1647.
At the opening of 1647 there was a general cry[230] throughout England for peace. The country was exhausted7; the finance of the Parliament was in hopeless disorder8; and the people groaned9 under the enormous expense of the war. Obviously the most natural item for retrenchment10 was the Army; its work was done, and there was no further reason for its existence; it should therefore be disbanded or at any rate very greatly reduced. Moreover economy was not the only motive12 that prompted such a policy. The Parliament, united for the moment in the general desire to get quit of the Scots, fell back, almost immediately after this was accomplished13, into faction14. Presbyterians and Independents were the original names of the two rival parties, but for our purpose it is simpler to narrow them forthwith to Parliament and Army; for among many of the Presbyterian members who had held commands in the first years of the war, there existed a professional as well as a political and religious jealousy17 of the successful officers who had supplanted18 them. Parliament having created the Army by a vote thought that it could extinguish it by the same simple process; having used it as a ladder whereon to rise to undisputed supremacy19 it now proposed to kick it down. But such an Army was not disposed to make itself a plaything of Parliament.
Petitions from various quarters for the disbandment of the New Model turned the heads rather than strengthened the hands of the two Houses. The only safe and honest course, if the Army must be disbanded, was to discharge the whole of the country's obligations to it in full. Now the pay of the foot was eighteen weeks and of the horse forty-two weeks in arrear20, and the total debt due to the forces amounted to three hundred and thirty thousand pounds. The Parliament was in straits for money and by no means inclined to make the necessary effort to raise this sum. It proposed as an alternative to turn twelve thousand of the soldiers into a new army for the pacification21 of Ireland, and this without a word as to the terms on which the men had[231] taken service, and without the least mention of a settlement of arrears22. Further, as if it were not enough to irritate the men, the Parliament did its best to alienate23 the officers. It passed resolutions insulting to the army, insulting to Fairfax, insulting to Cromwell. So deeply injured indeed was Oliver by this ungrateful treatment, that he thought seriously of carrying his sword and such troops as he could raise to the wars in Germany. Such was the pitch of disgust to which the Parliament had driven the ablest of its servants.
The Army raised its first protest in the form of a respectful petition from the men: the Parliament met it with violent and ungracious censure24. Certain officers who had supported this petition then tendered a vindication25 of their conduct: the Commons refused even to read it. Finally, as if to aggravate26 the Army to extremity27, the Lords proposed to grant the troops six weeks' pay in temporary satisfaction of arrears. This was too much. Discontent grew apace in the ranks, the men refused to have anything to do with service in Ireland, and finally the Army, by the election of two representatives for each regiment28, organised itself for the orderly maintenance of its just claims. These representatives were called agitators29, a name which in those days signified simply agents. The degradation30 of the term in our own time into a synonym31 for political busy-bodies must not mislead us, nor blind us to the dignified32 patience, under extreme provocation33, of this irresistible34 body of disciplined men.
May 25.
For the moment the Parliament was awed35 into concessions36 and promises, but its leaders did not lightly submit to humiliation37, and rather than yield to the Army looked about for a force to countervail it. First they turned to the City of London, which was strongly Presbyterian, and sought an armed force in the City train-bands. Next they resorted to Scotland, which was intensely jealous of the New Model, and formed a coalition38 with it in favour of the King, thereby[232] sowing the seeds of a quarrel between North and South Britain. Finally, after stultifying39 itself by a promise of attention to the Army's complaints, it passed an Ordinance40 for its disbandment without further ado. This was past endurance. The soldiers broke into open mutiny; and Fairfax and Cromwell, having striven in vain to gain justice for their men, and at the same time to keep them in subordination to the Parliament, placed themselves at the head of a movement which they could no longer repress. It was indeed high time, for the Presbyterian leaders had already invited the Prince of Wales to place himself at the head of the Scots for an invasion of England.
August 6.
