Strange to say, despite the troubled condition of Ireland during these two or three centuries, she produced a large number of poets and scholars, the impulse given by the enthusiasm of the sixth and seventh centuries being still strong upon her. Unquestionably the greatest name amongst her men of learning during this period is that of the statesman, ecclesiastic6, poet and scholar, Cormac mac Culinan, who was at once king and bishop7 of Cashel,[1] and one of the most[Pg 420] striking figures in both the literary and political history of these centuries.
To him we owe that valuable compilation8, so often quoted already under the title of "Cormac's Glossary," which is by far the oldest attempt at a comparative vernacular9 dictionary made in any language of modern Europe.[2] Of course it has been enlarged by subsequent writers, but the idea and much of the matter remains10 Cormac's. In its original conception, it was meant to explain and interpret words and phrases which in the ninth century had become obscure to Irish scholars, and as might be expected, it throws light on many pagan customs, on history, law, romance, and mythology11. Cormac's other literary effort was the compilation of the Saltair of Cashel, now most unhappily lost, but it appears to have been a great work. In it was contained the Book of Rights,[3] drawn12 up for the readjustment of the relations existing between princes and tribes, and still preserved. St. Benignus was said to have originally composed in verse a complete statement of the various rights, privileges, and duties of the High-king, the provincial13 kings, and the local chieftains. This, like so much of ancient and primitive14 law, was drawn up in verse so as to be thus stereotyped15 for the future, and easily remembered at a time when books were scarce. Cormac seems to have enlarged, modified, and brought it up to date to suit the changing times, and it was subsequently redacted again in Brian Boru's day in a sense favourable16 to Munster.[4] The king-bishop was a most remarkable17 man and an excellent scholar. He appears to have known Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Danish, and to have been one of the finest Old Gaelic scholars of his day, and withal an accomplished18 poet, though his verses are now lost. He was slain19 in battle in the year[Pg 421] 908,[5] under circumstances so curiously20 described in the fragmentary annals edited by O'Donovan that it may be worth repeating here. He was, as we know from other sources, betrothed21 to the Princess Gormfhlaith or Gormly, daughter of Flann Sionna [Shinna], king of Meath and High-king of Ireland, but determining to enter the Church he returned her with her dowry to her father without consummating22 the marriage; after this he took orders, and rose in time to be archbishop of Cashel as well as king of Munster. Gormly, however, was married against her will to Cearbhall [Caroll], king of Leinster. It was in the year 908 that Flann, the High-king, with Caroll king of Leinster, now his son-in-law, prepared to meet Munster and to assert by arms his right to the presentation of the ancient church of Monasterevan, but it seems probable that he also bore the king-archbishop a grudge24 for his treatment of his daughter Gormly. Here is the annalistic account of the sequel:—
DEATH OF CORMAC MAC CULINAN.[6]
"The great host of Munster was assembled by the same two, that is, Flaherty,[7] [abbot of Scattery Island, in the Shannon], and Cormac [mac Culinan], to demand hostages of Leinster and Ossory, and all the men of Munster were in the same camp.... And noble ambassadors came from Leinster from Caroll, son of Muirigan [king of that province], to Cormac first, and they delivered a message of peace from the Leinstermen, i.e., one peace to be in all Erin until May following (it being then the second week in autumn), and to give hostages into the keeping of Maenach, a holy, wise, and pious26 man, and of other pious men, and to give jewels and much property to Cormac and Flaherty.
"Cormac was much rejoiced at being offered this peace, and he afterward27 went to tell it to Flaherty and how he was offered it from[Pg 422] Leinster. When Flaherty heard this he was greatly horrified28, and 't was what he said, 'This shows,' said he, 'the littleness of thy mind and the feebleness of thy nature, for thou art the son of a plebeian,' and he said many other bitter and insulting words, which it would be too long to repeat.
"The answer which Cormac made him was, 'I am certain,' Cormac said, 'of what the result of this [obstinacy of yours] will be, a battle will be fought, O holy man,' said he, 'and [I] Cormac shall be under a curse for it, and it is likely that it will be the cause of death to thee [also].' And when he had said this he came into his own tent, afflicted29 and sorrowful. And when he sat down he took a basketful of apples and proceeded to divide them amongst his people and said, 'My dear people,' he said, 'I shall never give you apples again from this out for ever.' 'Is it so, O dear earthly lord?' said his people; 'why art thou sorrowful and melancholy30 with us; it is often thou hast boded31 evil for us?' 'It is,' [said Cormac,] 'as I say, and yet, dear people, what melancholy thing have I said, for though I should not distribute apples to you with my own hand, yet there shall be some one of you in my place who will.' He afterwards ordered a watch to be set, and he called to him the holy, pious, and wise man, Maenach, son of Siadhal [Shiel], the chief co-arb or successor of Comhghall, and he made his confession32 and will in his presence, and he took the body of Christ from his hand, and he resigned the world in the presence of Maenach, for he knew that he would be killed in battle, but he did not wish that many others should know it. He also ordered that his body should be brought to Cloyne if convenient, but if not to convey it to the cemetery33 of Diarmuid, [grand]son of Aedh Roin, where he had studied for a long time. He was very desirous, however, of being interred34 at Cloyne of Mac Lenin. Maenach, however, was better pleased to have him interred at Disert Diarmada, for that was one of [Saint] Comhghall's towns, and Maenach was Comhghall's successor. This Maenach, son of Shiel, was the wisest man of his time, and he now exerted himself much to make peace, if it were possible, between the men of Leinster and Munster.
"Many of the forces of Munster deserted35 unrestrained. There was great noise, too, and dissension in the camp of the men of Munster at this time, for they heard that Fiann, son of Malachy [High-king of Ireland], was in the camp of the Leinster men [helping them] with great forces of foot and horse. It was then Maenach said, 'Good men of Munster,' said he, 'you ought to accept of the good hostages I have offered you to be placed in the custody36 of pious men till May next, namely, the son of Caroll, king of Leinster, and the son of the king of Ossory.' All the men of Munster were saying[Pg 423] that it was Flaherty [the abbot], son of Inmainên alone who compelled them to go [to fight] into Leinster.
"After this great complaint which they made, they came over Slieve Mairgé from the west to Leithglinn Bridge. But Tibraidé, successor of Ailbhé [of Emly], and many of the clergy37 along with him tarried at Leithglinn, and also the servants of the army and the horses which carried the provisions.
