Climate.—To begin with, the climate encountered included every extreme of heat, cold, drought, and rain. For the first three weeks from the commencement of the 1917 campaign, the weather was extremely hot, the temperature running up to 110° in the shade. For two days, November the 10th and 11th, matters were rendered worse by a burning hot east wind, which raised clouds of suffocating4 dust. Then the rains broke, and, for the next six weeks, constant wet, deep mud and piercing cold winds were the order of the day. After a short period of good weather, the cavalry moved to the Jordan Valley, where they spent the summer of 1918, under conditions of heat and discomfort5 which have already been described. Finally, in the following winter, the horses found themselves sometimes standing6 in six inches of snow.[28]
Condition.—In the second place, the health of the[Pg 312] horses was in an unsatisfactory state when the cavalry operations commenced.
Whatever their outward appearance might have been, and it varied7 considerably8 in different units, their internal condition was by no means good. The great bulk of them had taken part in the advance across Sinai, and had been in Egypt for a long time prior to that. Two years of unaccustomed and indifferent forage9, added to the large quantities of sand they had consumed in their food while in the desert, had more or less permanently10 injured their digestive organs. It is true that sand colic, that scourge11 of the desert, had almost ceased to trouble the force by the end of the summer of 1917, but the dire13 effects of the sand were evident in every post-mortem. In a large number of cases the membrane14 of the stomach and intestines15 was freely marked with the scars of old ulcers16, and in some instances large portions of it had sloughed17 away. Sand muzzles18 were almost universally employed up to the commencement of the advance on Beersheba, but it was impossible to prevent sand getting into the forage; indeed quantities of it had been purposely placed there by the dishonest native merchants, in order to increase the weight of bales and sacks.
It is probable that 90 per cent. of the draught20 horses of the artillery21 and transport had strained their hearts to some extent during the terrible work in the heavy sands of the desert. The writer carried out, or was present at, upwards22 of twenty post-mortems on draught horses that died during the advance across Sinai, and, in every case, found an enlargement of the heart greater than could possibly be accounted for by the age of the horse. In one instance, the wall of the heart was ruptured23 right through. This horse had been led four miles back[Pg 313] to camp after first showing signs of extreme distress24. On arriving in camp he drank well, ate a bran mash25, and lived for six hours afterwards, a wonderful example of endurance.
The experience of the campaign proved that horses cannot be in too 'big' condition at the commencement of operations, provided they have been kept adequately exercised while being conditioned. The really fat, round horses finished both series of operations in better condition than those which had looked harder and more muscular, but not so fat, at the beginning. This was especially the case in the first series, during which the shortage of water was so acute.
Forage.—During both campaigns the forage was of very poor quality and woefully scanty26. Up to the commencement of the 1917 operations, the daily issue had consisted of 10 lb. of barley27, gram or maize28 and 10 lb. of tibben (chopped barley straw) and burs?m (a kind of hay made of a coarse species of lucerne, of good feeding value and much liked by the horses). The food value of the whole daily ration2 was about 23 per cent. below that of an average horse in England doing the same work. The barley and tibben, being produced in Egypt, were very dusty, and contained a large proportion of earth and small stones. The gram and maize were of fair quality, but the latter was sometimes issued whole, and, when issued crushed, was often very dusty. The daily ration during operations in both campaigns was 9? lb. of grain per day, and nothing else. So that the horses were called upon to do very much harder work on less than half the amount of food to which they had been accustomed, and only about 36 per cent. of the normal ration for such horses in England.
[Pg 314]
For the first month of the 1917 campaign this ration was exclusively gram. As the horses had previously29 only been accustomed to a small proportion of this grain in their daily feeds, it caused them to scour12 badly, thus increasing the weakness engendered30 by hard work and starvation. It is difficult to understand why gram was decided31 upon in preference to barley, of which there was plenty available, but, at all events, the lesson was taken to heart, and, for the remainder of the campaign, the marching ration was always barley.
From the 25th September 1918 till the cavalry left the country in November 1919, all forage was bought locally. It was generally of good quality, and there was a certain amount of grazing available.