On the 4th of June the Army assembled about four miles from Newmarket at Kentford Heath. There in the course of the next few days it erected41 a general council, composed of the general officers who had taken the side of the men and of two officers and two privates from each regiment, and made a written declaration of its policy. Still the Parliament remained obstinate42, and now endeavoured to enlist43 the discharged soldiers of the earlier armies in order to meet force with force. The Army advanced to Triplow Heath, whither Parliament sent a last message to propose terms for an agreement. The overtures45 were rejected, and the Army continued its advance. In panic fear the Parliament now offered bribes46 to any officers or men who would desert the Army. This contemptible47 device was a total failure. It then tried to raise troops, to reopen negotiations48 with the Army, to call out the London trained bands, to forbid the Army's further advance, to gain certain troops, which were not of the New Model, from the north; all was in vain. Irresistible as fate, the Army marched on. At St. Albans it halted and issued a manifesto50 demanding the expulsion of eleven of its enemies from the Commons, and receiving no encouragement advanced to Uxbridge. There again it halted and spent three weeks in the hopeless effort to arrange a peaceful[233] settlement with the King; and finally it marched straight into London and occupied the capital.
Still the Commons persevered51 in opposition52 to the Army; and at last Cromwell, without the orders and in spite of the unwillingness54 of Fairfax, gave the Presbyterian majority a strong hint to convert itself into a minority. His arguments consisted of one regiment of horse, stationed in Hyde Park, and a small party of foot at the door of the House; and they were sufficient and conclusive55. The House thus purged56, Cromwell turned to the task which was to occupy the remainder of his life and drive him worn-out to his grave, a final settlement of the original quarrel. Wisely enough he thought that this could be effected only by agreement with the King; and it was to negotiation49 with Charles Stuart for this object that he now devoted57 the whole of his energy. But negotiation with a man who was constitutionally incapable58 of straightforward59 and honourable60 dealing61 could have but one end. The lower ranks of the Army, not more far-seeing but less sanguine62 than their leader, again interposed. A section of extremists, known at that time by the name of Levellers, began, as is usual at such times, to raise its head, and condemning63 all further traffic with the King boldly put forward a revolutionary scheme of its own.
Herein, however, the Levellers mistook their man. However Cromwell might be distracted by the difficult questions of a settlement, he was perfectly64 clear on one point, that the discipline of the Army must be maintained. Symptoms all too significant appeared that that discipline was impaired65, and he lost no time in restoring it. One regiment refusing to obey his orders, Cromwell promptly66 drew his sword and rode single-handed straight into the middle of the malcontents. His resolution speedily convinced the men that he would not be trifled with; the mutineers yielded, and a single execution sufficed to re-establish order.
1648,
January.
Then as usual the portentous67 folly68 of the King united all parties not only in the Army but in England[234] against himself. He might have made honourable terms with Cromwell; he preferred to throw himself into the arms of the Scots. Both Houses of Parliament thereupon broke with their North British allies, and the dispute assumed the new phase of a quarrel between English and Scots. English refugees inflamed69 national feeling at Edinburgh, and on the 11th of April the Scottish Parliament pronounced the treaty between the two nations to be broken. By the first week in May the army which was to invade England began slowly to assemble, and on the 8th of July it crossed the border, ten thousand five hundred strong, and occupied Carlisle.
July.
Meanwhile the energies of the English had been distracted by Royalist risings in Kent and in Wales which kept Fairfax and Cromwell both busily employed; and it was not till the 11th of July that Cromwell was able to leave Pembroke and march to the north. Even then his force, after a trying campaign in very inclement70 weather, was in no very good state. He was entirely71 destitute72 of artillery73, and his men were most of them both shoeless and stockingless. In one principal respect, however, the force was strong, for it was perfect in spirit and in discipline. I shall not dwell on the details of Cromwell's dash from Wales into Yorkshire. The Scots, embarrassed by a multitude of commanders, suffered him to attack their far more numerous army in detail, when it was divided on opposite banks of the Ribble; and after one sharp engagement at Preston the campaign resolved itself into a mere74 pursuit of the beaten Scots. How hotly Cromwell pressed the chase, and with what hardships to his own little army, may be read in his own despatches. Unfavourable weather, torrents76 of rain, and the miserable77 state of the roads brought men and horses to the last stage of exhaustion78. "The Scots," wrote Cromwell, "are so tired and in such confusion that if my horse could but trot79 after them we could take them all, but we are so weary we can scarce [235]be able to do more than walk after them ... my horse are miserably80 beaten out, and we have ten thousand prisoners." The memory of this swift raid into Yorkshire, and of the unrelenting chase that followed it should be treasured by the British cavalry81 that fought through the Pindarri war and the Central Indian campaign of 1857-58.
