It was this state of affairs which sent Peter the Hermit5 through Europe on his great campaign in 1093, and those extraordinary wars that raged in Syria{158} through two centuries bore the complex character of the motives6 which had prompted them. From the departure of that motley rabble7 which followed the Hermit to the East in the first Crusade, down to the pitiful expedition of French children who started 30,000 strong from Vend8?me in 1212, there stretches perhaps the most picturesque9 period in all history.[28]
The mass of paradox10 and contradiction which that period presents is no less striking. It was an invasion by the West, whose purpose was to rehabilitate11 an Eastern faith. It was a religious war carried on by the jealousies12 and ambitions of rival nations. It was the occasion of some of the most statesmanlike government that the world has seen, and it was accompanied from first to last by frequent outbursts of treachery, massacre13, and lust14. It was the most airy dream and at the same time the most effective practical force of its time. It was the expression of the most ascetic15 severity and the most reckless luxury. Utterly16 futile17, commercially and socially disastrous18, often wholly irreligious, it was yet everywhere a massive and purposeful conception, in which the determination and forcefulness of the West thrust their iron wedge clean to the centre of this sleepy land. Its high idealism, curiously19 alloyed with grosser elements both sensual and brutal20, was yet able{159} to preserve through all the genuine spiritual fire of chivalry21 and of faith.
Our task is simply to ascertain22 what all this stands for in the history of Palestine, and what it has left behind it there as its memorial. In two words, it stands for the contact of the East and West, and for their separateness. Into Europe the Crusades brought much from the East. It was due to them more than to all other causes that there was so immense an increase of Eastern merchandise in Western markets—not of Jerusalem relics24 only, but of Damascus ware25 and of Persian and even Indian produce from beyond the great rivers. Their influence on architecture, too, is a well-known fact of Western history. The Mosque26 of Omar rose on at least three European sites, and the plan of many another piece of Byzantine building and Arabesque27 decoration was brought home by the Crusaders from the wars. Into the East, again, the Crusades brought much from the West. From north to south of Palestine one meets with the remains28 and memorials of that invasion. Theirs are the footprints most visible throughout the land. Everything in Syria has felt the touch of them and retained its mark. At every turn one finds something recognisable and homely29 to Western ears and eyes—the name of a castle, the chiselling30 of a stone, the moulding of metal—they are strangely familiar as they are met so far away from home. Yet they survive as wreckage31, and as wreckage only. He who hopes to westernise the East is attempting a task in which all must fail, whether they be soldiers or priests, missionaries32 or statesmen.{160} The ancient Eastern life has long ago flowed back over the relics of the Western occupation of Syria.
The surviving traces are of many kinds. There are the descendants of Crusaders, sprung of intermarriages with Eastern women, and still preserving a distinctively33 European type in little suggestive details of feature or of hair. Names such as Belfort, Belvoir, Mirabel, Blanchegarde, or Sinjil (St. Giles), coming without apology next to the Hebrew and Arabic names of villages in Palestine, strike one with very much the same shock as old Scottish place-names do, alternating with incorporated aboriginal34 ones, on the railway stations of the Australian bush. Relics like the sword and spurs of Godfrey de Bouillon may, like most other relics, be discounted, but not so the wonderful masonry35 of castles and of churches which everywhere overawes the man accustomed to modern walls. Winding36 our way with tight rein37 along the narrow and crooked38 streets of Tyre, we suddenly plunged39 into the darkness and foul40 air of the Bazaar41. At the other end of it, emerging under a Gothic archway, we found ourselves in the courtyard of a khan, a very dirty and unpleasant place. Seeing nothing but unclean stables, we imagined that our horses were to be put up here and perhaps fed, and we pitied them. Then, to our astonishment42, we discovered that this was the old Crusader Church, where these broken and discoloured arches had once echoed the hymns43 and prayers of European chivalry; and that somewhere among them lay the bones of the great emperor so famous in{161}
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ENTRANCE TO THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE.
history and legend—“Der alte Barbarossa, der Kaiser Friederich.” Not less affecting in its way was the discovery of a little patch of snapdragon flowers on the ruined walls of Belfort Castle. We were informed that the plant is not elsewhere found in Syria, and the likelihood is that some Crusader’s lady brought it from the garden of a far-off French or English home.