"After this trumpets38 were blown and signals for battle were given by the men of Munster, and they went forward till they came to Moy-Ailbhé.[8] Here they remained with their back to a thick wood awaiting their enemies. The men of Munster divided themselves into three equally large battalions40, Flaherty, son of Inmainên, and Ceallach, son of Caroll, king of Ossory, over the first division; Cormac mac Culinan, king of Munster, over the middle division; Cormac, son of Mothla, King of the Deisi, and the King of Kerry, and the kings of many other tribes of West Munster, over the third division. They afterwards came on in this order to Moy-Ailbhe. They were querulous on account of the numbers of the enemy and their own fewness. Those who were knowledgeable41, that is those who were amongst themselves, state that the Leinstermen and their forces amounted to three times or four times the number of the men of Munster or more. Unsteady was the order in which the men of Munster came to the battle. Very pitiful was the wailing42 which was in the battle—as the learned who were in the battle relate—the shrieks44 of the one host in the act of being slaughtered45 and the shouts of the other host exulting47 over that slaughter46. There were two causes for which the men of Munster suffered so sudden a defeat; for Céileachar, the brother of Cingégan, suddenly mounted his horse and said, 'Nobles of Munster,' said he, 'fly suddenly from this abominable48 battle, and leave it between the clergy themselves who could not be quiet without coming to battle,' and afterwards he suddenly fled accompanied by great hosts. The other cause of the defeat was: When Ceallach, son of Caroll, saw the battalion39 in which were the chieftains of the King of Erin cutting down his own battalion he mounted his horse and said to his own people, 'Mount your horses and drive the enemy before you.' And though he said this, it was not to really fight he said so but to fly. Howsoever it resulted from these causes that the Munster battalion fled together. Alas49! pitiful and great was the slaughter throughout Moy-Ailbhe afterwards. A cleric was not spared more than a layman50, there[Pg 424] they were all equally killed. When a layman or a clergyman was spared it was not out of mercy, it was done but out of covetousness51, to obtain a ransom52 from them, or to bring them into servitude. King Cormac, however, escaped in the van of the first battalion, but the horse leaped into a trench53 and he fell off it. When a party of his people who were flying perceived this, they came to the King and put him up on his horse again. It was then he saw a foster son of his own, a noble of the Eoghanachts, Aedh by name, who was an adept54 in wisdom and jurisprudence and history and Latin; and the King said to him, 'Beloved son,' said he, 'do not cling by me, but take thyself out of it as well as thou canst; I told thee that I should be killed in this battle.' A few remained along with Cormac, and he came forward along the way on horseback, and the way was besmeared throughout with much blood of men and horses. The hind55 feet of his horse slipped on the slippery way in the track of blood, and the horse fell right back and [Cormac's] back and neck were both broken, and he said, when falling, 'In manus tuas, Domine, commendo spiritum meum,' and he gave up the ghost; and the impious sons of malediction56 came and thrust spears through his body, and cut off his head.
"Although much was the slaying57 on Moy-Ailbhe to the east of the Barrow, yet the prowess of Leinster was not satiated with it, but they followed up the rout58 westwards across Slieve Mairgé, and slew60 many noblemen in that pursuit.
"In the very beginning of the battle Ceallach, son of Caroll, king of Ossory, and his son were killed at once. Dispersedly, however, others were killed from that out, both laity61 and clergy. There were many good clergymen killed in this battle, as were also many kings and chieftains. In it was slain Fogartach, son of Suibhne [Sweeny], an adept in philosophy and divinity, King of Kerry, and Ailell, son of Owen, the distinguished62 young sage25 and high-born nobleman, and Colman, Abbot of Cenn-Etigh, Chief Ollav of the judicature of Erin, and hosts of others also, quos longum est scribere....
"Then a party came up to Fiann, having the head of Cormac with them, and 't was what they said to Fiann, 'Life and health, O powerful victorious63 king, and Cormac's head to thee from us; and as is customary with kings raise thy thigh64 and put this head under it and press it with thy thigh.' Howsoever Flann spoke65 evil to them, it was not thanks he gave them. 'It was an enormous act,' said he, 'to have taken off the head of the holy bishop, but, however, I shall honour it instead of crushing it.' Fiann took the head into his hand and kissed it, and carried thrice round him the consecrated66 head of the holy bishop and martyr67. The head was afterwards honourably68 carried away from him to the body where Meaenach, son of Shiel,[Pg 425] successor of Comhghall, was, and he carried the body of Cormac to Castledermot, where it was honourably interred, and where it performs signs and miracles.
"Why should not the heart repine and the mind sicken at this enormous deed; the killing69 and the mangling70 with horrid71 arms of this holy man, the most learned of all who came or shall come of the men of Erin for ever? The complete master in Gaedhlic and Latin, the archbishop most pious, most pure, miraculous72 in chastity and prayer, a proficient73 in law and in every wisdom, knowledge, and science, a paragon74 of poetry and learning, a head of charity and every virtue75, a sage of education, and head-king of the whole of the two Munster provinces in his time!"
Gormly, the betrothed, but afterwards repudiated76 wife of Cormac, was also a poet, and there are many pieces ascribed to her. She was, as I mentioned, married to Caroll king of Leinster, who was severely77 wounded in this battle. He was carried home to be cured in his palace at Naas, and Gormly the queen was constant in her attendance on him. One day, however, as Caroll was becoming convalescent he fell to exulting over the mutilation of Cormac at which he had been present. The queen, who was sitting at the foot of his bed, rebuked78 him for it, and said that the body of a good man had been most unworthily desecrated79. At this Caroll, who was still confined to bed, became angry and kicked her over with his foot in the presence of all her attendants and ladies.
As her father, the High-king, would do nothing for her when she besought80 him to wipe out the insult, and procure81 her reparation from so unworthy a husband, her young kinsman82 Niall Glún-dubh, or the Black-Kneed, took up her cause, and obtained for her a separation from her husband and restoration of her dowry. When her husband was killed, the year after this, by the Danes, she married Niall, who in time succeeded to the throne as High-king of all Ireland, and who was one of the noblest of her monarchs83. He was slain in the end by the Danes, and the monarchy84 passed away from the houses both of her father and her husband, and she, the daughter of one High-king, the wife of another, bewails in[Pg 426] her old age the poverty and neglect into which she had fallen. She dreamt one night that King Niall stood beside her, and she made a leap forwards to clasp him in her arms, but struck herself against the bed-post, and received a wound from which she never recovered.[9] Many of her poems are lamentations on her kinsman and husband Niall. They seem to have been current amongst the Highland86 as well as the Irish Gaels, for here is a specimen87 jotted88 down in phonetic89 spelling by the Scotch90 Dean Macgregor about the year 1512:
"Take, grey monk91, thy foot away,
Lift it off the grave of Neill!
Too long thou heapest up the clay
On him who cannot feel.[10]
Monk, why must thou pile the earth
O'er the couch of noble Neill?
Above my friend of gentle birth
Thou strik'st a churlish heel.
Let him be, at least to-night,
Mournful monk of croaking92 voice,
Beneath thee lies my heart's delight,
Who made me to rejoice.
[Pg 427]
Monk, remove thy foot, I say!
Tread not on the sacred ground
Where he is shut from me away,
In cold and narrow bound!
I am Gormly—king of men
Was my father, Flann the brave.
I charge thee, stand thou not again,
Bald monk, upon his grave."
Another poet of the ninth century was Flanagan, son of Ceallach, king of Bregia. He is quoted by the "Four Masters."[11] One poem of his, of 112 lines, on the deaths of the kings of Ireland, is preserved in the Yellow Book of Lecan.
Mailmura, of Fahan, whom the "Four Masters" call a great poet, was a contemporary of his, and wrote a poem on the Milesian Migrations93.[12]
Several other poets lived in the ninth century, the chief of whom was probably Flann mac Lonáin, for the "Four Masters" in recording94 his death style him "the Virgil of the Scottic race, the chief ollamh of all the Gaels, the best poet that was in Ireland in his time." Eight of his poems, containing about one thousand lines, have survived. He was from the neighbourhood of Slieve Echtgé, or Aughty, in South Connacht. One of his poems records how Ilbrechtach the harper was travelling over these barren[Pg 428] mountains along with the celebrated95 poet Mac Liag, and, as they paused to rest on Croghan Head, Mac Liag surveyed the prospect96 beneath him, and said, "Many a hill and lake and fastness is in this range; it were a great topographical knowledge to know them all." "If Mac Lonáin were here," said the harper, "he could name them all, and give the origin of their names as well." "Let this fellow be taken and hanged," said Mac Liag. The harper begged respite98 till next day, and in the meantime Mac Lonáin comes up and recites a poem of one hundred and thirty-two lines beginning—Aoibhinn aoibhinn Echtgé árd.