With the close of the pursuit after Preston, the second Civil War came to an end. The operations of Fairfax in the south had shown him at his very best, swift, active, and resolute82, and had been brilliantly successful. Those of Cromwell in the north, though they were directed against Royalist Scotland only, not yet the sterner Scotland of the Covenant83, had been crushing. England was now completely under the sway of the Parliament; but it became a question whether Parliament was its own master. A movement arose in the Army for the punishment of the men who had brought all this bloodshed upon the country, and in particular of the chief delinquent84, Charles Stuart, who was guiltiest of all. By a final overture44 for a settlement the Army gave the King a last chance, and on its failure appealed to Parliament to bring him to justice.
1649.
Ireton seems to have been the moving spirit in the actions that followed, though there can be no doubt that Cromwell was in full sympathy with them. Oliver was intensely English in spirit, and had been greatly exasperated85 by the English Royalists who had called the Scots over the border. He was vehement86 for justice upon them, and upon the King as the chief of them. Parliament, on the other hand, was engaged in nominal87 negotiations with Charles; and it was therefore not to be expected that it would comply with the Army's request that he should be brought to trial. But the Army was not to be stopped. The King's person was seized; the Parliament was purged of recalcitrant88 members; and from these actions to the High Court of Justice the march was short. One leading soldier, Fairfax, did indeed recoil89 from the final step, but the majority of the officers pressed on; and on the 30th of[236] January 1649, the King was brought out into the ring of red coats to meet his death. He had done his worst against the British Isles90. He had invited foreign armies against England, and when he failed had roused Welsh, Scots, and Irish to a hopeless effort to subdue91 her. But he succeeded only in establishing her strength; and the fall of his head was but the first instalment of the great work done by Cromwell and the Army towards the unity92 of the islands under the supremacy of England.
We have a pleasant glimpse of Oliver in his lighter93 moods before he next unsheathed his sword. On the evening of the 23rd of February, as he and Ireton were returning from dinner with Bulstrode Whitelocke, their coach was stopped by the soldiers who were in charge of the streets. They explained who they were, but the captain of the guard would not believe them and threatened to put them into the guard-room. Ireton began to lose his temper, but Cromwell laughed, and pulling out twenty shillings gave them to the men as a reward for doing their duty. Less than three weeks later he was summoned to take command of the army that was collecting for the reconquest of Ireland; for that unlucky island had been chosen by the Royalists as the base of operations for the invasion of England. Rupert, now turned admiral, had already sailed to Kinsale to enlist Irish sailors, and the faithful Ormonde had invited Charles the Second to place himself at the head of the loyal party in Ireland. Cromwell was not unwilling53 to undertake the duty. He had no idea of yielding England either to Scots or Irish, least of all to the Irish, whose land was regarded rather as a colony than as an integral part of the realm, and was also a stronghold of papistry. Still he declined to accept the command until he had assured himself that all the wants of his troops should be satisfied; he loved his men and would not suffer them to be enticed94 by the magic of his name to thankless or unprofitable service.
Four regiments95 of foot and one of horse were then[237] chosen by lot, and the men were informed that they need not go to Ireland unless they wished, but that if they refused they would be discharged from the Army. Several hundred men thereupon at once threw down their arms and were dismissed; but by some blunder, which was none of Cromwell's, not a word was said about the payment of the arrears that were due to them. The idea spread through the ranks that they must either go to Ireland or forfeit96 those arrears; discontent was naturally aroused and presently burst out into formidable mutiny. Fairfax and Cromwell, however, could depend on their own regiments, and faced the danger with extraordinary swiftness and energy. The mutineers were suppressed with a strong hand. One ringleader was executed in St. Paul's Churchyard, a cornet and a corporal were shot before the eyes of their comrades against the walls of Burford Church, and discipline was again restored. Shortly after, Parliament passed an Ordinance to relieve the financial difficulties of the soldiers, and the preparations for the Irish campaign were resumed. It is curious to note the extreme slowness with which the civilians97 learned that soldiers were after all men of flesh and blood, not puppets to be hugged or broken according to the caprice of the hour.