The Crusader was at once the dreamer, the worshipper, and the fighter of the Middle Age. The knight44 was not indeed the sort of man whom at first sight we would suspect of dreaming. Could we see him riding down the street to-day, we should probably be reminded of some village blacksmith on a Clydesdale horse. Yet he had been dreaming dreams and seeing visions. He was a gentleman and a man of feeling, though he had his own rough ways of shewing it. Part of what had set him dreaming was the instinct of travel and the literature of travel which in those days was so quaint45 and picturesque. No doubt this travel literature was largely due to pilgrims, but there were others then who could play no tune46 but “Over the hills and far away.” Travellers’ half-remembered and exaggerated adventures conspired47 with the fantastic imaginings of the untravelled rustic48 to create that magic land beyond the horizon where giants, monsters, and devils had their home. All the wistfulness, the dream, and the desire of the ancient days are there. The chroniclers of the time before the Norman Conquest are the most fascinating of geographers49, and the singers of Arthurian romance in the later days of the{162} Crusades arrived at a geography which was an utter bewilderment, the result of ages of vague travel and rumours50 from the Syrian seat of war. Babylon and Wales and places with names wholly unpronounceable are in sublime51 confusion, and the geography in general is that of Thackeray’s Little Billee, who saw from his mast-head “Jerusalem and Madagascar and South Amerikee.”
Jerusalem always came first. “The Crusades,” as Sidonia says in Tancred, “renovated the spiritual hold which Asia has always had upon the North.” The spell of the East had come upon the West, and in that there lay a reason for the Crusades deeper than any commercial or even military attraction. The West was waiting for it. Behind the British men of the twelfth century lay a heredity of patriotic52 legend connected largely with the battle of Christianity against Paganism under Arthur. There lay the foundation of much that was best in the crusading enthusiasm. On their own soil they had followed the King and fought under him for Christ. But to satisfy the hearts of these rough men it needed more than all such practical life could yield them, even when that life was so exciting as it was then. There is an infinite pathos53 in the dream that was coming to clearness through those years. Discontented with the glories even of Arthur’s court, longing54 for a spiritual something which might give to chivalry its finest meaning, they sought the Holy Grail. Until, well on in the twelfth century, the shadowy figures of Walter Map and Robert de Borron{163} formulate55 the romance,[29] we see it growing out of old pagan legends baptized by Christian2 missionaries and blended with Bible stories. It emerges at last in the romances of the French Trouvères, the summit and flower of all past idealisms, the spiritual secret and gist56 of life, and the chief end of noble men. This is all well known to those who interest themselves in that spiritual search which is the main business of choice souls in all ages, and which in that age took literary form in the Grail Quest. But to us it is specially57 interesting to note that the century whose later years received the Trouvère legend from Chrétien de Troyes began with an event but for which that legend would never have assumed the form in which it appeared. In 1101 C?ssarea was besieged58 and taken by Baldwin I. “It yielded a rich booty. Among other prizes was found a hexagonal vase of green crystal, supposed to have been used at the administration of the sacrament, and now preserved in Paris. This vase plays an important part in medi?val poetry as the Holy Grail.” The visionary aspect of the Crusades is that which continually obtrudes59 itself as one reads their history. Tasso’s Gerusalemme Liberata is full of it. Even so rough and boisterous60 a hero as Richard is obviously a dreamer also. Nothing in all this history is more striking than that fateful day when, after marching to within seven leagues of Jerusalem, Richard commanded his army to halt, and courted their murmurs61 during a{164} month’s unaccountable inaction. Performing unheard-of feats62 of valour in minor63 sallies, he could only weep when he beheld64 the towers of the Holy City, and after routing Saladin’s army in a great battle at Joppa, negotiated a truce65 and wandered off to shipwreck66 and imprisonment67, commending the Holy Land to God, and praying that it might be granted him to return again and recover it.[30]
