In looking back over the last four years, the sharpest outlines in the retrospect1 are the ups and downs of hopes and fears. Indeed, so acutely must everyone bear these alternations in mind, that to remark on them is almost to incur2 the guilt3 of commonplace. For they illustrate4 the tritest of all the axioms of war. It is human to err—and every error has to be paid for. If the greatest general is he who makes the fewest mistakes, then the making of some mistakes must be common to all generals. The rises and reversals of fortune on all the fronts are of necessity the indices of right or wrong strategy. These transformations5 have been far more numerous on land than at sea, and locally have in many instances been seemingly final. Thus to take a few of many examples, Serbia, Montenegro, and Russia are almost completely eliminated as factors; our effort in the Dardanelles had to be acknowledged as a complete failure. But at no stage was any victory or defeat of so overwhelming and wholesale6 a nature as to promise an immediate7 decision. The retreat from Mons, Gallipoli, Neuve Chapelle, Hulloch, Kut—the British Army could stand all of these, and much more. France never seemed to be beaten, whatever the strain. Even after the defection of Russia, a German victory seemed impossible on land. Never once did either side see defeat, immediate and final, threatened. A right12 calculation of all the forces engaged may have shown a discerning few where the final preponderance lay. The point is that, despite extraordinary and numerous vicissitudes8, there never was a moment when the land war seemed settled once and for all.
This has not been the case at sea. The transformations here have been fewer; but they have been extreme. For two and a half years the sea-power of the Allies appeared both so overwhelmingly established and so abjectly9 accepted by the enemy, that it seemed incredible that this condition could ever alter materially. Yet between the months of February and May, 1917, the change was so abrupt10 and so terrific that for a period it seemed as if the enemy had established a form of superiority which must, at a date that was not doubtful, be absolutely fatal to the alliance. And again, in six months’ time, the situation was transformed, so that sea-power, on which the only hope of Allied11 victory has ever rested was once more assured.
Thus, after the most anxious year in our history, we came back to where we started. This nation, France, Italy, and America no less, we have all returned to that absolute and unwavering confidence in the navy as the chief anchor of all Allied hopes. Not that the navy had ever failed to justify13 that confidence in the past. There was no task to which any ship was ever set that had not been tackled in that heroic spirit of self-sacrifice which we have been taught to expect from our officers and men; there had never been a recorded case of a single ship declining action with the enemy. There were scores of cases in which a smaller and weaker British force had attacked a larger and stronger German. Ships had been mined, torpedoed15, sunk in battle, and the men on board had gone13 to their death smiling, calm, and unperturbed. If heroism16, goodwill17, a blind passion for duty could have won the war, if devotion and zeal18 in training, patient submission19 to discipline, a fiery20 spirit of enterprise could have won—then we never should have had a single disappointment at sea. The traditions of the past, the noble character of the seamen21 of to-day—we hoped for a great deal, nor ever was our hope disappointed. And when the time of danger came, when our tonnage was slipping away at more than six million tons a year, so that it was literally23 possible to calculate how long the country could endure before surrender, it never occurred to the most panic-stricken to blame the navy for our danger. The nation saw quite clearly where the fault lay, and the Government, sensitive to the popular feeling, at last took the right course.
But it was a course that should have been taken long before. For, though the purposes for which sea-power exists seemed perfectly24 secure and never in danger at all till little more than a year ago, yet there had been a series of unaccountable miscarriages25 of sea-power. Battles were fought in which the finest ships in the world, armed with the best and heaviest guns, commanded by officers of unrivalled skill and resolution, and manned by officers and crews perfectly trained, and acting26 in battle with just the same swift, calm exactitude that they had shown in drill—and yet the enemy was not sunk and victory was not won. Though, seemingly, we possessed27 overwhelming numbers, the enemy seemed to be able to flout28 us, first in one place and then in another, and we seemed powerless to strike back. Almost since the war began we kept running into disappointments which our belief in and knowledge of the navy convinced us were gratuitous29 disappointments.14 A rapid survey of the chief events since August, 1914, will illustrate what I mean.
THE FIRST CRISIS
The opening of the war at sea was in every respect auspicious30 for the Allies. By what looked like a happy accident, the British Navy had just been mobilized on an unprecedented31 scale. It was actually in process of returning to its normal establishment when the international crisis became acute, and, by a dramatic stroke, it was kept at war strength and the main fleet sent to its war stations before the British ultimatum32 was despatched to Berlin. The effect was instantaneous. Within a week transports were carrying British troops into France and trade was continuing its normal course, exactly as if there were no German Navy in existence. The German sea service actually went out of existence. Before a month was over a small squadron of battle-cruisers raided the Bight between Heligoland and the German harbours, sank there small cruisers and half-a-dozen destroyers, challenged the High Seas Fleet to battle, and came away without the enemy having attempted to use his capital ships to defend his small craft or to pick up the glove so audaciously thrown down. The mere33 mobilization of the British Fleet seemed to have paralyzed the enemy, and it looked as if our ability to control sea communications was not only surprisingly complete, but promised to be enduring. The nation’s confidence in the Navy had been absolute from the beginning, and it seemed as if that confidence could not be shaken.