The details of the preparations for the war in Ireland may still be read in the State Papers of the time. There are still to be seen the orders for fifteen thousand cassocks, "Venice-red colour, shrunk in water," the like number of pairs of breeches "of grey or other good colour," ten thousand shirts, ten thousand hats and bands,[176] one thousand iron griddles, fifteen hundred kettles, giving a curious picture of the equipment of the first English regular army for what was then esteemed98 to be foreign service. But I shall not follow the red coats through the terrible Irish campaign of 1649. It was not, like the later war with the Scots, an honourable[238] contest for supremacy: it was rather the stern suppression of a rebellion, wherein the spirit of the masters was inflamed by the insolence99 of long superiority, by the bitterness of religious hatred100, and by the recollection of past outrages101 which, even if truly reported, would have kindled102 men to vengeance103, and when exaggerated by rage and fear fairly blinded them to mercy. If any Englishman doubted whether the Irish could fight with desperate gallantry he was undeceived at the storm of Drogheda and at Clonmel: but they could not stand, untrained and unorganised as they were, against the veterans of the New Model. Much has been said about Cromwell's cruelty, and that he was ruthlessly severe there can be no question; but when we speak of cruelty we should take at any rate some account of the standard of humanity in the warfare105 of the seventeenth century. The Irish War was a war of races, a war of creeds106, and a war of vengeance. That there should therefore have been such slaughter107 as at Drogheda and at Wexford is nothing surprising,[177] however deplorable. What is really remarkable108 in such a war is that Cromwell, from the moment of landing, should have paid his way, visited plunder109 with the sharpest penalties, and upheld the sternest and most inflexible110 discipline. Forty years later, when the conquest of Ireland was undertaken by a former marshal of France and a king long schooled in war against the first generals of the time, they were glad to search out Cromwell's plans for his Irish campaign and follow them at such a distance as they might.
1650,
January 8.
June 12.
June 26.
Cromwell was still in full career of victory when the alarming news of a treaty between Charles the Second and the Scots moved the Parliament to recall him to watch over its own safety. He arrived in London on the 1st of June, and was joyfully111 welcomed not only by Fairfax and the officers of the Army but by all ranks and all classes. It was now almost certain that the Scots would invade England in the King's[239] name, and no time was lost by the Council of State in appointing Fairfax and Cromwell to command the English army in the north. That they would work loyally together in the field no one could doubt; but when the Council consulted the two generals as to plan of campaign, their opinions were found to be diametrically opposed to each other. Cromwell was for taking the bull by the horns and carrying the war into Scotland before the Scots could cross the border; Fairfax, never quite at his ease since the establishment of the Commonwealth113, thought such aggressive action unjustifiable. It is impossible to believe that this was his true military opinion, but not all the arguments of the Council nor the pressing entreaty114 of Cromwell could prevail with him to alter it. Despite all protests he resigned his commission on the plea of physical infirmity, and from this moment passes out of the history of the Army. Never perhaps has that Army possessed115 a more popular and deservedly popular commander-in-chief.
Only one man could be his successor. On the self-same 26th of June Cromwell received his commission as captain-general and commander-in-chief; and two days later he started on his journey to the north. Charles Fleetwood was his lieutenant-general, John Lambert, an excellent soldier, his major-general; and joined to his staff was another officer whom we saw fighting in the Low Countries many years ago, Colonel George Monk116. He had served in the Civil War first with the Royalists, and had been taken prisoner by Fairfax at Nantwich in January 1645; he had then passed some time in confinement117 in the Tower, and finally had taken service with the Parliament in Ireland, where his merit had attracted the attention of Cromwell. Oliver was now anxious to provide him with a regiment; but the corps118 which he had designed for him was unwilling to receive a Royalist for colonel. Five companies were therefore taken from Sir Arthur Hazelrigg's regiment at Newcastle and as many more from Colonel Fenwick's at Berwick; and the ten companies[240] were united into Monk's regiment of foot. Thus was formed the oldest of our existing national regiments, the one complete relic119 of the famous New Model,[178] the one surviving corps which fought under Oliver Cromwell, itself more famous under its later name of the Coldstream Guards.