Amongst other things, he relates that he met a Dalcassian—i.e., one of Brian Boru's people from Clare—at Moy Finé in Galway, who had just finished serving twelve months with a man in that place, from whom he had received a cow and a cloak for payment. On his way home to the Dalcassians with his cloak and his cow he met the poet, and said to him—
"'Sing to me the history of my country,
It is sweet to my soul to hear it.
Thereupon I sang for him the poem,
Nor did he show himself the least loath99:
All that he had earned—not mean nor meagre—
To me he gave it without deduction100.
The upright Dalcassians heard of this,
They received him with honour in their assembly;
They gave to him—the noble race—
Ten cows for every quarter of his own cow.'"
Mac Lonáin was the contemporary of Cormac mac Culinan, whom he eulogises.
Some other poets of great note flourished during the Danish period, such as Cormac "an Eigeas," who composed the celebrated poem to Muircheartach, or Murtagh of the Leather Cloaks,[13] son of the Niall so bitterly lamented101 by Gormly, on the occasion of his marching round Ireland, when he set out[Pg 429] from his palace at ancient Aileach near Derry, and returned to it again after levying102 tribute and receiving hostages from every king and sub-king in Ireland. This great O'Neill well deserved a poet's praise, for having taken Sitric, the Danish lord of Dublin, Ceallachan of Munster, the king of Leinster, and the royal heir of Connacht as hostages, he, understanding well that in the interests of Ireland the High-kingship should be upheld, positively104 refused to follow the advice of his own clan105 and march on Tara, as they urged, to take hostages from Donagh the High-king. On the contrary, he actually sent of his own accord all those that had been given him during his circuit to this Donagh as supreme106 governor of Ireland. Donagh, on his part, not to be out-done in magnanimity, returned them again to Murtagh with the message that he, into whose hands they had been delivered, was the proper person to keep them. It was to commemorate107 this that Cormac wrote his poem of two hundred and fifty-six lines:—
"A Mhuircheartaigh Mheic Néill náir
Ro ghabhais giallu Inse-Fáil."[14]
But the names of the poets Cinaeth or Kenneth O'Hartigan, and Eochaidh O'Flynn, are the most celebrated amongst those of the tenth century. Allusions108 to and quotations109 from the first, who died in 975, are frequent, and nine or ten of his poems, containing some eight hundred lines, have been preserved perfect for us. Of O'Flynn's pieces, fourteen are enumerated111 by O'Reilly, containing in the aggregate112 between seventeen and eighteen hundred lines. In them we find in verse the whole early and mythical113 history of Ireland. We have, for instance, one poem on the invasion of Partholan; one on the invasion of the Fomorians; another on the division of Ireland between the sons of Partholan; another on the destruction of the tower of Conaing and the battles between[Pg 430] the Fomorians and the Nemedians; another on the journey of the Nemedians from Scithia and how some emigrated to Greece and others to Britain after the destruction of Conairé's tower; another on the invasion of the sons of Milesius; another on the history of Emania built by Cimbaeth some three hundred years before Christ, up to its destruction by the Three Collas in the year 331. This poet in especial may be said to have crystallised into verse the mythic history of Ireland with the names and reigns114 of the Irish kings, and to have thrown them into the form of real history. O'Clery, in his celebrated Book of Invasions, has drawn upon him very largely, quoting, often at full length, no less than twelve of his poems. Hence many people believe that he was one of the first to collect the floating tribe-legends of very early Irish kings, and the race-myths of the Tuatha De Danann and their contemporaries, and that he cast them into that historical shape in which the later annalists record them, by fitting them into a complete scheme of genealogical history like that of the Old Testament115. But whether all these things had taken solid shape and form before he versified them anew we cannot now decide. According to O'Reilly and O'Curry this poet died in 984, nine years after O'Hartigan; but M. d'Arbois de Jubainville remarks that he has been unable to find out any evidence for fixing upon this date.
A little later lived Mac Liag, whom Brian Boru elevated to the rank of Arch-Ollamh of Erin, and who lived at his court at Kincora in the closest relationship to him and his sons. He has been credited—erroneously according to O'Curry—with the authorship of a Life of Brian Boru, which unfortunately has perished, only a single ancient leaf, in the hand-writing of the great antiquary Mac Firbis, surviving. Several of his poems, however, are preserved,[15] containing[Pg 431] between twelve and thirteen hundred lines in all, and are of the highest value as throwing light both on the social state and the policy of Ireland under Brian. One of his poems gives a graphic97 description of the tribute of Ireland being driven to Brian at his palace in Kincora in the present county of Clare. The poet went out from the court to have a look at the flocks and herds116, and when he returned he said to the King, "Here comes Erin's tribute of cows to thee, many a fat cow and fat hog117 on the plain before thee." "Be they ever so many," said the King, "they shall be all thine, thou noble poet." Amongst the other part of the tribute which the poet describes as coming in to Brian were one hundred and fifty butts118 of wine from the Danes of Dublin, and a tun of wine for every day in the year from the Danes of Limerick. He describes Brian as sitting at the head of the great hall of Kincora,[16] the king of Connacht sat on his right hand and the king of Ulster on his left; the king of Tir-Eóghain [Tyrone] sat opposite to him. At the door-post nearest to Brian sat the king of Leinster, and at the other post of the open door sat Donough, son of Brian, and Malachy,[17] king of Meath. Murrough, the king's eldest119 son who died so valiantly121 at Clontarf, sat in front of his father with his back turned to him, with Angus, a prince of Meath, and the king of Tirconnell on his left. One of his poems ends with two complimentary122 stanzas123 to Brian Boru, his son Murrough, his nephew Conaing, and Tadhg [Teig] O'Kelly, the king of Ui Máine—all four of whom a short time afterwards were left stiff and stark124 upon the field of Clontarf.
The shadow of the bloody125 tragedy there enacted127 hangs heavily over all Mac Liag's later poems and those of his contemporaries, and there are few more pathetic pieces in the language than his wail43 over Kincora left desolate128 by the death[Pg 432] of almost every chieftain who had gone forth from it to meet the Danes.
"Oh where, Kincora, is Brian the great!
Oh, where is the beauty that once was thine!
Oh, where are the princes and nobles that sate129
At the feast in thy halls, and drank the red wine.[18]
Where, oh, Kincora?
* * * * *
And where is the youth of majestic130 height,
The faith-keeping prince of the Scots? Even he
As wide as his fame was, as great as his might,
Was tributary131, oh, Kincora, to me!
Me, oh, Kincora.
They are gone, those heroes of royal birth,
Who plundered132 no churches, who broke no trust;
'Tis weary for me to be living on earth
When they, oh, Kincora, lie low in the dust!