Before another two months had passed we had run into one of those crises which were to recur34 not once, but again and again. During September an accumulation of errors15 came to light. The enormity of the political and naval35 blunder which had allowed Goeben and Breslau to slip through our fingers in the Mediterranean36, and so bring Turkey into the war against us, at last become patent. There was no blockade. There were the raids which Emden and Karlsruhe were making on our trade in the Indian Ocean and between the Atlantic and the Caribbean. The enemy’s submarines had sunk some of our cruisers—three in succession on a single day and in the same area. Then rumours37 gained ground that the Grand Fleet, driven from its anchorages by submarines, was fugitive38, hiding now in one remote loch, now in another, and losing one of its greatest units in its flight. For a moment it looked as if the old warnings, that surface craft were impotent against under-water craft, had suddenly been proved true. Von Spee, with a powerful pair of armoured cruisers, was known to be at large. As a final insult, German battle-cruisers crossed the North Sea, and battered39 and ravaged40 the defenceless inhabitants of a small seaport41 town on the east coast. Something was evidently wrong. But nobody seemed to know quite what it was.
The crisis was met by a typical expedient42. We are a nation of hero-worshippers and proverbially loyal to our favourites long after they have lost any title to our favour. In the concert-room, in the cricket-field, on the stage, in Parliament—in every phase of life—it is the old and tried friend in whom we confide12, even if we have conveniently to overlook the fact that he has not only been tried, but convicted. This blind loyalty44 is, perhaps, amiable45 as a weakness, and almost peculiar46 to this nation. But we have another which is neither amiable nor peculiar. We hate having our complacency disturbed by being proved to be wrong and, rather than acknowledge our fault, are16 easily persuaded that the cause of our misfortune is some hidden and malign47 influence. And so in October, 1914, the explanation of things being wrong at sea was suddenly found to be quite simple. It was that the First Sea Lord of the Admiralty was of German birth. With the evil eye gone the spell would be removed. And so a most accomplished48 officer retired49, and Lord Fisher, now almost a mythological50 hero, took his place.
Within very few weeks the scene suffered
... a sea change. Into something rich and strange.
Von Spee was left but a month in which to enjoy his triumph over Cradock; Emden was defeated and captured by Sydney; Karlsruhe vanished as by enchantment52 from the sea; and Von Hipper43’s battle-cruisers, going once too often near the British coast, had been driven in ignominious53 flight across the North Sea and paid for their temerity54 by the loss of Blücher. Three months of the Fisher-Churchill régime had seemingly put the Navy on a pinnacle55 that even the most sanguine—and the most ignorant—had hardly dared to hope for in the early days. The spectacle, in August, of the transports plying56 between France and England, as securely as the motor-buses between Fleet Street and the Fulham Road, had been a tremendous proof of confidence in sea-power. The unaccepted challenge at Heligoland had told a tale. The British fleet had indeed seemed unchallengeable. But the justification57 of our confidence was, after all, based only on the fact that the enemy had not disputed it. It was a negative triumph. But the capture of Emden, the obliteration58 of Von Spee, the uncamouflaged flight of Von17 Hipper, here were things positive, proofs of power in action, the meaning of which was patent to the simplest. No man in his senses could pretend that our troubles in October had not been attributed to their right origin, nor that the right remedy for them had been found and applied59.
There was but one cloud on the horizon. The submarine—despite the loss of Hogue, Cressy, Aboukir, Hawk60, Hermes, and Niger, and the disturbing rumours that the fleet’s bases were insecure—had been a failure as an agent for the attrition of our main sea forces. The loss of Formidable, that clouded the opening of the year, had not restored its prestige. But Von Tirpitz had made an ominous61 threat. The submarine might have failed against naval ships. It certainly would not fail, he said, against trading ships. He gave the world fair warning that at the right moment an under-water blockade of the British Isles62 would be proclaimed; then woe63 to all belligerents64 or neutrals that ventured into those death-doomed waters. The naval writers were not very greatly alarmed. For four months, after all, trading ships—turned into transports—had used the narrow waters of the Channel as if the submarines were no threat at all. Yet, on pre-war reasoning, it was precisely65 in narrow waters crowded with traffic that under-water war should have been of greatest effect. These transports and these narrow waters were the ideal victims and the ideal field, and coast and harbour defence and the prevention of invasion, by common consent, the obvious and indeed the supreme66 functions the submarine would be called upon to discharge. From a military point of view the landing of British troops in France was but the first stage towards an invasion of Germany and, from a naval point of view, it looked as if to defend the French18 ports from being entered by British ships was just as clearly the first objective of the German submarine as the defence of any German port. Now six months of war had shown that, if they had tried to stop the transports, the submarines had been thwarted68. Means and methods had evidently been found of preventing their attack or parrying it when made. Was it not obvious that it could be no more than a question of extending these methods to merchant shipping69 at large to turn the greater threat to futility70? It was this reasoning that, in January and February, made it easy for the writers to stem any tendency of the public to panic, and when, towards the end of February, the First Lord addressed Parliament on the subject, and dealt with the conscienceless threat of piracy71 with a placid72 and defiant73 confidence, all were justified74 in thinking that the naval critics had been right.