On the 19th of July Cromwell halted near Berwick, where he mustered120 sixteen thousand men, a third of them cavalry; and on the 22nd he crossed the Tweed and marched up the coast upon Edinburgh. A fleet on the east coast provided him with supplies as he advanced, which furnishes an interesting precedent121 for the system that was to be seen later under Wellington in the Peninsula. On the 28th of July he was at Musselburgh, and on the following morning he came in sight of the Scottish army, which was entrenched123 along the line from Leith to the Canongate.
The Scottish force comprehended a nominal total of twenty-six thousand men, of which eighteen thousand were foot and eight thousand horse. It was under the command, in deed if not in name, of David Leslie, the same excellent officer who had routed the brilliant Montrose at Philiphaugh and had handled his cavalry so efficiently125 at Marston Moor126. His troops however were inferior in quality to the English. It is true that in 1647 the Scotch127 had followed the example of England in remodelling128 their army, but the total strength of this force was but five thousand foot and fifteen hundred horse; and this, even supposing the whole of it to have been efficient, was but a small leaven129 among twenty-six thousand men. Leslie therefore stood carefully on the defensive130 and resisted all Cromwell's temptations to a pitched battle. After a couple of days Cromwell was compelled to fall back to Musselburgh for supplies.[241] He then determined131 to march round Edinburgh and push on to Queensferry, where he could regain132 touch with his fleet on the northern side of the town. Political reasons, however, induced him to linger in the execution of this project; and the delay enabled Leslie to take up a position which rendered it impossible. Unable to force Leslie to an engagement, and not daring to attack him with inferior numbers, Cromwell found himself completely outman?uvred. Dysentery broke out in the English troops; supplies began to fail; and he was compelled to fall back by Haddington and Musselburgh to his ships at Dunbar. There he arrived on the 1st of September with "a poor, shattered, hungry, discouraged army." The Scots had pressed the pursuit very closely, the rearguard had been constantly engaged, and, most significant of all, the English discipline even under Oliver himself had begun to fail.[179] Having driven his enemy into the peninsula of Dunbar, Leslie sent forward a force to bar a defile133 on the road to Berwick at Cockburnspath, and cut off his retreat. The situation of the English was desperate, and Cromwell was at his wits' end. His army was reduced by sickness to eleven thousand men, while the Scots still numbered twenty-three thousand; he could expect no relief from Berwick; and Leslie lay in a strong position, from which it was hopeless to attempt to dislodge him, between him and the Tweed.
Sept. 2.
Leslie on his side might well feel confident that he held his enemy in the hollow of his hand. He had but to remain on his hill-side and watch the English army melt away, or wait for the most favourable75 moment to attack it either in the effort to embark134 or while struggling through the defile in retreat. He was, however, not his own master, but was controlled by an Aulic Council called the Committee of Estates, which urged him to descend135 from his weather-beaten position on the hill and move to the ground below, where he would not only find greater convenience of supplies but stand[242] within closer striking distance of his enemy. Down therefore he came, not altogether unwillingly136, and took up a new position on a triangle of ground enclosed between the sea, the hill which he had just left, and a small stream called the Broxburn. This stream, which runs at the bottom of a course from forty to fifty feet deep, covered the whole of his front. On his extreme left it runs close under the steep declivity137 of the hill and forms with it, so to speak, the apex138 of the triangle; but further down it quits the slope and takes its own course to the sea, leaving plenty of space between it and the hill for a camping-ground. Half-way between the open space and the sea, by the grounds of Broxmouth House, the deep banks of the stream give place, as is usual with such waters, to gentle inclines, not unfavourable to the action of cavalry. This point by Broxmouth House formed Leslie's extreme right. The whole position, as he judged, was not ill suited to a force with great superiority in cavalry. He could post his foot on his centre and on his left behind the deep trench11 dug by the Broxburn, and mass his horse on the right where it could dash down the gradual incline and across the shallow water without risk or difficulty. By four o'clock in the afternoon of the 2nd of September his new dispositions139 were complete.
Sept. 3.