Water.—The water difficulties during the 1917 operations have been referred to before. Prior to this campaign it was generally accepted that cavalry horses could continue to work for a maximum period of about sixty hours without water, after which it would be necessary to give them some days' rest; Arab ponies32 were thought to be able to last about ten hours longer. During the Darfur Campaign, Kelly Pasha[29] marched ninety miles in three nights and two days with a mounted infantry33 regiment34 equipped with the hardy35 little mules36 of Abyssinia. All these estimates were proved to have been erroneous. It has already been pointed38 out that one battery of the Corps39 marched and fought for nine consecutive40 days, during which period its horses were only watered three times,[30] and this was no isolated41 example. Even when water was obtainable, the difficulty of raising[Pg 315] it from very deep wells, and the pressing need for haste, often resulted in many horses being unable to drink their fill.
During the advance across the Sinai desert a number of experiments had been carried out, both by the Royal Army Veterinary Corps and by the commanders of different units, with a view to ascertaining42 whether horses would do better, under the existing conditions, with two drinks a day or three. The usual plan was to select a large number of horses of the same type and of about equal condition, and put half of these on two waterings and half on three. The result of these experiments was conclusively43 in favour of the two drinks a day. Not only did the horses on this régime improve in condition quicker than those which were watered three times, but it was proved by actual measurement that they drank more water in the day. By the time the force arrived at El Arish, watering twice a day was generally accepted as the standard.
Later on, during the period between the second battle of Gaza and the commencement of General Allenby's operations (May to October 1917 inclusive) many of the horses of the cavalry division in the line had so far to go for water that they could only be watered once a day. It is probable that this resulted in some loss of condition, though, as there were other contributory causes, such as the periodical long reconnaissances, the heat, dust and flies, it is not possible to apportion44 the blame exactly. During operations, so long as the horses got water once a day, they kept fairly fit, and, given anything in the nature of bulk food, such as might be got in many countries by grazing, there seemed no reason why they should not have been able to continue indefinitely on this régime. During the Beersheba-[Pg 316]Jerusalem operations, however, the average number of waterings per horse in the Corps was only one every thirty-six hours.
During the 1918 campaign there was no lack of water, except for the few days during which the 4th Cavalry Division was advancing on Damascus east of the Jordan. At all other times, water was always available for horses at least once a day.
When marching in waterless country, the writer used to have a large biscuit tin full of water (or, better still, a petrol tin, when it could be 'acquired') carried on the dash-board of every gun and wagon45. At each hourly halt the horses' mouths, nostrils46, and eyes used to be wiped with a wet—not merely damp—cloth, and this always seemed to refresh them greatly, and to relieve the symptoms of distress due to thirst. A little water was also mixed with the feeds, and, when the grain was crushed, or there was any bran available, it was found that horses which were off their feed owing to exhaustion48 would often eat well if fed by hand with small balls made of grain slightly moistened with water. This plan was suggested to the writer by the late Brigadier-General Paul Kenna, V.C., 21st Lancers, who had used it successfully in the Sudan Campaign.
Much has been said and written about the ability of horses to scent49 water afar off. The experience of this campaign seems to prove that this ability does not extend to water in deep wells, even when the supply is plentiful50. There were many instances of horses, which had been without water for a long period, passing quite close to wells, without evincing any signs of knowledge of the proximity51 of water. That they can, and do, scent water lying in large pools or rivers was made clear on several occasions, but this power was shared by many of the Australian[Pg 317] soldiers and by a few Englishmen. Brigadier-General Grant, Commanding the 4th A.L.H. Brigade, a noted52 'bushman,' had this useful sense highly developed. The 'sensation' of water, once experienced, is quite unmistakable, though it is difficult to describe. The sense of smell undoubtedly53 plays a part, but the sensation is more one of a sudden freshness and sweetness of the atmosphere than a scent. It is noticeable particularly just after sunset, when the presence of water lying in pools may often be detected several miles away. Unfortunately, damp ground, from which water has recently evaporated, produces the same sensation, and frequently deceived horses as well as men.