Low, oh, Kincora."[19]
In the same strain does Mac Gilla Keefe,[20] another contemporary poet, lament85, in a piece which, according to a manuscript quoted by Hardiman, called the "Leabhar Oiris,"[Pg 433] he composed when in the north of Greece, whither he had travelled in the itinerant134 Milesian manner on his way to try if he could find the site of Paradise. The poem begins:—
"Mournful night! and mournful WE!
Men we BE who know no peace.
We no GOLD for STRAINS of PRIDE
HOLD this SIDE the PLAINS of Greece."[21]
"'I remember my setting my face to pay a visit to Brian (Boru) and he at that time feasting with Cian, the son of Mulloy,[22] and he thought it long my being absent from him.'
"'God welcome you back to us,' cried Cian, 'O learned one, who comest [back from the north] from the House of O'Neill. Poet, your wife is saying that you have almost altogether forsaken135 your own house.'
"'You have been away for three quarters of year, except from yesterday to to-day.' 'Why that,' said Murrough, son of Brian, 'is the message of the raven136 from the ark!'
"'[Come now] tell us all the wealth you have brought from the north,' said Brian, the High-king of the host of Carn i Neid, 'tell the nobles of the men of Innisfail, and swear by my hand that you tell no lie.'
"'By the King who is above me,' [said I], 'this is what I brought from the north, twenty steeds, ten ounces of gold, and ten score cows of cattle.'
"'[Why] we, the two of us, shall give him more steeds and more cattle [than that] without speaking of what Brian will give,' said Cian, the son of Mulloy.
"'[And] by the King of Heaven who has brought me into silence this night, and who has darkened my brightness, I got ten times as much as that at the banquet before Brian lay down.
[Pg 434]
"'I got seven town-lands, Oh, King of the Kings, who hast sent me from the west, and a half town-land [besides] near every palace in which Brian used to be.'
"Said Murrough, good son of Brian, 'To-morrow'—and it was scarce sensible for him—'as much as you have got last night you shall get from me myself, and get it with my love.'"[23]
Mag Liag was not at Clontarf himself, but his friend and fellow-poet, Errard mac Coisé [C?sha] was in the train of Malachy, king of Meath, to whom he was then attached. This poet gave Mac Liag a minute account of the battle, and Mac Liag himself visited the spot before the slain had been interred, as we see from another of his poems. In a kind of dialogue between him and Mac Coisé he makes the latter relate to him the names of the fallen, and describe the positions in which their dead bodies were found upon the battlefield. It is exceedingly probable that it was Mac Liag, perhaps with Mac Coisé's aid, who compiled that most valuable chronicle called the "Wars of the Gael with the Gaill," i.e., of the Irish with the Northmen.[24] This narrative137 bears both external and internal evidence of its antiquity138, for there is a portion of it preserved in the Book of Leinster, a MS. of about the year 1150. "The author," says Dr. Todd, who has edited it,[25] "was either[Pg 435] himself an eye-witness of the battle of Clontarf, or else compiled his narrative from the testimony139 of eye-witnesses." It is edited in 121 chapters, and is sufficiently140 long to fill over a hundred of these pages. Beginning with the earliest Danish invasion at the close of the eighth century, it traces the progress of the Northmen in forty chapters up to the time when Mathgamhain [Mahon] and Brian were ruling over the Dalcassians. After that the book concerns itself chiefly with the history of Brian, describing the deaths of his brother Mahon, and the revenge he took, and his gradual but irregular attainment141 of the High-kingship, he being the first of the race of Eber who had reached this dignity for hundreds of years. The distress143 suffered by the Irish at the hands of the white foreigners (the Norwegians) and the black foreigners (the Danes)—who, by the way, were bitter enemies and often fought with each other, even on Irish soil—is graphically144 described. The Northmen put, says the writer,
"a king [of their own] over every territory, and a chief over every chieftaincy, and an abbot over every church, and a steward145 over every village, and a soldier in every house, so that none of the men of Erin had power to give even the milk of his cow, or as much as the clutch[Pg 436] of eggs of one hen in succour or in kindness to an aged126 man or to a friend, but was forced to preserve them for this foreign steward or bailiff or soldier. And though there were but one milk-giving cow in the house, she durst not be milked for an infant of one night, nor for a sick person, but must be kept for the steward or bailiff or soldier of the foreigners. And however long he might be absent from the house his share or his supply durst not be lessened146: although there were in the house but one cow, it must be killed for the meal of one night, if the means of supply could not be otherwise procured147....
"In a word," continues the writer in a strain of characteristic hyperbole, "although there were an hundred sharp, ready, cool, never-resting, brazen148 tongues in each head, and a hundred garrulous149, loud-unceasing voices from each tongue, they could not recount nor narrate150, nor enumerate110, nor tell, what all the Gael suffered in common, both men and women, laity and clergy, old and young, noble and ignoble151, of hardship and of injury, and of oppression in every house, from these valiant120, wrathful, foreign, purely-pagan people.
"And though numerous were the oft-victorious clans152 of the many-familied Erin," yet could they do nothing against the "untamed, implacable hordes153 by whom that oppression was inflicted154, because of the excellence155 of their polished, ample, treble-heavy, trusty, glittering corslets, and their hard, strong, valiant swords, and well-rivetted long spears, and ready brilliant arms of valour, besides; and because of the greatness of their achievements and of their deeds, their bravery, their valour, their strength, their venom156, and their ferocity, and because of the excess of their thirst and their hunger for the brave, fruitful, nobly-inhabited, smooth-plained, sweet-grassy land of Erin, full of cataracts157, rivers, bays."
The book ends with the battle of Clontarf and the "return from Fingall," i.e., the march of the Dalcassians to their homes in Munster. The death of Brian in this great battle fought on Good Friday, the 23rd of April,[26] 1014, is thus described:—
[Pg 437]
DEATH OF BRIAN BORUMHA AT CLONTARF.
"As for Brian, son of Cenneidigh [Kennedy], when the battalions joined arms in the battle, his skin was spread for him, and he opened his psalter and joined his hands, and began to pray after the battle had commenced, and there was no one with him but his own attendant, whose name was Latean (from whom are the O'Lateans still in Munster.)[27] Brian said to the attendant, 'Look thou at the battalions and the combat whilst I sing the psalms158.' He sang fifty psalms and fifty prayers and fifty paternosters, and after that he asked the attendant how were the battalions. And the attendant answered, 'Mixed and closely confronted are the battalions, and each of them has come within the grasp of the other, and not louder on my ears would be the echo of blows from Tomar's wood if seven battalions were cutting it down, than the thud-blows on heads and bones and sculls between them.' And he asked how was Murchadh's [Murrough's son's] standard, and the attendant said, 'It stands, and many of the banners of the Dál Cais [North Munster, i.e., Brian's own men] around it, and many heads thrown to it, and a multitude of trophies159 and spoils with heads of foreigners are along with it.' 'That is good news indeed,' said Brian.
"His skin cushion was readjusted beneath him, and he sang the psalms and the prayers and the paters as before, and he again asked the attendant how the battalions were, and the attendant answered and said, 'There is not living on earth the man who could distinguish one from the other, for the greater part of the hosts on each side are fallen, and those who are alive are so covered with spatterings of crimson160 blood and armour161, that a man could not know his own son—they are so intermingled.' He then asked how was Murchadh's standard. The attendant said it was far from him, and that it passed through the battalions westward59, and was still standing103. Brian said, 'The men of Erin will be well,' said he, 'so long as that standard stands, for their courage and valour shall remain in them all, so long as they can see that standard.'