Cromwell from the other side of the stream followed every movement with intense attention. At last turning to Lambert he said that he thought the enemy gave him an opportunity. Lambert replied that the very same idea had occurred to him. Monk, who had probably received higher military training than any officer in the army, was next appealed to, and cordially agreed. If Leslie's right, at the base of the triangle, could be turned, the whole of his force must be pent up between the hills and the burn, his horse hurled140 on to the backs of his foot, and the entire army forced up to the gorge141 at the apex of the triangle in ever increasing confusion, and, in a word, lost. The time of attack was fixed142 for the morrow before dawn, and the[243] details of the English dispositions were entrusted143 to Lambert.
Rain fell in torrents all through the night, and the Scotch picquets laid themselves down to sleep with what comfort they could among the corn-shocks. The English, as ever even during the worst and most disorderly of retreats, had recovered themselves at the prospect144 of battle. At four the moon rose and found Lambert already hard at work. The bulk of the force, six out of eight regiments of horse and three and a half regiments of foot, was moved down to the extreme English left. Five regiments of horse under Lambert were to cross the burn by Broxmouth House and attack the Scottish cavalry in front; three regiments of foot and one of horse, all picked corps, were to cross the water farther down and sweep round upon its right flank. Cromwell himself took command of this turning movement, and the regiment of horse which he took with him was that which he had made six years before on the model of his own "lovely company." The remainder of the force with the artillery was stationed along the edge of the trench of the Broxburn to check any movement of the enemy's centre and left.
The light was beginning to creep over the sea before Lambert had posted the artillery to his liking145. There was some stir in the Scotch camp; a trumpet146 sounded boute-selle; and Cromwell, fearful lest the enemy should gain time to change position, grew impatient for Lambert's coming. At last he came, and both columns moved off. Lambert's regiments of horse advanced to the burn; and then the trumpets147 rang out, and the troopers dashed across the water and poured up the opposite slope to the attack. The Scots, though unprepared, met them gallantly148 enough. Foreigners would have called them ill-equipped, for they carried lances, an obsolete149 weapon, in their front rank; but the lance was in place in the shock-combat which Cromwell had taught to the English cavalry, and the first onset150 of the English horse was borne back[244] across the burn. The supports came quickly up and the fight was renewed, though against heavy odds151, for the Scots could bring infantry152 and guns to the aid of their horse, which the English could not yet. But while the combat of cavalry was still swaying to and fro, the infantry of Cromwell's turning column came up steady and inexorable upon the flank of the Scots. Still Leslie's gallant104 men fought on for a short time undismayed. They had been faultily disposed, as Cromwell had noted153, and could not easily change front,[180] but they met the new attack as best they might and even checked the leading regiment of English infantry. But Cromwell's own regiment of foot came up in support, strode grimly forward straight to push of pike, and swept the stoutest154 corps of Scottish infantry into rout124.
To face page 244
DUNBAR.
September 3rd 1650.
Then the Scots lost heart and wavered; the English, horse and foot, gathered themselves up for a final terrible charge; and the Scottish cavalry, reeling back upon the foot, carried it away in choking disorder towards the gorge. Meanwhile Cromwell was urging his third regiment of foot to the left, always farther to the left; and as, panting and breathless, they climbed the lower slopes of the hill they saw the whole length of the battle spread out before them and the Scotch all in confusion. "They run, I profess16, they run!" cried Oliver as he looked down. And while he spoke155 the sun leaped up over the sea, and flashed beneath the canopy156 of smoke on darting157 pikes and flickering158 blades and glancing casques and swaying cuirasses, as the red-coats rolled the broken waves of the Scottish army before them. "Now let God arise and let His enemies be scattered," cried Cromwell in exultation159, for the victory was won. The Scots, wedged tighter and tighter between hills and stream, were caught like rats in a pit, and like rats they ran desperately160 and aimlessly up the steep slope, only to be caught or turned back by the English skirmishers above them. Their horse fled as best they could with the English cavalry spurring[245] after them, till Cromwell ordered a rally. While the broken ranks were reforming he sang the hundred and seventeenth Psalm161, the chorus swelling162 louder and louder behind him as trooper after trooper fell into his place. Then the psalm gave way to the sharp word of command, and the horse trotted163 away once more to the pursuit past Dunbar and Belhaven even to Haddington. Three thousand of the Scots fell in the field; ten thousand prisoners, with the whole of the artillery and baggage and two hundred colours, were taken. It was the greatest action fought by an English army since Agincourt.