Remounts.—The last horses shipped to Egypt arrived in May or June 1917, and most of these were issued to units before the commencement of the Beersheba-Gaza operations. From that date till the end of the war, no more horses arrived in the country; 8000 remounts, which had been bought by the British Government in Australia, could never be moved, owing to the shortage of shipping54. When the stock of remounts in Palestine was exhausted55, casualties were replaced by horses that had already seen service, and had been sent, sick or wounded, to remount hospitals, and reissued as soon as they were reasonably fit for further work. At the commencement of the advance in September 1918 the remount depots56 were emptied, and there was scarcely a single fit horse left behind the fighting troops.
Such remounts as reached the country, nearly all from Australia or Canada, were of a good type, sound and reliable. The depots were admirably managed, and the whole remount service was a model of efficiency.
Some 1500 Arab ponies and a considerable number[Pg 318] of mules and camels were captured from the Turks in 1917. They were nearly all in wretched condition and covered with galls58, but, after being well fed and looked after for a few weeks, fetched the most astonishing prices. ￡50 was the average price paid at Jerusalem for a pony59, ￡40 for a small mule37, and ￡35 for a camel. We were able to make use of the camels, and a few of the stouter60 ponies were issued to the infantry as 'cobs,' but the great majority of ponies and mules were of no use to us. During the 1918 operations about 2000 enemy animals fell into our hands, and these realised even higher prices in northern Syria and the Lebanon.
Horsemastership.—In the early days in Egypt the standard of horsemastership was not high. Among the English troops there was a large proportion in the mounted branches, both of officers and men, who had had little previous experience of horses, and none at all under the severe conditions of active service. The Australian Light Horsemen, though fine riders and thoroughly61 experienced with horses, were unaccustomed to having to use the same horse day after day, and did not at first realise the necessity of saving their mounts in every possible way, e.g. by dismounting at every halt, however short, off-saddling whenever possible, etc. But they have the same, almost instinctive62, love of horses as the Irish, and they very soon realised the difference between active service conditions and those in their own country. The Territorials63, too, gained valuable experience during the advance across Sinai and in the Western Desert, and, by the time General Allenby arrived in Egypt, the standard of horsemastership in the force had reached a high level. As an indication of this fact, it may be mentioned that, at the end of each series of operations, there was hardly a[Pg 319] sore back in the force. A striking contrast to this record was afforded by the French cavalry regiment which took part in the 1918 operations. On arrival at Damascus, nearly every horse in the regiment had a sore back. The Frenchmen carried an astonishing quantity of kit64 on their saddles, and, though it was all put on in a very neat and soldierlike manner, the weight was undoubtedly far too great. Owing to the difficulty of removing the saddle without taking off all this kit, the horses were scarcely ever off-saddled. The men, too, were far too prone65 to remain mounted when halted.
Type.—Some remarks on type have already been made in Chapter VIII. The experience of the latter part of the campaign served but to confirm the conclusion as to the superiority of well-bred, fairly lightly-built horses over those of coarser fibre. Well-bred horses will go farther and faster, eat less, and recover condition more quickly than the coarse-bred ones. In this connection, when is the dismal66 practice of subdividing67 the horses of a battery into 'Riders' and 'Draught Horses' going to be abandoned? Every gunner wants to have practically nothing but light draught horses, so that every horse in the battery shall be capable of taking its turn in a gun team if necessary. The result of classifying nearly half the horses in a horse artillery battery as 'riders' too often results in all the weedy, fifteen hand ponies in the remount depots being issued to the gunners. Such horses are even more useless in a battery than they would be in a cavalry regiment. In the latter they might carry a trumpeter; in the former even the trumpeter's horse is expected to be able to take his turn in draught. On more than one occasion in 1917 even officers' chargers were used in the teams.
[Pg 320]
Diseases.—The horses of the Corps were remarkably68 free from disease. In the summer of 1918 there were a few sporadic69 cases of anthrax. The disease is found here and there among the native horses and cattle all over Palestine. The spores70 are deposited on the ground by the infected animals, with the result that there is always a danger of picking it up. Prompt destruction of all horses affected71 with the disease, and the removal to a fresh piece of ground of the unit in which the case occurred, leaving the old ground clearly labelled as 'unclean,' prevented any outbreak of the disease. Except for these few cases, there was an almost entire absence of disease throughout the campaign, which may be considered somewhat remarkable72, in view of the fact that glanders, anthrax, lymphangitis, and other diseases are rife73 among the beasts of the native population. Our immunity74 from these scourges75 may be attributed to the facts that our horses were seldom camped for long in the same place; that they were never camped near villages if it could be avoided; and that no native animals were ever allowed in or near our camps, or to drink where our horses drank.