And so the beginning of the submarine campaign, though somewhat disconcerting, caused no wide alarm. An initial success was expected. It would take time to build the destroyers and the convoying craft on the scale that was called for, and so to organize the trade that the attack must be narrowed to protected focal points. And as absolute secrecy76 was maintained, both as to our actual defensive77 methods and as to our preparations for the future, there was neither the occasion nor the material for questioning whether the serene78 contentment of Whitehall was rightly founded.
Meantime, as we have seen, success had justified the solution of the October crisis. The attempt to probe deeper and to get at the cause of things was a thankless task. Those who could see beneath the surface could not fail to note in December and January that, while an exuberant79 optimism had become the mark of the British19 attitude towards the war at sea, a movement curiously80 parallel to it was going forward in Germany. The shifts to which the Grand Fleet had been put by the defenceless state of its harbours, though rigidly81 excluded from the British Press, has been triumphantly82 exploited in the German. Hence, when the enemy’s only oversea squadron was annihilated83 by Sir Doveton Sturdee, his Press responded with an outcry on the cowardice84 of the British Fleet that, while glad to overwhelm an inferior force abroad, dared not show itself in the North Sea. And, as if to prove the charge, Whitby and the Hartlepools were forthwith bombarded by a force we were unable to bring to action while returning from this exploit. The enemy naval writers surpassed themselves after this. And it looked so certain that the German Higher Command might itself become hypnotized by such talk that, before the New Year, it seemed prudent85 to note these phenomena86 and warn the public that we might be challenged to action after all, of the kind of action the enemy would dare us to, and what the problems were that such an action would present. And in particular it seemed advisable to state explicitly87 that much less must be expected from naval guns in battle than those had hoped, whose notions were founded upon battle practice. A battle-cruiser man?uvring at twenty-eight knots—instead of a canvas screen towed at six—mines scattered88 by a squadron in retreat, a line of retreat that would draw the pursuers into minefields set to trap them; the attacks on the pursuing squadrons by flotillas of destroyers, firing long-range torpedoes—these new elements would upset, it was said, all experiences of peace gunnery, because in peace practices it is impossible to provide a target of the speed which enemy ships would have in action, and because there had been no practice20 while executing the man?uvres which torpedo14 attack would make compulsory89 in battle.
Within a fortnight the action of the Dogger Bank was fought and Von Hipper’s battle-cruisers were subjected to the fire of Sir David Beatty’s Fleet from nine o’clock until twelve, without one being sunk or so damaged as to lose speed. The enemy’s tactics included attacks by submarine and destroyer which had imposed the man?uvres as anticipated—and the best of gunnery had failed. But Blücher had been sunk; the enemy had run away; so the warning fell on deaf ears; the lesson of the battle was misread. Optimism reigned90 supreme.
THE SECOND CRISIS
Within a month a naval adventure of a new kind was embarked91 upon, based on the theory that if only you had naval guns enough, any fort against which they were directed must be pulverized92 as were the forts of Liège, Namur, Maubeuge, and Antwerp. The simplest comprehension of the principles of naval gunnery would have shown the theory to be fallacious. It originated in the fertile brain of the lay Chief of the Admiralty, and though it would seem as if his naval advisers93 felt the theory to be wrong, none of them, in the absence of a competent and independent gunnery staff, could say why. And so the essentially95 military operation of forcing the passage of the Dardanelles was undertaken as if it were a purely96 naval operation, with the result that, just as naval success had never been conceivable, so now the failure of the ships made military success impossible also.
It was thus we came to our second naval crisis. The first we had solved by putting Lord Fisher into Prince Louis’s place. The lesson of the second seemed to be21 that there was only one mistake that could be made with the navy and that was for the Government to ask it to do anything. Mr. Churchill, as King Stork97, had taken the initiative. Lord Fisher, the naval superman, had not been able to save us. It was clear that lay interference with the navy was wrong—equally clear that it would be wiser to leave the initiative to the enemy. And so a new régime began.
But, in reality, the lessons of the first crisis and the second crisis were the same. To suppose that a civilian98 First Lord is bound to be mischievous99 if he is energetic, and certain to be harmless if, in administering the navy as an instrument of war, he is a cipher100, were errors just as great as to suppose that a seaman101 with a long, loyal, and brilliant record in the public service had put an evil enchantment over the whole British Navy because, fifty years before, he had been born a subject of a Power with which till now we had never been at war. Things went wrong in October, 1914, for precisely the same reasons that they went wrong in February, March, and April, 1915. The German battle-cruisers escaped at Heligoland for exactly the same reasons that the attempt to take the Dardanelles forts by naval artillery102 was futile103. We had prepared for war and gone into war with no clear doctrine104 as to what war meant, because we lacked the organism that could have produced the doctrine in peace time, prepared and trained the Navy to a common understanding of it, and supplied it with plans and equipped it with means for their execution. What was needed in October, 1914, was not a new First Sea Lord, but a Higher Command charged only with the study of the principles and the direction of fighting.