Cromwell lost no time in following up his success. On the day after the battle he sent Lambert forward with six regiments of horse to Edinburgh, and occupied the port of Leith and the whole of the town, except the Castle, without resistance. Leaving sufficient men to blockade the Castle and hold the works at Leith he pushed on against Leslie, who had entrenched himself with five thousand men at Stirling; but finding his position unassailable he returned to Edinburgh and busied himself with the reduction of the Castle, while Lambert completed the subjugation of the West. In the middle of September the Castle surrendered, and therewith all Scotland south of the Forth15 and Clyde was subject to the English.
1651.
At Westminster the joy over the victory of Dunbar was enthusiastic, and found vent4 in the grant of a medal[181] and of a gratuity164 to every man who had fought in the campaign. This, the first medal ever issued to an English army, bore, in spite of his protests, the effigy165 of Cromwell upon the obverse, no unfitting memorial of the first founder166 of our Army of to-day. But the struggle even now was not yet over. Royalist Scotland had been beaten at Preston, the Scotland of the Covenant at Dunbar; but Charles Stuart was able, by[246] unscrupulous lying and shameless hypocrisy167, to unite both for a last effort in his cause, and to gather a new army around that of David Leslie at Stirling. Accordingly on the 4th of February 1651 Cromwell left his winter-quarters for Stirling, but was compelled by the severity of the weather to retreat, with no further result to himself than a dangerous attack of fever and ague, which kept him on the sick-list until June.
On the 25th of June the English army was concentrated on the Pentland Hills, and from thence marched once more to Stirling. Leslie, true to the tactics which had proved so successful in the previous year, had occupied an impregnable position which no temptation could induce him to quit. After a fortnight's man?uvring, therefore, Cromwell decided168, like Surrey before Flodden, to move round Leslie's left flank and to cut off his supplies from the north. It is plain, from the fact that Monk had been engaged in operations for the reduction of Inchgarvie and Burntisland on the northern shore of the Firth of Forth, that Cromwell's plans for this movement were fully112 matured.
July 19-20.
The first step was to send Lambert across the Firth with four thousand men to entrench122 himself at Queensferry. Leslie met this move by detaching a slightly inferior force against Lambert, which was utterly169 and disastrously170 routed, with a loss of five-sixths of its numbers. Ten days later Inchgarvie and Burntisland fell into Cromwell's hands, and, his new base being thus secured, he advanced quickly into Fife. Meanwhile he sent orders to General Harrison, whom he had left at Edinburgh with a reserve of three thousand horse, that he was to move at once to the English border in the event of Leslie's marching southward. By the 2nd of August he had received the surrender of Perth, but, even before he could sign the capitulation, intelligence reached him that the Scots had quitted Stirling two days before and were pouring down to the border. Leaving five or six thousand men with Monk to reduce Stirling, he at once hurried off in pursuit.
[247]
August 4.
Two days sufficed to bring his army to Edinburgh, where he halted for forty-eight hours. Harrison had already marched for the Border, and with ready intelligence had mounted some of his infantry to strengthen his little force. Lambert was now despatched with three thousand horse to hang upon the enemy's rear; a letter was despatched to the Speaker exhorting171 the Parliament to be of good heart; and on the 6th of August Cromwell resumed his advance. Both armies, English and Scots, were now fairly started on their race to the south. Charles, in the hope of picking up recruits, stuck to the western coast and the Welsh border, moving by Carlisle, Lancaster, and the ill-omened town of Preston. Cromwell's course lay farther east; he passed by Newburn, a scene of English defeat, and by the more famous field of Towton, where the south had first taught a lesson of respect to the north. Lambert and Harrison united, and on the 16th of August obtained contact with the enemy at Warrington, but not venturing to attack retired172 eastward173 to cover the London road and to draw closer to the line of Cromwell's march.
Sept 3.