"His cushion was readjusted under Brian, and he sang fifty psalms and fifty prayers and fifty paters, and all that time the fighting continued. After that he again asked the attendant how went the battalions, and the attendant answered, 'It is like as if Tomar's wood were after burning its undergrowth and young trees, and that seven battalions had been for six weeks cutting them down, and it with its stately trees and huge oaks still standing, just so are the battalions on both sides, after the greater part of them have fallen leaving but a few valiant heroes and great chieftains still standing. So are[Pg 438] the battalions on both sides pierced and wounded and scattered162, and they are disorganised all round like the grindings of a mill turning the wrong way; and the foreigners are now defeated, and Murchadh's standard is fallen.' 'That is piteous news,' said Brian; 'by my word,' said he, 'the generosity163 and valour of Erin fell when that standard fell; and truly Erin has fallen of that, for there shall never come after him a champion like him. And what the better were I though I should escape this, and though it were the sovereignty of the world I should attain142, after the fall of Murchadh and Conaing and the other nobles of the Dál Cais.'
"'Woe164 is me,' said the attendant, 'if thou wouldst take my advice thou wouldst get thee to thy horse, and we would go to the camp and remain there amongst the gillies, and every one who comes out of the battle will come to us, and round us they will rally, for the battalions are now mixed in confusion, and a party of the foreigners have rejected the idea of retreating to the sea, and we know not who shall come to us where we now are.'
"'Oh God; boy,' said Brian, 'flight becomes me not, and I myself know that I shall not go from here alive, and what should it profit me though I did, for Aoibheall [Eevil][28] of Craig Liath [Lee-a], came to me last night,' said he, 'and she told me that the first of my sons whom I should see this day would be he who should succeed me in the sovereignty, and that is Donough,[29] and go thou OLatean,' said he, 'and take these steeds with thee, and receive my blessing165 and carry out my will after me, that is to say, my body and soul to God and to St. Patrick, and that I am to be carried to Armagh, and my blessing to Donough for discharging my last bequests166 after me, that is to say, twelve score cows to be given to the co-arb of Patrick and the Society of Armagh, and their own proper dues to Killaloe and the Churches of Munster, and he knows that I have not wealth of gold or silver, but he is to pay them in return for my blessing and for his succeeding me. Go this night to Sord [Swords] and desire them to come to-morrow early for my body, and to convey it thence to Damhliag of Cianan, and then let them carry it to Lughmhagh [Loo-wā, i.e., Louth], and let Maelmuiré mac Eochadha, the co-arb of Patrick and the Society of Armagh come to meet me at Lughmhagh.'
"While they were engaged in this conversation the attendant perceived a party of the foreigners approaching them. The Earl Brodar was there and two warriors167 along with him.
"'There are people coming towards us here,' said the attendant.
[Pg 439]
"'What kind of people?' said Brian.
"'Blue stark-naked people,' said the attendant.
"'My woe,' said Brian, 'they are the foreigners of the armour, and it is not for good they come.'
"While he was saying this he arose and stepped off his cushion and unsheathed his sword. Brodar passed him by and noticed him not. One of the three who were there and who had been in Brian's service said 'Cing, Cing!' said he, that is, 'This is the king.' 'No, no! but príst príst,' says Brodar, 'not he,' said he, 'but a noble priest.' 'By no means,' said the soldier, 'but it is the great king Brian.' Brodar then turned round and appeared with a bright gleaming battle-axe in his hand, with the handle set in the middle [of the head]. When Brian saw him he looked intently at him, and gave him a sword-blow that cut off the left leg at the knee and the right leg at the foot. The foreigner gave Brian a stroke which crushed his head utterly168, and Brian killed the second man that was with Brodar, and they fell mutually by each other.
"There was not done in Erin, since Christianity—except the beheading of Cormac mac Culinan—any greater deed than this. He was, in sooth, one of the three best that ever were born in Erin, and one of the three men who most caused Erin to prosper169, namely, Lugh the Long-handed, and Finn mac Cúmhail [Cool], and Brian, son of Kennedy; for it was he that released the men of Erin and its women from the bondage170 and iniquity171 of the foreigners and the pirates. It was he that gained five-and-twenty battles over the foreigners, and who killed them and banished172 them.... In short, Erin fell by the death of Brian."
The "War of the Gael with the Gaill" appears to me to be a book which throws a strong light upon the genesis and value of the historical saga173 of Ireland. Here is a real historical narrative of unquestionable authority, and of the very highest value for the history of these countries, which is contemporaneous,[30] or almost so, with the events which it relates. Its accuracy on matters of fact have been abundantly proved from Danish as well as from Irish sources. And yet the whole[Pg 440] account is dressed up and bedizened in that peculiarly Irish garb174 which had become stereotyped as the dress of Irish history. It contains the exaggeration, the necessary touch of the marvellous, and above all the poetry, without which no Irish composition could hope for a welcome.
First as to the exaggeration: the whole piece is full of it. A good example is the description of the armies meeting on Clontarf:—
"It will be one of the wonders of the day of judgment175 to relate the description of this tremendous onset176. There arose a wild, impetuous, precipitate177, furious, dark, frightful178, voracious179, merciless, combative180, contentious181 vulture, screaming and fluttering over their heads. There arose also the Bocanachs and the Bananachs and the wild people of the glens, and the witches and the goblins and the ancient birds, and the destroying demons182 of the air and firmament183, and the feeble demoniac phantom184 host, and they were screaming and comparing the valour and combat of both parties."
The reader expected some traditional flourish such as this, and the essential truth of the narrative is no whit133 impaired185 by it.
Nor does the miraculous episode of Dunlang O'Hartigan, fresh from the embraces of the fairy queen, foretelling186 to Murrough that he must fall, detract from the truth that he does fall. Dunlang had promised Murrough not to abandon him, and he appears beside him on the very eve of the battle. Murrough gently reproaches him and says:—
"'Great must be the love and attachment187 of some woman for thee which has induced thee to abandon me.' 'Alas, O King,' answered Dunlang, 'the delight which I have abandoned for thee is greater, if thou didst but know it, namely, life without death,[31] without cold,[Pg 441] without thirst, without hunger, without decay, beyond any delight of the delights of the earth to me, until the judgment, and heaven after the judgment, and if I had not pledged my word to thee I would not have come here, and, moreover, it is fated for me to die on the day that thou shalt die.'
"'Shall I receive death this day then?' said Murrough.
"'Thou shalt, indeed,' said Dunlang, 'and Brian and Conaing shall receive it, and almost all the nobles of Erin, and Turlough thy son.'
"'That is no good encouragement to fight,' said Murrough, 'and if we had had such news we would not have told it to thee, and moreover,' said Murrough, 'often was I offered in hills, and in fairy mansions188, this world and these gifts, but I never abandoned for one night my country nor mine inheritance for them.'"
Some such touch as this, of the weird190 and the miraculous, the reader also expected.