But in May, 1915, this truth was not recognized. And22 in the next year which passed, all efforts to make this truth understood were without effect. And so the submarine campaign went on till it spent itself in October and revived again in the following March, when it was stopped by the threat of American intervention105. The enemy, thwarted in the only form of sea activity that promised him great results, found himself suddenly threatened on land and humiliated106 at sea, and to restore his waning107 prestige, ventured out with his forces, was brought to battle—and escaped practically unhurt.
The controversies108 to which the battle of Jutland gave rise will be in everyone’s recollection. Another of the many indecisive battles with which history is full had been fought, and the critics established themselves in two camps. One side was for facing risks and sinking the enemy at any cost. The other would have it that so long as the British Fleet was unconquered it was invincible109, and that the distinction between “invincible” and “victorious” could be neglected. After all, as Mr. Churchill told us, while our fleet was crushing the life breath out of Germany, the German Navy could carry on no corresponding attack on us; and when the other camp denounced this doctrine of tame defence, he retorted that victory was not unnecessary but that the torpedo had made it impossible.
THE THIRD CRISIS
Yet, within two months of the battle of Jutland, the submarine campaign had begun again, and, at the time of Mr. Churchill’s rejoinder, the world was losing shipping at the rate of three million tons a year! As there never had been the least dispute that to mine the submarine into German harbours was the best, if not the only, antidote110, never the least doubt that it was only the German Fleet23 that prevented this operation from being carried out it seemed strange that an ex-First Lord of the Admiralty should be telling the world first, that the German Fleet in its home bases delivered no attack on us and therefore need not be defeated! And, secondly111, as if to clinch112 the matter and silence any doubts as to the cogency113 of his argument, we were to make the best of it because victory was impossible.
This utter confusion of mind was typical of the public attitude. If a man who had been First Lord at the most critical period of our history had understood events so little, could the man in the street know any better?
Once more the root principles of war were urged on public notice. But it was already too late. Jutland, whether a victory, or something far less than a victory, had at any rate left the public in the comfortable assurance that the ability of the British Fleet was virtually unimpaired to preserve the flow of provisions, raw material, and manufactures into Allied harbours and to maintain our military communications. But soon after the third year of the war began, a change came over the scene. The highest level that the submarine campaign had reached in the past was regained114, and then surpassed month by month. Gradually it came to be seen that the thing might become critical—and this though the campaign was not ruthless. Yet it was carried out on a larger scale and with bolder methods which the possession of a larger fleet of submarines made possible. The element of surprise in the thing was not that the Germans had renewed the attempt—for it was clear from the terms of surrender to America that they would renew it at their own time. The surprise was in its success. The public, still trusting to the attitude of mind induced by the critics and by the authorities in 1915,24 had taken it for granted that the two previous campaigns had stopped in December, 1915, and in March, 1916, because of the efficiency of our counter-measures. The revelation of the autumn of 1916 was that these counter-measures had failed.
It was this that brought about the third naval crisis of the war. Once more the old wrong remedy was tried. The Government and the public had learned nothing from the revelation that we had gone to war on the doctrine that the Fleet need not, and ought not, to fight the enemy, and were apparently115 unconcerned at discovering that it could not fight with success. And so, still not realizing the root cause of all our trouble, once more a remedy was sought by changing the chief naval adviser94 to the Government.
But on this occasion it was not only the chief that was replaced, as had happened when Lord Fisher succeeded Prince Louis of Battenberg, and when Sir Henry Jackson succeeded Lord Fisher. When Admiral Jellicoe came to Whitehall several colleagues accompanied him from the Grand Fleet. There was nothing approaching to a complete change of personnel, but the infusion116 of new blood was considerable. But this notwithstanding, the menace from the submarine grew, when ruthlessness was adopted as a method, until the rate of loss by April had doubled, trebled, and quadrupled that of the previous year. All the world then saw that, with shipping vanishing at the rate of more than a million tons a month, the period during which the Allies could maintain the fight against the Central Powers must be strictly117 limited.
Thus, without having lost a battle at sea—but because we had failed to win one—a complete reverse in the naval situation was brought about. Instead of enjoying the25 complete command Mr. Churchill had spoken of, we were counting the months before surrender might be inevitable118. During the ten weeks leading up to the culminating losses of April, a final effort was made to make the public and the Government realize that failure of the Admiralty to protect the sea-borne commerce of a seagirt people was due less to the Government’s reliance on advisers ill-equipped for their task, than that the task itself was beyond human performance, so long as the Higher Command of the Navy was wrongly constituted for its task. It was, of course, an old warning vainly urged on successive Governments year after year in peace time, and month after month during the war. Evidences of inadequate119 preparation of imperfect plans, of a wrong theory of command, of action founded on wrong doctrine but endorsed120 by authority, had all been numerous during the previous two and a half years.
THE FOURTH CRISIS
But where reason and argument had been powerless to prevail, the logic51 of facts gained the victory. At last, in the fourth naval crisis of the war, it was realized that changes in personnel at Whitehall were not sufficient, that changes of system were necessary. Before the end of May the machinery121 of administration was reorganized and a new Higher Command developed, largely on the long resisted staff principle.