As worshippers, the Crusaders are famous figures in the Holy Land. It is hard to reconcile the tales of wild debauchery which followed almost all their victories, with the obviously genuine religious enthusiasm that swept the hosts down weeping on their knees when they caught first sight of Jerusalem. Yet the worship was sincere, and there were pure and gentle spirits among them whom victory did not demoralise. They are always, indeed, armed worshippers—at first a religious soldiery, afterwards a military priesthood, as Stebbing puts it. This composite character is well brought out in the two orders of knights68, the Hospitallers and the Templars. The former, working for the sick in the Holy City, wore a black robe with a white cross upon the breast of it, but when there was fighting to be done they covered this with a surcoat of scarlet69 on which a silver cross was embroidered70. They lived simply, contenting themselves with such lodging71 and fare as were offered them, and they were bound to keep themselves provided with a light which must always be kept burning while they slept. The Templars{165} pledged themselves in even stricter vows72, and were warrior-priests in the most literal sense of the term. On the summit of Mount Tabor there is the ruin of a Crusader church, whose broken walls still enclose the sacred space where once men worshipped. Spacious73 and strongly built, the ruin has a severe grandeur74 of its own. In the chancel an altar has been rebuilt, and an upturned Corinthian capital set upon it, in the centre of which is fixed75 a heavy iron cross. That iron cross seems to sum up in its grave symbolism the very spirit of the Crusades. Many of their churches were reconstructions76 of older Christian edifices77, and most of them have been transmuted78 into mosques79, so that their ecclesiastical architecture still remaining is as composite as their character and their enterprise. Yet enough remains of what is distinctively their own to show at once the massive strength and the decorative80 beauty of their buildings. Its strength is that of men who were accustomed to build fortresses82; the buttressed83 walls are of immense thickness, and the mortar84 is sometimes harder than the stone. Its beauty has been defaced by the mutilation of much fine work, but from what is left we know how well they carved; and there is a certain high solemnity about their arches and columns which tells of men whose minds were large, strong, and real.
One curious fact, to which Conder often directs attention, is constantly perplexing the traveller. Their identifications of sacred sites are those of men whose enthusiasm far exceeded their knowledge. Had they{166} taken time to consult the Scriptures86, or to read them with any thoughtfulness, countless87 errors would have been avoided. But the soldier instinct is very far from the critical, and they were impatient to find the sites they wished to see. Anything was sufficient for a clue. The name Jibrin suggested “Gabriel,” and a great church arose in honour of the Archangel. Athlit was near the sea-shore, and the Crusaders who lived there found Tyre and Capernaum in its immediate88 neighbourhood. For reasons equally cogent89, Shiloh was brought within a mile or two of Jerusalem, Shechem became Sychar, and the heights of Ebal and Gerizim were recognised as the Dan and Bethel of Jeroboam’s calves90. Most curious of all, the little hill of Jebel Duhy, on whose summit you look down across the valley from the top of Tabor, was named Hermon, for no other reason than that a psalm91 places the two together in its promise that “Tabor and Hermon shall rejoice in Thy name.” Altogether, these worshippers were in too great haste. “Crusading topography is more remarkable92 than reliable.”
Great as the Crusaders were in dream and in worship, it is their fighting that remains for ever most impressive and most characteristic. Of no men in history is the verse truer, in spite of all their extravagances—
Know that the men of great renown93
Were men of simple needs:
Bare to the Lord they laid them down
And slept on mighty94 deeds.
Looked at from a distance, the Crusades very generally wear the aspect of a stream of vivid colour—a{167} spectacular progress of Europe through a corner of Asia, whose main feature is its brilliant picturesqueness95. On the spot the quality in them which is by far the most impressive is their stern reality and fighting weight. The Crusader was doubtless one who in his time played many parts, but whatever else he was, no one who has seen the remains of his work will question that he was at least “a first-class fighting man.” The figure of Richard, as it is preserved for us in the records of the older historians, may be more or less apocryphal96, but it is at least true enough to crusading ideals, which must have found many an actual realisation in these strong and fearless soldiers of the Cross. We read of amazing captures of booty; of single combats in which “the King at one blow severs97 the head, right shoulder and arm of his opponent from the rest of his body”; of a conflict in which only one Christian perished, while “the Turks lost seven hundred men and above fifteen hundred horses.” At Joppa the king leaps out of his ship before it can reach land, and rushes on the enemy. Three days later he and his knights are surprised and have to fight half-naked, some in their shirts and some even barefoot; yet they win. At another time we see Richard plunging98 alone into the midst of the hostile army, and fighting until Saladin’s brother sends him a gift of two Arab war-horses to enable him to fight it out. Altogether such a hero was he, that the Moslems asserted “that even the horses bristled100 their manes at the name of Richard.” No wonder if in the popular imagination he became for England hardly distinguishable from that{168} St. George who had already been identified with Perseus, who on these same sands had fought the dragon for Andromeda.