As for poetry, the whole piece is full of it. It contains over five hundred lines of verse, in poems attributed to Brian Boru himself and his brother Mahon, to Maelmhuadh or Molloy, who so treacherously191 slew Mahon, to the sister of Aedh Finnliath [Finleea], king of Ireland in 869;[32] to Cormac mac Culinan, the king-bishop; to Cuan O'Lochain, a great poet who died in 1024; to Beg mac Dé the prophet, and to Columcille, his contemporary; to Colman mac Lenin, the poet-saint; to Gilla Mududa O'Cassidy, a poet contemporaneous with Mac Liag; to Mac Liag himself; to Gilla Comgaill O'Slevin, inciting192 O'Neill against Brian; to a poet called Mahon's blind man; to St. Bercan the prophet; to an unnamed cleric, and to at least six anonymous193 poets.
I have dwelt at some length upon these peculiarities194 of composition, because I wish to lay stress on the fact that the narrative form and the romantic dress in which the early history of Ireland is preserved (through the medium of sagas) need not[Pg 442] detract from its substantial veracity195. We can prove the minute accuracy of the Clontarf story and there seems scarcely more reason to doubt that of the battle of Moyrath, fought in Adamnan's time, or possibly the substantial accuracy of the battles of Cnoca, or of Moy Léana; we must, however, remember that with each fresh redaction, fresh miraculous agencies, and fresh verbiage196 were added.
The battle of Clontarf put an end to the dream of a Danish kingdom in Ireland, and though numerous bodies of the Northmen remained in their sea-coast settlements, and continued for many years after this to give much trouble, yet it put a stop to all further invasion from their mother country, and once more the centres of Irish learning and civilisation197 could breathe freely.
********
[1] It was not he, however, who built Cormac's Chapel198 at Cashel, but Cormac Mac Carthy, in the twelfth century. I am not sure whether Cashel had been formed into an archiepiscopal see at this time, but he is certainly called bishop of Cashel.
[2] The celebrated Vocabularius S. Galli was, according to Zimmer, the work of an Irish monk.
[3] Leabhar na gCeart.
[4] It has been most carefully edited and translated in a large volume by O'Donovan for the Celtic Society, in 1847.
[5] 903 according to the "Four Masters."
[6] From the fragment copied by Duald Mac Firbis in 1643 from a vellum MS. of Mac Egan of Ormond, a chief professor of the old Brehon Law, a MS. which was so worn as to be in places illegible199 at the time Mac Firbis copied it; published by O'Donovan for the Arch?ological Society. I have altered O'Donovan's translation very slightly.
[7] In Irish, "Flaithbheartach."
[8] The plain where this battle of Bealach Múghna or Ballaghmoon was fought is in the very south of the county Kildare, about 2? miles to the north of the town of Carlow.
[9] So it is stated in Mac Echagain's Annals of Clonmacnois, but O'Curry thinks this is a mistake and that she did recover.
[10] The first verse runs thus in modern Gaelic:
"Beir a mhanaigh leat do chos
Tóg anois i de thaoibh Néill
Is ró mhór chuiris de chré
Ar an té le' luidhinn féin."
See p. 75 of the Gaelic part of the book of the Dean of Lismore.
Literally200: "Monk, remove thy foot, lift it off the grave of Niall, too long heapest thou the earth on him by whom I fain would lie!
"Too long dost thou, O monk there, heap the earth on noble Niall. Go gently, brown friend, press not the earth with thy sole.
"Do not firmly close the grave; sorrowful, cleric, is thy office; lift [thy foot] off the bright Niall Black-knee; monk, remove thy foot!
"The son of the descendant of Niall of the white gold, 'tis not of my will that he is bound [in the grave]; let his grave and stone be left: monk, remove thy foot!
"I am Gormly, who compose the verse; daughter of hardy201 Flann. Stand not upon his grave! Monk, remove thy foot!"
[11] One of his pieces, quoted by the "Four Masters," shows he was a true poet. It is on the death of the king, Aedh Finnliath, who died in 877, and runs thus:—
"Long is the wintry night,
With fierce gusts202 of wind,
Under pressing grief we have to encounter it,
Since the red-speared king of the noble house lives no longer.
It is awful to observe
The waves from the bottom heaving,
To these may be compared
All those who with us lament him."
See O'Curry's "Manners and Customs," vol. ii. p. 96, and "Four Masters" sub anno.
[12] Published by the Irish Arch?ological Society in the "Irish Nennius," in 1847.
[13] Na gcochal croicinn.
[14] "O Muircheartach, son of noble Niall,
Thou hast taken hostages of Inisfail."
[15] The "Four Masters" thought so highly of Mac Liag's poetry that they actually go out of their way to record both the first verse he ever composed and the last. An extraordinary compliment!
[16] Or Kancora, in Irish Ceann Coradh—i.e., "the head of the weir189."
[17] In Irish "Maelsheachlainn," often contracted into the sound of "M'louglinn," and now always Anglicised Malachy.
[18] Thus Mangan; in the original—
"A Chinn-Choradh, caidhi Brian,
No caidhi an sciamh do bhi ort;
Caidhi maithe no meic righ
Ga n-ibhmís fín ad port?"
[19] Literally: "O Kincora, where is Brian? or where is the splendour that was upon thee? Where are the nobles and the sons of kings with whom we used to drink wine in thy halls.... Where is the man most striking of size, the son of the king of Alba who never forsook203 us? Although great were his valour and his deeds, he used to pay tribute to me (the poet), O Kincora.... They have gone, side by side, the sons of kings who never plundered church; there shall never be their like in the world again, so in my wisdom I testify, O Kincora."
See Hardiman's "Irish Minstrelsy," vol. ii. p. 196, where the text of this poem is published, with a fearful metrical translation which, under the influence of Macpherson, calls the Dalcassian princes "the flower of Temora"! which, however, is advantageously used to rhyme with Kincora!
[20] In Irish: "Mac Giolla Caoimh."
[21] This verse is an imitation of the original, which runs—
"Uathmhar [i] an oidhche anocht
A chuideacht [fhíor-]bhocht gan bhréig,
Crodh ni SA[O]ILT? dh[ao]ibh air DHUAN
Air an TTAOIBHSI THUAIDH do'n nGréig."
See Hardiman's "Irish Minstrelsy," vol. ii. p. 202, where a poetical204 version of this lyric205 is given in the metre of Campbell's "Exile of Erin"! He does not say from what MS. he has taken this poem. O'Curry is silent on Mac Gilla Keefe, but O'Reilly mentions another poem of his on the provinces of Munster.
[22] In Irish, "Maolmhuadh."
[23] I am not sure that I have translated this correctly.
"Do rádh Murchadh deagh-mhac Bhriain
Air na mhárach, 's níor chiall uaidh
Uiriod a bhfuairís aréir
Geabhair uaim féin's ni air th-fhuath."
[24] Charles O'Conor ascribes it to him, but neither Keating, the "Four Masters," nor Colgan, who all make use of it, mention a word about the author.
[25] In the "Master of the Rolls" Series, in 1867. "That the work was compiled from contemporary materials," says Dr. Todd, "may be proved by curious incidental evidence. It is stated in the account given of the Battle of Clontarf that the full tide in Dublin Bay on the day of the battle (23rd April, 1014) coincided with sunrise, and that the returning tide at evening aided considerably in the defeat of the enemy. It occurred to the editor, on considering this passage, that a criterion might be derived206 from it to test the truth of the narrative and of the date assigned by the Irish Annals to the Battle of Clontarf. He therefore proposed to the Rev23. Samuel Haughton, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College, and Professor of Geology in the University of Dublin, to solve for him this problem: 'What was the hour of high water at the shore of Clontarf in Dublin Bay on the 23rd of April, 1014.' The editor did not make known to Dr. Haughton the object he had in view in this question, and the coincidence of the result obtained with the ancient narrative is therefore the more valuable and curious."