Thus, after repeated failures—not of the Fleet but of its directing minds in London—a complete revolution was effected in the command of the most important of all the fighting forces in the war, viz., the British Navy. It was actually brought about because criticism had shown that the old régime had first failed to anticipate and then to thwart67 a new kind of attack on sea communications—26just as it had failed to anticipate the conditions of surface war. It was at last realized that two kinds of naval war could go on together, one almost independent of the other. A Power might command the surface of the sea against the surface force of an enemy, and do so more absolutely than had ever happened before, and yet see that command brought, for its main purposes, almost to nothing by a new naval force, from which, though naval ships could defend themselves, they seemingly could not defend the carrying and travelling ships, upon which the life of the nation and the continuance of its military effort on land depended. The revolution of May saved the situation. At last the principle of convoy75, vainly urged on the old régime, was adopted, and within six months the rate at which ships were being lost was practically halved122. In twelve months it had been reduced by sixty per cent.
But the departure made in the summer of 1917, though radical123 as to principle, was less than half-hearted as to persons. Many of the men identified with all our previous failures and responsible for the methods and plans that have led to them, were retained in full authority. The mere adoption124 of the staff principle did indeed bring about an effect so singular and striking as completely to transform all Allied prospects125. In April, defeat seemed to be a matter of a few months only. By October it had become clear that the submarine could not by itself assure a German victory. If such extraordinary consequences could follow—exactly as it was predicted they must—from a change in system which all experience of war had proved to be essential, why, it may be asked, was the adoption of the staff principle so bitterly opposed? Partly, no doubt, because of the natural conservatism of men who have grown old and attained126 to high rank in a service to which they have27 given their lives in all devotion and sincerity127. The singularity of the sailor’s training and experience tends to make the naval profession both isolated128 and exclusive. And that its daily life is based upon the strictest discipline, that gives absolute power to the captain of a ship because it is necessary to hold him absolutely responsible, inevitably129 grafts130 upon this exclusiveness a respect for seniority which gives to its action in every field the indisputable finality bred of the quarter-deck habit. Thus, there was no place in Admiralty organization for the independent and expert work of junior men, because no authority could attach to their counsel. It is of the essence of the staff principle that special knowledge, sound, impartial131, trained judgment132, grasp of principle and proved powers of constructive133 imagination, are higher titles to dictatorship in policy than the character and experience called for in the discharge of executive command. But to a service not bred to seeing all questions of policy first investigated, analyzed134, and, finally, defined by a staff which necessarily will consist more of younger than of older men, the suggestion that the higher ranks should accept the guiding co?peration of their juniors seemed altogether anarchical. The long resistance to the establishment of a Higher Command based on rational principles may be set down to these two elements of human psychology135.
That successive Governments failed to break down this conservatism must, I think, be explained by their fear of the hold which men of great professional reputation had upon the public mind and public affections. It was notable, for example, that when our original troubles came to us at the first crisis, the Government, instead of seeking the help of the youngest and most accomplished of our admirals and captains, chose as chief advisers the oldest28 and least in touch with our modern conditions. It was, perhaps, the same fear of public opinion that delayed the completion of the 1917 reforms until the beginning of the next year. But, with all its defects and its limitations, the solution sought of the fourth sea crisis had made the history of the past twelve months the most hopeful of any since the war began.
THE NEW ERA
The period divides itself into two unequal portions. Between June and January, 1918, was seen the slowly growing mastery of the submarine. The rate of loss was halved and the methods by which this result was achieved were applied as widely as possible. But in the next six or eight months no improvement in the position corresponding to that which followed in the first period was obtained. The explanation is simple enough. The old autocratic régime had not understood the nature of the new war any better than the nature of the old. It had from the first, under successive chief naval advisers, repudiated136 convoy as though it were a pestilent heresy137. In June, 1917, the very men who, as absolutist advisers, had taken this attitude, were compelled to sanction the hated thing itself. It yielded exactly the results claimed for it, but no more. It was in its nature so simple and so obvious that it did not take long to get it into working order. It was the best form of defence. But defence is the weakest form of war. The stronger form, the offensive, needed planning and long preparations. In the nature of things these could not take effect either in six months or in twelve. Nor is it likely that, while the old personnel was suffered to remain at Whitehall, those engaged on the plans and charged with the preparations for this were able to work with the expedition29 which the situation called for. For the first six months after the revolution, then, little occurred to prove its efficiency, except the fruits of the policy which instructed opinion had forced on Whitehall. But these, so far as the final issue of the war was concerned, were surely sufficient. For the losses by submarines were brought below the danger point.