The grandeur of crusading warfare101 lingers in the mighty ruins of their castles. Nothing could surpass the impressiveness of these castles, seen on hill-tops from below, combing the sky with the sharp broken teeth of their ruined towers, or rearing a black “mailed head of menace” against the stars. Many of them are on the sites of older fortresses, and actually stand on Jewish or Roman foundations. By far the most imposing102 of such castles is that of Banias, which crowns that spur of Hermon at which “Dan leaped from Bashan” long ago. It must have been capable of quartering a small army, and the quantity of broken vessels103 confirms the impression. Cisterns104, vaulted105 and groined archways, mosaic106 floors, dungeons107, and every other luxury of their European homes had been imported hither.
The Crusaders ran a line of fortresses along that western edge of the Jordan valley where Israel, as we saw, failed to protect the mouths of her gorges108. Belvoir, “the Star of the Wind,” guards from its lofty promontory109 the passes immediately south of the Sea of Galilee. Bethshan itself, where the Canaanites lingered to the standing110 shame of Israel, shows the well-preserved remains of a crusader bridge and fortress81. Not less striking is the sea-board line of castles. Not only in such old localities as Tyre and Sidon, C?sarea and Joppa, did fortresses arise, but on at least two quite new sites—those of Athlit and Acre.{169}
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INTERIOR OF THE DOME112 OF THE CHAIN, LOOKING NORTH.
Athlit is unmentioned in Scripture85, and only the eye of seafaring soldiers could have discovered how its little crease23 in the long straight line of coast might be utilised for defence. Acre is “the Key to Syria”; but it was left for the Crusaders to discover that fact.
Yet with all this might and purpose and strategic instinct manifest in every mile of Syria, failure is written broad across the land in these ruins. At two points the sense of it becomes especially acute. One is the battlefield below the very mountain which tradition has assigned to the preaching of the Sermon on the Mount. The horrors of that field were such that even yet it is impossible to look without shuddering113 upon the flattened114 top of Hattin, where the black basalt stands out from the green slopes below. The Crusaders were rushed into the open plain, near which Saladin’s cavalry115 were waiting for them, and they met his assault unfed, unrested, and without even water to quench116 their thirst. Throughout a long hot day they perished round the banner of the Cross, a final element of horror being added when the Saracens set fire to the scrub, and unhorsed knights were roasted alive in their armour117. That was the decisive battle of the Crusades, and Saladin marched after it straight upon Jerusalem.
The other point at which the failure of the Crusades has set up its monument is at their own Athlit. The creation of their genius, and for solidity and massive strength perhaps the most characteristic ruin in Syria, it is also the saddest thing of all they have left for a memorial. Near its rocks King Louis IX. of France{170}—most unfortunate and yet most saintly of all crusading kings—was shipwrecked. Here, too, at the end of the thirteenth century, the Knights Templars made their last retreat after the fall of Acre, and it was from its castle that they departed—the last to abandon the last Crusade. Seen from the sea, the compact and rounded promontory of Athlit presents the appearance of a clenched118 fist menacing and defiant119. Its history grimly corroborates120 the imagination that here through centuries of decay the land as it were gathers itself together, and thrusts out this grim headland in perpetual defiance121 of the Western world.
The Crusades stand for more in Palestine than it is easy to realise. The comprehensiveness of their historical significance is by no means exhausted122 when we have stated it in such paradoxes123 as those with which our chapter began. They were indeed the greatest sham111 and at the same time the greatest reality of Syrian history, but they were far more than that. They were heirs to all the past of the country, and they did much to perpetuate124 that past and to carry it on into the time to come. Even from the Moslem99 life they wrestled125 with, they borrowed something. They, and the chivalry which they fostered, are the most spectacular part of Western history, and give a dash of brilliant colour to the grey life of the Middle Ages. That brilliance126 is in part the splendour of the East. The Crusader has borrowed from the Saracen at least a scarf for his sword.