Dr. Haughton read a paper on the mathematics of this complex and difficult question before the Royal Irish Academy, in May, 1861, in which he proved that the tide—a neap tide—was full along the Clontarf shore at about 5h. 30m. a.m., and that the evening tide was full in about 5h. 55m. p.m. "The truth of the narrative," says Dr. Todd, "is thus most strikingly established. In the month of April the sun rises at from 5h. 30m. to 4h.30m. The full tide in the morning therefore coincided nearly with sunrise; a fact which holds a most important place in the history of the battle, and proves that our author if not himself an eye-witness, must have derived his information from those who were. 'None others,' as Dr. Haughton observes, 'would have invented the fact that the battle began at sunrise and that the tide was then full in. The importance of the time of tide became evident at the close of the day, when the returned tide prevented the escape of the Danes from the Clontarf shore to the north bank of the Liffey.'"
[26] An ancient Irish missal preserved in the Bodleian contains this petition for the Irish king and his army, in its Litany for Easter Eve: "Ut regem Hibernensium et exercitum ejus conservare digneris—ut eis vitam et sanctitatem atque victoriam dones." If this missal is posterior to 1014 it must have been the reminiscence of Clontarf which inspired the prayer for the day following the battle. If the missal is older than the battle, then the coincidence is curious. The prayer was just a day late. The same missal mentions in its Litanies the names Patrick, Brendan, Brigit, Columba, Finnian, Ciaran, and St. Fursa, and contains collect, secret and post communion pro5 rege [for the Irish king].
[27] Evidently the interpolation of a copyist.
[28] The family banshee of the Royal house of Munster.
[29] In Irish, Donnchadh, pronounced "Dunn?χa," as Murchadh is pronounced "Murr?χa," in English Murrough.
[30] It is edited from the Book of Leinster, a MS. which was copied about 1150, which contains the first 28 chapters, from a vellum of about two centuries later, which wants five chapters at the beginning and eight at the end, and from a perfect transcript207 made by the indefatigable208 Brother Michael O'Clery in 1635 "out of the book of Cuconnacht O'Daly," who died according to the "Four Masters," in 1139.
[31] I.e., Beside his fairy lover. This incident is greatly expanded in the modern MS. story of the Battle of Clontarf, of which there exist numerous copies; in these the gliding209 of history into romance is very apparent. In the modern version the fairy Aoibheall is introduced begging O'Hartigan not to fight and promising210 him life and happiness for two hundred years if he will put off fighting for only one day.
"A Dhunlaing seachain an cath
Gus an mhaidin amárach.
Geobhair da chéad bliadhan de ré
Agus seachain cath aon-laé."
[32] This is genuine, and is also quoted by the "Four Masters" and O'Clery in his Book of Invasions. Probably all the poems are genuine except the prophecies and the pieces put into the mouths of the actors, that is of Brian, Mahon, Molloy, and the cleric. These were probably composed by the writer of the history.
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forth
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monasteries
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invaluable
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bishop
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compilation
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vernacular
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remains
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mythology
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provincial
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primitive
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stereotyped
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remarkable
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accomplished
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slain
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consummating
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afterward
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boded
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39
battalion
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| n.营；部队；大队(的人) | |
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40
battalions
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| n.（陆军的）一营（大约有一千兵士）( battalion的名词复数 )；协同作战的部队；军队；（组织在一起工作的）队伍 | |
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41
knowledgeable
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| adj.知识渊博的；有见识的 | |
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42
wailing
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| v.哭叫，哀号( wail的现在分词 )；沱 | |
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43
wail
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| vt./vi.大声哀号，恸哭；呼啸，尖啸 | |
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44
shrieks
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| n.尖叫声( shriek的名词复数 )v.尖叫( shriek的第三人称单数 ) | |
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45
slaughtered
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| v.屠杀，杀戮，屠宰( slaughter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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46
slaughter
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| n.屠杀，屠宰；vt.屠杀，宰杀 | |
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47
exulting
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| vi. 欢欣鼓舞，狂喜 | |
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48
abominable
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| adj.可厌的，令人憎恶的 | |
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49
alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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50
layman
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| n.俗人，门外汉，凡人 | |
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51
covetousness
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52
ransom
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| n.赎金，赎身；v.赎回，解救 | |
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53
trench
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| n./v.(挖)沟，(挖)战壕 | |
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54
adept
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| adj.老练的，精通的 | |
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55
hind
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| adj.后面的，后部的 | |
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56
malediction
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| n.诅咒 | |
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57
slaying
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| 杀戮。 | |
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58
rout
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| n.溃退，溃败；v.击溃，打垮 | |
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59
westward
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| n.西方，西部；adj.西方的，向西的；adv.向西 | |
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60
slew
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| v.（使）旋转；n.大量，许多 | |
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61
laity
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| n.俗人；门外汉 | |
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62
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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63
victorious
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| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
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64
thigh
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| n.大腿；股骨 | |
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65
spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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66
consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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67
martyr
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| n.烈士，殉难者；vt.杀害，折磨，牺牲 | |
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68
honourably
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| adv.可尊敬地，光荣地，体面地 | |
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69
killing
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| n.巨额利润；突然赚大钱，发大财 | |
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70
mangling
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| 重整 | |
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71
horrid
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| adj.可怕的；令人惊恐的；恐怖的；极讨厌的 | |
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72
miraculous
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| adj.像奇迹一样的，不可思议的 | |
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73
proficient
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| adj.熟练的，精通的；n.能手，专家 | |
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74
paragon
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| n.模范，典型 | |
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75
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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76
repudiated
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|
| v.（正式地）否认( repudiate的过去式和过去分词 )；拒绝接受；拒绝与…往来；拒不履行（法律义务） | |
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77
severely
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| adv.严格地；严厉地；非常恶劣地 | |
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78
rebuked
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| 责难或指责( rebuke的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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79
desecrated
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| 毁坏或亵渎( desecrate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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80
besought
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| v.恳求，乞求（某事物）( beseech的过去式和过去分词 )；(beseech的过去式与过去分词) | |
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81
procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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82
kinsman
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| n.男亲属 | |
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83
monarchs
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| 君主，帝王( monarch的名词复数 ) | |
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84
monarchy
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| n.君主，最高统治者；君主政体，君主国 | |
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85
lament
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| n.悲叹，悔恨，恸哭；v.哀悼，悔恨，悲叹 | |
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86
highland
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| n.(pl.)高地，山地 | |
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87
specimen
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| n.样本，标本 | |
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88
jotted
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| v.匆忙记下( jot的过去式和过去分词 )；草草记下，匆匆记下 | |
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89
phonetic
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| adj.语言的，语言上的，表示语音的 | |
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90
scotch
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| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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91
monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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92
croaking
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| v.呱呱地叫( croak的现在分词 )；用粗的声音说 | |
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93
migrations
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| n.迁移，移居( migration的名词复数 ) | |
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94
recording
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| n.录音，记录 | |
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95
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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96
prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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97
graphic
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| adj.生动的，形象的，绘画的，文字的，图表的 | |
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98
respite
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| n.休息，中止，暂缓 | |
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99
loath
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| adj.不愿意的；勉强的 | |
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100
deduction
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| n.减除，扣除，减除额；推论，推理，演绎 | |
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101
lamented
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| adj.被哀悼的，令人遗憾的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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102
levying
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| 征（兵）( levy的现在分词 )； 索取； 发动（战争）； 征税 | |
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103
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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104
positively
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| adv.明确地，断然，坚决地；实在，确实 | |
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105
clan
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| n.氏族，部落，宗族，家族，宗派 | |
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106
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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107
commemorate
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| vt.纪念，庆祝 | |
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108
allusions
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| 暗指，间接提到( allusion的名词复数 ) | |
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109
quotations
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| n.引用( quotation的名词复数 )；[商业]行情（报告）；（货物或股票的）市价；时价 | |