It was not until the revolution made its next step forward by the changes in personnel announced in January that marked progress was shown in the other fields of naval war. The late autumn had been marked, as it was fully138 expected, once the submarine was thwarted, by various efforts on the part of the enemy to assert himself by other means at sea. A Lerwick convoy, very inadequately139 protected, was raided by fast and powerful enemy cruisers, and many ships sunk in circumstances of extraordinary barbarity. The destroyers protecting them sacrificed themselves with fruitless gallantry. There were ravages141 on the coast as well. Both things pointed22 to salient weaknesses in the naval position. At the time of the third naval crisis at the end of 1916, it had been pointed out that the repeated evidences of our inability to hold the enemy in the Narrow Seas ought not to be allowed to pass uncensured or unremedied. But the fatal habit of refusing to recognize that an old favourite had failed prevented any reform for a year. It was not until Sir Roger Keyes was appointed to the Dover Command and a new atmosphere was created that remarkable142 departures in new policy were inaugurated. This policy took two forms. First, there was the establishment of a mine barrage143 from coast to coast across the Channel, and simultaneously144 with this, North Sea minefields stretching, one from Norwegian territorial145 waters almost to the Scottish foreshore,30 and another in the Kattegat, to intercept146 such German U-boats as base their activities upon the enemy’s Baltic force. Two great minefields on such a scale as this are works of time. Nor can their effect upon the submarine campaign be expected to be seen until they are very near completion; but then the effect may possibly be immediate and overwhelming.
Principally to facilitate the creation and maintenance of the barrages147, a second new departure in policy was the organization of attacks on the German bases in Flanders. Of these Zeebrügge was infinitely148 the more important, because it is from here that the deep water canal runs to the docks and wharves149 of Bruges some miles inland. The value of Zeebrügge, robbed of the facilities for equipment and reparation which the Bruges docks afford, is little indeed. It is little more than an anchorage and a refuge. To close Zeebrügge to the enemy called for an operation as daring and as intricate as was ever attempted. Success depended upon so many factors, of which the right weather was the least certain, that it was no wonder that the expedition started again and again without attempting the blow it set out to strike. Its final complete success at Zeebrügge was a veritable triumph of perfect planning and organization and command. It came at a critical moment in the campaign. A month before the enemy, by his great attack at St. Quentin, had achieved by far the greatest land victory of the war. He had followed this up by further attacks, and seemed to add to endless resources in men a ruthless determination to employ them for victory. The British and French were driven to the defensive. Not to be beaten, not to yield too much ground, to exact the highest price for what was yielded, this was not a very glorious r?le when the triumphs on the Somme and in Flanders of31 1916 and 1917 were remembered. It cannot be questioned that the originality150, the audacity151, and the success of Vice-Admiral Keyes’ attacks on Zeebrügge and Ostend, gave to all the Allies just that encouragement which a dashing initiative alone can give. It broke the monotony of being always passive.
But the new minefields, the barrages, the sealing of Zeebrügge, these were far from being the only fruits of the changes at Whitehall. A sortie by Breslau and Goeben from the Dardanelles, which ended in the sinking of a couple of German monitors and the loss of a light German cruiser on a minefield, directed attention sharply to the situation in the Middle Sea. There was a manifest peril152 that the Russian Fleet might fall into German hands and make a junction153 with the Austrian Fleet at Pola. Further, the losses of the Allies by submarines in this sea had for long been unduly154 heavy. A visit of the First Lord to the Mediterranean did much to put these things right. First steps were taken in reorganizing the command and, before the changes had advanced very far, an astounding155 exploit by two officers of the Italian Navy resulted in the destruction of two Austrian Dreadnoughts, and relieved the Allies of any grave danger in this quarter.
Meantime, it had become known that a powerful American squadron had joined the Grand Fleet, that our gallant140 and accomplished Allies had adopted British signals and British ways, and had become in every respect perfectly amalgamated156 with the force they had so greatly strengthened. And though little was said about it in the Press, it was evident enough that the moral of the Lerwick convoy had been learned, nor was there the least doubt that the Grand Fleet, under the command of Sir David Beatty, had become an instrument of war infinitely more flexible and32 efficient than it had ever been. His plans and battle orders took every contingency157 into council so far as human foresight158 made possible. At Jutland, at the Dogger Bank, and in the Heligoland Bight, Admiral Beatty had shown his power to animate159 a fleet by his own fighting spirit and to combine a unity160 of action with the independent initiative of his admirals, simply because he had inspired all of them with a common doctrine of fighting. Under such auspices161 there could be little doubt that our main forces in northern waters were ready for battle with a completeness and an elasticity162 that left nothing to chance.
But if we are to look for the chief fruit of last year’s revolution, we shall not find it in the reorganized Grand Fleet, nor in the new initiative and aggression163 in the Narrow Seas, for the ultimate results of which we still have to wait. If the enemy despairs both of victory on land or of such success as will give him a compromise peace, if he is faced by disintegration164 at home and, driven to a desperate stroke, sends out his Fleet to fight, we shall then see, but perhaps not till then, what the changes of last year have brought about in our fighting forces. Meantime, the success of the great reforms can be measured quite definitely. In the months of May and June over half a million American soldiers were landed in France, sixty per cent. of whom were carried in British ships. No one in his senses in May or June last year would have thought this possible.
Looked at largely, then, last year’s revolution at Whitehall is in all ways the most astonishing and the most satisfactory naval event of the last four years. It is the most satisfactory event, because its results have been so nearly what was foretold165 and because it only needs for the work to be completed for all the lessons of the war to be rightly applied.