It is chiefly as builders that the Crusaders remain in Syria exposed to modern eyes, and in their{171} building they have perpetuated127 and utilised the other three invasions. From the first Christians they took over their churches and rebuilt them, retaining something and adding more. From the older Jewish architects they had almost as great an inheritance. There seems no incongruity128 in the heavy stone mangers and far-driven iron rings which they fixed in the walls of those tremendous vaults129 on which the Temple area rests; and it is by a not unnatural130 transference that tradition has given to these the name of Solomon’s Stables. Solomon’s vaults they may have been, but as stables they were of crusading origin. Their own building is a rough imitation of the drafted stones of the Jews. The rustic work is much the same, only rougher, but the plain chiselling is very far from the minute fineness of the older workmanship. Altogether, they were fighters first and builders second. Like the men of Nehemiah’s time, “every one with one of his hands wrought131 in the work, and with the other hand held a weapon.... Every one had his sword girded by his side, and so builded.” Nor did they fail to utilise the work of Roman builders. At C?sarea there is the most striking instance of this, and one of the most suggestive facts in the whole story of the Crusaders. C?sarea was the most Roman of all Syrian towns. Built as the seaport132 for Sebaste by Herod, it was the part of Syria which travellers and governors sailing from Italy first sighted, and it was designed to give them the impression of a land Romanised. Herod’s delight in pillars is attested133 by the colonnades{172} of Sebaste, and the wealth of shaft134 and capital which marks the ruins of all his cities. But in C?sarea he seems to have excelled himself. The Roman mole135 which forms the northern side of the harbour “is composed of some sixty or seventy prostrate136 columns lying side by side in the water like rows of stranded137 logs.”[31] On the long promontory south of the mole stands the Crusader Castle, notable for the circumstance that the Crusaders built hundreds of lighter138 and shorter columns into their walls to thorough-bind them, so that, in Oliphant’s exact and graphic139 words, “the butts140 project like rows of cannon141 from the side of a man-of-war.” Which thing is for an allegory; and one of the most eloquent142 of all sermons in stone it is. Rome did more for Christianity than all its friends, while she was as yet its enemy. Without her courts of justice Paul would have had short shrift from his countrymen. Her roads and her citizenship143 gave to the first missionaries of the Cross their exit upon the world and their opportunity. Her laws gave them not protection only, but a groundwork for much that entered into that theology which conquered the thought of the world. Paul appealed unto C?sar, and he wrote to the Romans his gospel expressed in the forms with which they were most familiar. And it was at C?sarea that he made his appeal, doing in flesh and blood what his disciples144 a thousand years later did in stone—thorough-binding the walls of the building of Christian faith with Roman columns.
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1
talisman
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| n.避邪物，护身符 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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lucrative
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| adj.赚钱的，可获利的 | |
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hermit
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| n.隐士，修道者；隐居 | |
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motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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rabble
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| n.乌合之众，暴民；下等人 | |
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vend
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| v.公开表明观点，出售，贩卖 | |
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9
picturesque
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| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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paradox
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| n.似乎矛盾却正确的说法；自相矛盾的人(物) | |
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rehabilitate
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| vt.改造(罪犯)，修复；vi.复兴，(罪犯)经受改造 | |
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jealousies
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| n.妒忌( jealousy的名词复数 )；妒羡 | |
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massacre
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| n.残杀，大屠杀；v.残杀，集体屠杀 | |
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lust
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| n.性(淫)欲；渴(欲)望；vi.对…有强烈的欲望 | |
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ascetic
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| adj.禁欲的；严肃的 | |
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utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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futile
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| adj.无效的，无用的，无希望的 | |
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disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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curiously
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| adv.有求知欲地；好问地；奇特地 | |
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brutal
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| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
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chivalry
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| n.骑士气概，侠义；（男人）对女人彬彬有礼，献殷勤 | |
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ascertain
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| vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清 | |
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crease
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| n.折缝，褶痕，皱褶；v.(使)起皱 | |
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relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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ware
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| n.(常用复数)商品，货物 | |
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mosque
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| n.清真寺 | |
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arabesque
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| n.阿拉伯式花饰；adj.阿拉伯式图案的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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homely
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| adj.家常的，简朴的；不漂亮的 | |
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chiselling
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| n.錾v.凿，雕，镌( chisel的现在分词 ) | |
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31
wreckage
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| n.（失事飞机等的）残骸，破坏，毁坏 | |
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missionaries
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| n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 ) | |
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distinctively
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| adv.特殊地，区别地 | |
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aboriginal
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| adj.（指动植物）土生的，原产地的，土著的 | |
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masonry
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| n.砖土建筑；砖石 | |
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winding
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| n.绕，缠，绕组，线圈 | |