The 5th Cavalry Division suffered somewhat from laminitis in September 1918, as a result of the rather unnecessarily fast pace the division had set on the morning of the 19th. Thirty or forty horses had to be destroyed on the following day. Neither of the other two divisions, however, had any trouble of this sort.
Equipment.—Leather muzzles proved a necessity in all units whose horses were picketed76 on ropes stretched between wagon wheels instead of on ground lines. Otherwise the hungry brutes77 ate the woodwork of the wheels voraciously78. It was only necessary to muzzle19 the two or three horses picketed[Pg 321] next to the wheels. The nostril47 holes of the service pattern muzzle are much too small, and should be enlarged downwards79 and outwards80 to an oval shape at least three inches long.
The steel wire picketing81 ropes issued to the artillery were very much superior in every way to the old pattern hemp82 ropes, whether 5 feet 9 inch or 66 feet. It is suggested that the 5 feet 9 inch ropes, with loop and toggle, and the heel peg83 ropes might also in future be made of wire instead of hemp. The wire rope is much stronger and no heavier, and is not so likely to gall57 horses that get their feet over it. The great objection to it is, of course, its high initial cost, but against this may be set the fact that it is practically indestructible, and lasts indefinitely. Active service head ropes might also be made of wire with a spring hook at each end. A few raw hide head ropes were issued at one time, and these were excellent, except for the fact that the horses ate them wholesale84 when really hungry.
In the Australian Light Horse regiments85 neither manes nor tails were ever cut or pulled. During operations there was little time to care for manes and tails, and they looked somewhat untidy, but there is no doubt that in a hot country, it is preferable to let them grow freely. Not only does a mane assist the horse to rid itself of flies, but it appears to give some protection from the fierce rays of the sun, and a long thick tail is unquestionably a very great blessing86 to a horse in a fly country.
FOOTNOTES:
[28] Snow lay on the ground in the Baalbek-Rayak area for a considerable part of the winter, and on the western side of the Lebanon, in the Beir?t-Tripoli area, for short periods from time to time.
[29] Brigadier-General P.J.V. Kelly, C.M.G., D.S.O., commanded 5th Mounted Brigade in 1917 operations and 13th Cavalry Brigade in 1918.
[30] See p. 94.
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1
cavalry
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| n.骑兵；轻装甲部队 | |
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ration
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| n.定量(pl.)给养，口粮；vt.定量供应 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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suffocating
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| a.使人窒息的 | |
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discomfort
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| n.不舒服，不安，难过，困难，不方便 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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forage
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| n.(牛马的)饲料，粮草；v.搜寻，翻寻 | |
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permanently
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| adv.永恒地，永久地，固定不变地 | |
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scourge
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| n.灾难，祸害；v.蹂躏 | |
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scour
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| v.搜索；擦，洗，腹泻，冲刷 | |
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dire
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| adj.可怕的，悲惨的，阴惨的，极端的 | |
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membrane
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| n.薄膜，膜皮，羊皮纸 | |
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intestines
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| n.肠( intestine的名词复数 ) | |
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ulcers
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| n.溃疡( ulcer的名词复数 )；腐烂物；道德败坏；腐败 | |
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sloughed
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| v.使蜕下或脱落( slough的过去式和过去分词 )；舍弃；除掉；摒弃 | |
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muzzles
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| 枪口( muzzle的名词复数 )； （防止动物咬人的）口套； （四足动物的）鼻口部； （狗）等凸出的鼻子和口 | |
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muzzle
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| n.鼻口部；口套；枪(炮)口；vt.使缄默 | |
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draught
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| n.拉，牵引，拖；一网（饮，吸，阵)；顿服药量，通风；v.起草，设计 | |
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artillery
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| n.(军)火炮，大炮；炮兵(部队) | |
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upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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ruptured
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| v.（使）破裂( rupture的过去式和过去分词 )；（使体内组织等）断裂；使（友好关系）破裂；使绝交 | |
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distress
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| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
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mash
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| n.麦芽浆，糊状物，土豆泥；v.把…捣成糊状，挑逗，调情 | |
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scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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barley
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| n.大麦，大麦粒 | |
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maize
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| n.玉米 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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engendered
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| v.产生（某形势或状况），造成，引起( engender的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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ponies
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| 矮种马，小型马( pony的名词复数 )； ￡25 25 英镑 | |
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infantry
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| n.[总称]步兵(部队) | |
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regiment