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1
retrospect
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| n.回顾，追溯；v.回顾，回想，追溯 | |
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incur
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| vt.招致，蒙受，遭遇 | |
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guilt
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| n.犯罪；内疚；过失，罪责 | |
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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transformations
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| n.变化( transformation的名词复数 )；转换；转换；变换 | |
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wholesale
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| n.批发；adv.以批发方式；vt.批发，成批出售 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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vicissitudes
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| n.变迁，世事变化；变迁兴衰( vicissitude的名词复数 )；盛衰兴废 | |
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abjectly
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| 凄惨地； 绝望地； 糟透地； 悲惨地 | |
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abrupt
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| adj.突然的，意外的；唐突的，鲁莽的 | |
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allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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confide
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| v.向某人吐露秘密 | |
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justify
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| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
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torpedo
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| n.水雷，地雷；v.用鱼雷破坏 | |
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torpedoed
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| 用鱼雷袭击（torpedo的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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heroism
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| n.大无畏精神，英勇 | |
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goodwill
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| n.善意，亲善，信誉，声誉 | |
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zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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submission
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| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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fiery
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| adj.燃烧着的，火红的；暴躁的；激烈的 | |
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seamen
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| n.海员 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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25
miscarriages
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| 流产( miscarriage的名词复数 ) | |
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26
acting
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| n.演戏，行为，假装；adj.代理的，临时的，演出用的 | |
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27
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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28
flout
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| v./n.嘲弄，愚弄，轻视 | |
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29
gratuitous
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| adj.无偿的，免费的；无缘无故的，不必要的 | |
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30
auspicious
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| adj.吉利的；幸运的，吉兆的 | |
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unprecedented
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| adj.无前例的，新奇的 | |
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ultimatum
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| n.最后通牒 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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recur
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| vi.复发，重现，再发生 | |
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naval
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| adj.海军的，军舰的，船的 | |
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Mediterranean
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| adj.地中海的；地中海沿岸的 | |
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rumours
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| n.传闻( rumour的名词复数 )；风闻；谣言；谣传 | |
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fugitive
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| adj.逃亡的，易逝的；n.逃犯，逃亡者 | |
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battered
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| adj.磨损的；v.连续猛击；磨损 | |
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ravaged
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| 毁坏( ravage的过去式和过去分词 )； 蹂躏； 劫掠； 抢劫 | |
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41
seaport
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| n.海港，港口，港市 | |
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42
expedient
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| adj.有用的，有利的；n.紧急的办法，权宜之计 | |
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hipper
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| hip（（衣服、音乐等方面）时髦的，赶时髦的）的比较级形式 | |
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44
loyalty
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| n.忠诚，忠心 | |
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45
amiable
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| adj.和蔼可亲的，友善的，亲切的 | |
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46
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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47
malign
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| adj.有害的；恶性的；恶意的；v.诽谤，诬蔑 | |
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48
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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49
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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50
mythological
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| adj.神话的 | |
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51
logic
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| n.逻辑(学)；逻辑性 | |
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52
enchantment
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| n.迷惑，妖术，魅力 | |
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53
ignominious
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| adj.可鄙的，不光彩的，耻辱的 | |
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54
temerity
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| n.鲁莽，冒失 | |
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55
pinnacle
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| n.尖塔，尖顶，山峰；(喻)顶峰 | |
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56
plying
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| v.使用（工具）( ply的现在分词 )；经常供应（食物、饮料）；固定往来；经营生意 | |
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57
justification
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| n.正当的理由；辩解的理由 | |
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obliteration
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| n.涂去，删除；管腔闭合 | |
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59
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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60
hawk
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| n.鹰，骗子；鹰派成员 | |
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61
ominous
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| adj.不祥的，不吉的，预兆的，预示的 | |
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62
isles
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| 岛( isle的名词复数 ) | |
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woe
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| n.悲哀，苦痛，不幸，困难；int.用来表达悲伤或惊慌 | |
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64
belligerents
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| n.交战的一方（指国家、集团或个人）( belligerent的名词复数 ) | |
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65
precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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67
thwart
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| v.阻挠，妨碍，反对；adj.横(断的) | |
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thwarted
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| 阻挠( thwart的过去式和过去分词 )； 使受挫折； 挫败； 横过 | |
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69
shipping
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| n.船运（发货，运输，乘船） | |
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70
futility
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| n.无用 | |
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71
piracy
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| n.海盗行为，剽窃，著作权侵害 | |
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72
placid
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| adj.安静的，平和的 | |
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defiant
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| adj.无礼的，挑战的 | |
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justified
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| a.正当的，有理的 | |
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75
convoy
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| vt.护送，护卫，护航；n.护送；护送队 | |
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76
secrecy
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| n.秘密，保密，隐蔽 | |
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77
defensive
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| adj.防御的；防卫的；防守的 | |
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serene
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| adj. 安详的，宁静的，平静的 | |
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exuberant
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| adj.充满活力的；（植物）繁茂的 | |
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80
curiously
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| adv.有求知欲地；好问地；奇特地 | |
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81
rigidly
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| adv.刻板地，僵化地 | |
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82
triumphantly
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| ad.得意洋洋地；得胜地；成功地 | |