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rein
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| n.疆绳，统治，支配；vt.以僵绳控制，统治 | |
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crooked
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| adj.弯曲的；不诚实的，狡猾的，不正当的 | |
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plunged
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| v.颠簸( plunge的过去式和过去分词 )；暴跌；骤降；突降 | |
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foul
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| adj.污秽的；邪恶的；v.弄脏；妨害；犯规；n.犯规 | |
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bazaar
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| n.集市，商店集中区 | |
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astonishment
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| n.惊奇，惊异 | |
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hymns
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| n.赞美诗，圣歌，颂歌( hymn的名词复数 ) | |
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knight
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| n.骑士，武士；爵士 | |
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quaint
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| adj.古雅的，离奇有趣的，奇怪的 | |
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tune
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| n.调子；和谐，协调；v.调音，调节，调整 | |
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47
conspired
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| 密谋( conspire的过去式和过去分词 )； 搞阴谋； （事件等）巧合； 共同导致 | |
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48
rustic
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| adj.乡村的，有乡村特色的；n.乡下人，乡巴佬 | |
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49
geographers
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| 地理学家( geographer的名词复数 ) | |
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50
rumours
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| n.传闻( rumour的名词复数 )；风闻；谣言；谣传 | |
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51
sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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52
patriotic
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| adj.爱国的，有爱国心的 | |
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53
pathos
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| n.哀婉，悲怆 | |
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54
longing
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| n.（for）渴望 | |
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55
formulate
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| v.用公式表示；规划；设计；系统地阐述 | |
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56
gist
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| n.要旨；梗概 | |
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57
specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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58
besieged
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| 包围，围困，围攻( besiege的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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59
obtrudes
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| v.强行向前，强行，强迫( obtrude的第三人称单数 ) | |
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60
boisterous
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| adj.喧闹的，欢闹的 | |
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61
murmurs
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| n.低沉、连续而不清的声音( murmur的名词复数 )；低语声；怨言；嘀咕 | |
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62
feats
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| 功绩，伟业，技艺( feat的名词复数 ) | |
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63
minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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64
beheld
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| v.看，注视( behold的过去式和过去分词 )；瞧；看呀；（叙述中用于引出某人意外的出现）哎哟 | |
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65
truce
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| n.休战，(争执，烦恼等的)缓和；v.以停战结束 | |
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66
shipwreck
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| n.船舶失事，海难 | |
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67
imprisonment
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| n.关押，监禁，坐牢 | |
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68
knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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69
scarlet
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| n.深红色，绯红色，红衣；adj.绯红色的 | |
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70
embroidered
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| adj．绣花的 | |
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71
lodging
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| n.寄宿，住所；(大学生的)校外宿舍 | |
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72
vows
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| 誓言( vow的名词复数 )； 郑重宣布，许愿 | |
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73
spacious
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| adj.广阔的，宽敞的 | |
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74
grandeur
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| n.伟大，崇高，宏伟，庄严，豪华 | |
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75
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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76
reconstructions
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| 重建( reconstruction的名词复数 )； 再现； 重建物； 复原物 | |
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77
edifices
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| n.大建筑物( edifice的名词复数 ) | |
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78
transmuted
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| v.使变形，使变质，把…变成…( transmute的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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79
mosques
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| 清真寺； 伊斯兰教寺院，清真寺； 清真寺，伊斯兰教寺院( mosque的名词复数 ) | |
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80
decorative
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| adj.装饰的，可作装饰的 | |
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81
fortress
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| n.堡垒，防御工事 | |
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82
fortresses
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| 堡垒，要塞( fortress的名词复数 ) | |
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83
buttressed
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| v.用扶壁支撑，加固( buttress的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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84
mortar
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| n.灰浆，灰泥；迫击炮；v.把…用灰浆涂接合 | |
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85
scripture
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| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
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86
scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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87
countless
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| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
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88
immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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89
cogent
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| adj.强有力的，有说服力的 | |
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90
calves
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| n.(calf的复数)笨拙的男子，腓；腿肚子( calf的名词复数 )；牛犊；腓；小腿肚v.生小牛( calve的第三人称单数 )；（冰川）崩解；生（小牛等），产（犊）；使（冰川）崩解 | |
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91