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| n.团，多数，管理；v.组织，编成团，统制 | |
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hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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mules
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| 骡( mule的名词复数 )； 拖鞋； 顽固的人； 越境运毒者 | |
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mule
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| n.骡子，杂种，执拗的人 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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consecutive
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| adj.连续的，联贯的，始终一贯的 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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ascertaining
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的现在分词 ) | |
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conclusively
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| adv.令人信服地，确凿地 | |
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apportion
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| vt.（按比例或计划）分配 | |
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wagon
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| n.四轮马车，手推车，面包车；无盖运货列车 | |
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nostrils
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| 鼻孔( nostril的名词复数 ) | |
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nostril
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| n.鼻孔 | |
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exhaustion
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| n.耗尽枯竭，疲惫，筋疲力尽，竭尽，详尽无遗的论述 | |
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scent
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| n.气味，香味，香水，线索，嗅觉；v.嗅，发觉 | |
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plentiful
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| adj.富裕的，丰富的 | |
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proximity
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| n.接近，邻近 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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shipping
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| n.船运（发货，运输，乘船） | |
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exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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depots
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| 仓库( depot的名词复数 )； 火车站； 车库； 军需库 | |
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gall
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| v.使烦恼，使焦躁，难堪；n.磨难 | |
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galls
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| v.使…擦痛( gall的第三人称单数 )；擦伤；烦扰；侮辱 | |
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pony
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| adj.小型的；n.小马 | |
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stouter
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| 粗壮的( stout的比较级 )； 结实的； 坚固的； 坚定的 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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instinctive
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| adj.(出于)本能的；直觉的；(出于)天性的 | |
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territorials
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| n.（常大写）地方自卫队士兵( territorial的名词复数 ) | |
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kit
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| n.用具包，成套工具；随身携带物 | |
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prone
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| adj.(to)易于…的，很可能…的；俯卧的 | |
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dismal
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| adj.阴沉的，凄凉的，令人忧郁的，差劲的 | |
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subdividing
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| 再分，细分( subdivide的现在分词 ) | |
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remarkably
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| ad.不同寻常地，相当地 | |
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sporadic
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| adj.偶尔发生的 [反]regular；分散的 | |
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spores
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| n.（细菌、苔藓、蕨类植物）孢子( spore的名词复数 )v.（细菌、苔藓、蕨类植物）孢子( spore的第三人称单数 ) | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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rife
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| adj.(指坏事情)充斥的，流行的，普遍的 | |
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immunity
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| n.优惠；免除；豁免，豁免权 | |
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scourges
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| 带来灾难的人或东西，祸害( scourge的名词复数 )； 鞭子 | |
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picketed
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| 用尖桩围住（picket的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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brutes
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| 兽( brute的名词复数 )； 畜生； 残酷无情的人； 兽性 | |
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voraciously
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| adv.贪婪地 | |
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downwards
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| adj./adv.向下的（地），下行的（地） | |
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80
outwards
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| adj.外面的，公开的，向外的；adv.向外；n.外形 | |
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81
picketing
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| [经] 罢工工人劝阻工人上班，工人纠察线 | |
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hemp
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| n.大麻；纤维 | |
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peg
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| n.木栓，木钉；vt.用木钉钉，用短桩固定 | |
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84
wholesale
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| n.批发；adv.以批发方式；vt.批发，成批出售 | |
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regiments
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| （军队的）团( regiment的名词复数 )； 大量的人或物 | |
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blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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