式和过去分词 )； 不屑于做，不愿意做 | |
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188
corroborative
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| adj.确证（性）的，确凿的 | |
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