psalm
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| n.赞美诗，圣诗 | |
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92
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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93
renown
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| n.声誉，名望 | |
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94
mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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95
picturesqueness
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96
apocryphal
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| adj.假冒的，虚假的 | |
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97
severs
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| v.切断，断绝( sever的第三人称单数 )；断，裂 | |
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98
plunging
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| adj.跳进的，突进的v.颠簸( plunge的现在分词 )；暴跌；骤降；突降 | |
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99
Moslem
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| n.回教徒，穆罕默德信徒；adj.回教徒的，回教的 | |
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100
bristled
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| adj. 直立的，多刺毛的 动词bristle的过去式和过去分词 | |
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101
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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102
imposing
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| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
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103
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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104
cisterns
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| n.蓄水池，储水箱( cistern的名词复数 )；地下储水池 | |
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105
vaulted
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| adj.拱状的 | |
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106
mosaic
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| n./adj.镶嵌细工的，镶嵌工艺品的，嵌花式的 | |
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107
dungeons
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| n.地牢( dungeon的名词复数 ) | |
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108
gorges
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| n.山峡，峡谷( gorge的名词复数 )；咽喉v.（用食物把自己）塞饱，填饱( gorge的第三人称单数 )；作呕 | |
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109
promontory
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| n.海角；岬 | |
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110
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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111
sham
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| n./adj.假冒(的)，虚伪(的) | |
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112
dome
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| n.圆屋顶，拱顶 | |
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113
shuddering
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| v.战栗( shudder的现在分词 )；发抖；（机器、车辆等）突然震动；颤动 | |
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114
flattened
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| [医]（水）平扁的，弄平的 | |
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115
cavalry
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| n.骑兵；轻装甲部队 | |
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116
quench
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| vt.熄灭，扑灭；压制 | |
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117
armour
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| （=armor）n.盔甲；装甲部队 | |
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118
clenched
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| v.紧握，抓紧，咬紧( clench的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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119
defiant
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| adj.无礼的，挑战的 | |
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120
corroborates
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| v.证实，支持（某种说法、信仰、理论等）( corroborate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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121
defiance
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| n.挑战，挑衅，蔑视，违抗 | |
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122
exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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123
paradoxes
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| n.似非而是的隽语，看似矛盾而实际却可能正确的说法( paradox的名词复数 )；用于语言文学中的上述隽语；有矛盾特点的人[事物，情况] | |
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124
perpetuate
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| v.使永存，使永记不忘 | |
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125
wrestled
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| v.（与某人）搏斗( wrestle的过去式和过去分词 )；扭成一团；扭打；（与…）摔跤 | |
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126
brilliance
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| n.光辉，辉煌，壮丽，（卓越的）才华，才智 | |
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127
perpetuated
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| vt.使永存（perpetuate的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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128
incongruity
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| n.不协调，不一致 | |
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129
vaults
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| n.拱顶( vault的名词复数 )；地下室；撑物跳高；墓穴 | |
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130
unnatural
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| adj.不自然的；反常的 | |
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131
wrought
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| v.引起；以…原料制作；运转；adj.制造的 | |
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132
seaport
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| n.海港，港口，港市 | |
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133
attested
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| adj.经检验证明无病的，经检验证明无菌的v.证明( attest的过去式和过去分词 )；证实；声称…属实；使宣誓 | |
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134
shaft
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| n.(工具的)柄，杆状物 | |
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135
mole
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| n.胎块；痣；克分子 | |
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136
prostrate
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| v.拜倒，平卧，衰竭；adj.拜倒的，平卧的，衰竭的 | |
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137
stranded
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| a.搁浅的，进退两难的 | |
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138
lighter
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| n.打火机，点火器；驳船；v.用驳船运送；light的比较级 | |
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139
graphic
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| adj.生动的，形象的，绘画的，文字的，图表的 | |
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140
butts
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| 笑柄( butt的名词复数 )； （武器或工具的）粗大的一端； 屁股； 烟蒂 | |
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141
cannon
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| n.大炮，火炮；飞机上的机关炮 | |
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142
eloquent
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| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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143
citizenship
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| n.市民权，公民权，国民的义务(身份) | |
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144
disciples
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| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
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