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110
enumerate
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| v.列举，计算，枚举，数 | |
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111
enumerated
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| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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112
aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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113
mythical
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| adj.神话的；虚构的；想像的 | |
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114
reigns
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| n.君主的统治( reign的名词复数 )；君主统治时期；任期；当政期 | |
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115
testament
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| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
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116
herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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117
hog
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| n.猪；馋嘴贪吃的人；vt.把…占为己有，独占 | |
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118
butts
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| 笑柄( butt的名词复数 )； （武器或工具的）粗大的一端； 屁股； 烟蒂 | |
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119
eldest
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| adj.最年长的，最年老的 | |
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120
valiant
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| adj.勇敢的，英勇的；n.勇士，勇敢的人 | |
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121
valiantly
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| adv.勇敢地，英勇地；雄赳赳 | |
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122
complimentary
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| adj.赠送的，免费的，赞美的，恭维的 | |
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123
stanzas
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| 节，段( stanza的名词复数 ) | |
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124
stark
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| adj.荒凉的；严酷的；完全的；adv.完全地 | |
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125
bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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126
aged
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| adj.年老的，陈年的 | |
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127
enacted
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| 制定（法律），通过（法案）( enact的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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128
desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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129
sate
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| v.使充分满足 | |
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130
majestic
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| adj.雄伟的，壮丽的，庄严的，威严的，崇高的 | |
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131
tributary
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| n.支流；纳贡国；adj.附庸的；辅助的；支流的 | |
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132
plundered
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| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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133
whit
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| n.一点，丝毫 | |
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134
itinerant
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| adj.巡回的；流动的 | |
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135
Forsaken
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| adj. 被遗忘的, 被抛弃的 动词forsake的过去分词 | |
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136
raven
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| n.渡鸟，乌鸦；adj.乌亮的 | |
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137
narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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138
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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139
testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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140
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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141
attainment
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| n.达到，到达；［常pl.］成就，造诣 | |
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142
attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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143
distress
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| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
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144
graphically
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| adv.通过图表；生动地，轮廓分明地 | |
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145
steward
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| n.乘务员，服务员；看管人；膳食管理员 | |
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146
lessened
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| 减少的，减弱的 | |
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147
procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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148
brazen
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| adj.厚脸皮的，无耻的，坚硬的 | |
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149
garrulous
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| adj.唠叨的，多话的 | |
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150
narrate
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| v.讲，叙述 | |
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151
ignoble
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| adj.不光彩的，卑鄙的；可耻的 | |
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152
clans
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| 宗族( clan的名词复数 )； 氏族； 庞大的家族； 宗派 | |
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153
hordes
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| n.移动着的一大群( horde的名词复数 )；部落 | |
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154
inflicted
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| 把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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155
excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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156
venom
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| n.毒液，恶毒，痛恨 | |
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157
cataracts
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| n.大瀑布( cataract的名词复数 )；白内障 | |
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158
psalms
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| n.赞美诗( psalm的名词复数 )；圣诗；圣歌；(中的) | |
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159
trophies
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| n.（为竞赛获胜者颁发的）奖品( trophy的名词复数 )；奖杯；（尤指狩猎或战争中获得的）纪念品；（用于比赛或赛跑名称）奖 | |
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160
crimson
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| n./adj.深(绯)红色(的)；vi.脸变绯红色 | |
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161
armour
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| （=armor）n.盔甲；装甲部队 | |
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162
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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163
generosity
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| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
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164
woe
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| n.悲哀，苦痛，不幸，困难；int.用来表达悲伤或惊慌 | |
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165
blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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166
bequests
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| n.遗赠( bequest的名词复数 )；遗产，遗赠物 | |
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167
warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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168
utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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169
prosper
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| v.成功，兴隆，昌盛；使成功，使昌隆，繁荣 | |
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170
bondage
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| n.奴役，束缚 | |
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171
iniquity
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| n.邪恶；不公正 | |
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172
banished
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| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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173
saga
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| n.(尤指中世纪北欧海盗的)故事，英雄传奇 | |
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174
garb
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| n.服装，装束 | |
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175
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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176
onset
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| n.进攻，袭击，开始，突然开始 | |
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177
precipitate
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| adj.突如其来的；vt.使突然发生；n.沉淀物 | |
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178
frightful
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| adj.可怕的；讨厌的 | |
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179
voracious
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| adj.狼吞虎咽的，贪婪的 | |
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180
combative
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| adj.好战的；好斗的 | |
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181
contentious
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| adj.好辩的，善争吵的 | |
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182
demons
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| n.恶人( demon的名词复数 )；恶魔；精力过人的人；邪念 | |
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183
firmament
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| n.苍穹；最高层 | |
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184
phantom
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| n.幻影，虚位，幽灵；adj.错觉的，幻影的，幽灵的 | |
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185
impaired
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| adj.受损的；出毛病的；有（身体或智力）缺陷的v.损害，削弱( impair的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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186
foretelling
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| v.预言，预示( foretell的现在分词 ) | |
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187
attachment
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| n.附属物，附件；依恋；依附 | |
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188
mansions
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| n.宅第，公馆，大厦( mansion的名词复数 ) | |
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189
weir
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| n.堰堤，拦河坝 | |
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190
weird
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| adj.古怪的，离奇的；怪诞的，神秘而可怕的 | |
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191
treacherously
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| 背信弃义地； 背叛地； 靠不住地； 危险地 | |
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192
inciting
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| 刺激的，煽动的 | |
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193
anonymous
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| adj.无名的；匿名的；无特色的 | |
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194
peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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195
veracity
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| n.诚实 | |
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196
verbiage
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| n.冗词；冗长 | |
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197
civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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198
chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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199
illegible
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| adj.难以辨认的，字迹模糊的 | |
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200
literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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201
hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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202
gusts
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| 一阵强风( gust的名词复数 )； （怒、笑等的）爆发； （感情的）迸发； 发作 | |
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203
forsook
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| forsake的过去式 | |
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204
poetical
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| adj.似诗人的；诗一般的；韵文的；富有诗意的 | |
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205
lyric
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| n.抒情诗，歌词；adj.抒情的 | |
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206
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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207
transcript
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| n.抄本，誊本，副本，肄业证书 | |
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208
indefatigable
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| adj.不知疲倦的，不屈不挠的 | |
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209
gliding
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| v. 滑翔 adj. 滑动的 | |
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210
promising
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| adj.有希望的，有前途的 | |
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