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83
annihilated
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| v.（彻底）消灭( annihilate的过去式和过去分词 )；使无效；废止；彻底击溃 | |
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84
cowardice
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| n.胆小，怯懦 | |
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85
prudent
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| adj.谨慎的，有远见的，精打细算的 | |
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86
phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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explicitly
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| ad.明确地，显然地 | |
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scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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compulsory
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| n.强制的，必修的；规定的，义务的 | |
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reigned
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| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
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embarked
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| 乘船( embark的过去式和过去分词 )； 装载； 从事 | |
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pulverized
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| adj.[医]雾化的，粉末状的v.将…弄碎( pulverize的过去式和过去分词 )；将…弄成粉末或尘埃；摧毁；粉碎 | |
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93
advisers
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| 顾问，劝告者( adviser的名词复数 )； （指导大学新生学科问题等的）指导教授 | |
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94
adviser
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| n.劝告者，顾问 | |
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95
essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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stork
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| n.鹳 | |
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civilian
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| adj.平民的，民用的，民众的 | |
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mischievous
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| adj.调皮的，恶作剧的，有害的，伤人的 | |
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cipher
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| n.零；无影响力的人；密码 | |
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101
seaman
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| n.海员，水手，水兵 | |
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102
artillery
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| n.(军)火炮，大炮；炮兵(部队) | |
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103
futile
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| adj.无效的，无用的，无希望的 | |
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104
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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105
intervention
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| n.介入，干涉，干预 | |
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humiliated
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| 感到羞愧的 | |
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waning
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| adj.（月亮）渐亏的，逐渐减弱或变小的n.月亏v.衰落( wane的现在分词 )；（月）亏；变小；变暗淡 | |
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controversies
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| 争论 | |
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invincible
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| adj.不可征服的，难以制服的 | |
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antidote
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| n.解毒药，解毒剂 | |
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secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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112
clinch
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| v.敲弯，钉牢；确定；扭住对方 [参]clench | |
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113
cogency
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| n.说服力；adj.有说服力的 | |
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114
regained
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| 复得( regain的过去式和过去分词 )； 赢回； 重回； 复至某地 | |
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115
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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116
infusion
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| n.灌输 | |
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117
strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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120
endorsed
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| vt.& vi.endorse的过去式或过去分词形式v.赞同( endorse的过去式和过去分词 )；在（尤指支票的）背面签字；在（文件的）背面写评论；在广告上说本人使用并赞同某产品 | |
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121
machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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122
halved
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| v.把…分成两半( halve的过去式和过去分词 )；把…减半；对分；平摊 | |
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radical
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| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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adoption
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| n.采用，采纳，通过；收养 | |
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prospects
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| n.希望，前途(恒为复数) | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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grafts
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| 移植( graft的名词复数 )； 行贿； 接穗； 行贿得到的利益 | |
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impartial
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| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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constructive
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| adj.建设的，建设性的 | |
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134
analyzed
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| v.分析( analyze的过去式和过去分词 )；分解；解释；对…进行心理分析 | |
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135
psychology
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| n.心理，心理学，心理状态 | |
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136
repudiated
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| v.（正式地）否认( repudiate的过去式和过去分词 )；拒绝接受；拒绝与…往来；拒不履行（法律义务） | |
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heresy
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| n.异端邪说；异教 | |
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138
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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inadequately
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| ad.不够地；不够好地 | |
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gallant
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| adj.英勇的，豪侠的；(向女人)献殷勤的 | |
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ravages
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| 劫掠后的残迹，破坏的结果，毁坏后的残迹 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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barrage
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| n.火力网，弹幕 | |
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simultaneously
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| adv.同时发生地，同时进行地 | |
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territorial
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| adj.领土的，领地的 | |
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intercept
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| vt.拦截，截住，截击 | |
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barrages
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| n.弹幕射击( barrage的名词复数 )；火力网；猛烈炮火；河上的堰坝v.火力攻击（或阻击）( barrage的第三人称单数 )；以密集火力攻击（或阻击） | |
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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wharves
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| n.码头，停泊处( wharf的名词复数 ) | |
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originality
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| n.创造力，独创性；新颖 | |
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audacity
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| n.大胆，卤莽，无礼 | |
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peril
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| n.(严重的)危险；危险的事物 | |
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junction
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| n.连接，接合；交叉点，接合处，枢纽站 | |
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unduly
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| adv.过度地，不适当地 | |
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astounding
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| adj.使人震惊的vt.使震惊，使大吃一惊astound的现在分词) | |
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amalgamated
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| v.（使）（金属）汞齐化( amalgamate的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）合并；联合；结合 | |
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contingency
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| n.意外事件，可能性 | |
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foresight
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| n.先见之明，深谋远虑 | |
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animate
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| v.赋于生命，鼓励；adj.有生命的，有生气的 | |
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unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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auspices
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| n.资助，赞助 | |
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elasticity
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| n.弹性，伸缩力 | |
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aggression
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| n.进攻，侵略，侵犯，侵害 | |
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disintegration
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| n.分散，解体 | |
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foretold
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| v.预言，预示( foretell的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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