The Ribble and the Aire once passed, the two armies began to converge174. On the 22nd of August Charles halted with the Scots at Worcester and proceeded to fortify175 the town, and four days later Cromwell occupied Evesham. Charles had but sixteen thousand men; while Cromwell by a masterly concentration had collected no fewer than twenty-eight thousand. The militia176, which had been reorganised by the Parliament in the previous year, had been called out and had answered admirably to the call. There could be little doubt of the issue of an action where the advantages both of numbers and of quality were all on one side, and there is no need to dwell on the battle fought on the anniversary of Dunbar at Worcester. It was a victory in its way as complete as Sedan: hardly a man of the Scottish army escaped. But it was also the crown of the great work of the Army, the establishment of England's supremacy in the British Isles.
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subjugation
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sufficiently
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3
persistently
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| ad.坚持地；固执地 | |
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4
vent
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| n.通风口，排放口；开衩；vt.表达，发泄 | |
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5
untold
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| adj.数不清的，无数的 | |
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6
withdrawn
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| vt.收回；使退出；vi.撤退，退出 | |
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7
exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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8
disorder
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| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
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9
groaned
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| v.呻吟( groan的过去式和过去分词 )；发牢骚；抱怨；受苦 | |
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10
retrenchment
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| n.节省，删除 | |
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11
trench
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| n./v.(挖)沟，(挖)战壕 | |
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12
motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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13
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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14
faction
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| n.宗派，小集团；派别；派系斗争 | |
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15
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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16
profess
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| v.声称，冒称，以...为业，正式接受入教，表明信仰 | |
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17
jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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18
supplanted
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| 把…排挤掉，取代( supplant的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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19
supremacy
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| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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20
arrear
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| n.欠款 | |
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21
pacification
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| n. 讲和，绥靖，平定 | |
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22
arrears
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| n.到期未付之债，拖欠的款项；待做的工作 | |
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23
alienate
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| vt.使疏远，离间；转让(财产等) | |
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24
censure
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| v./n.责备；非难；责难 | |
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25
vindication
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| n.洗冤，证实 | |
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26
aggravate
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| vt.加重(剧)，使恶化；激怒，使恼火 | |
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27
extremity
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| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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28
regiment
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| n.团，多数，管理；v.组织，编成团，统制 | |
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29
agitators
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| n.（尤指政治变革的）鼓动者( agitator的名词复数 )；煽动者；搅拌器；搅拌机 | |
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30
degradation
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| n.降级；低落；退化；陵削；降解；衰变 | |
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31
synonym
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| n.同义词，换喻词 | |
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32
dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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33
provocation
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| n.激怒，刺激，挑拨，挑衅的事物，激怒的原因 | |
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34
irresistible
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| adj.非常诱人的，无法拒绝的，无法抗拒的 | |
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35
awed
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| adj.充满敬畏的，表示敬畏的v.使敬畏，使惊惧( awe的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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36
concessions
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| n.（尤指由政府或雇主给予的）特许权( concession的名词复数 )；承认；减价；（在某地的）特许经营权 | |
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37
humiliation
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| n.羞辱 | |
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38
coalition
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| n.结合体，同盟，结合，联合 | |
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39
stultifying
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| v.使成为徒劳，使变得无用( stultify的现在分词 ) | |
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40
ordinance
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| n.法令；条令；条例 | |
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41
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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42
obstinate
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| adj.顽固的，倔强的，不易屈服的，较难治愈的 | |
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43
enlist
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| vt.谋取(支持等)，赢得；征募；vi.入伍 | |
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44
overture
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| n.前奏曲、序曲，提议，提案，初步交涉 | |
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45
overtures
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| n.主动的表示，提议；（向某人做出的）友好表示、姿态或提议( overture的名词复数 )；（歌剧、芭蕾舞、音乐剧等的）序曲，前奏曲 | |
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46
bribes
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| n.贿赂( bribe的名词复数 )；向（某人）行贿，贿赂v.贿赂( bribe的第三人称单数 )；向（某人）行贿，贿赂 | |
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47
contemptible
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| adj.可鄙的，可轻视的，卑劣的 | |
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48
negotiations
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| 协商( negotiation的名词复数 )； 谈判； 完成（难事）； 通过 | |
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49
negotiation
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| n.谈判，协商 | |
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50
manifesto
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| n.宣言，声明 | |
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51
persevered
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| v.坚忍，坚持( persevere的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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52
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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53
unwilling
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| adj.不情愿的 | |
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54
unwillingness
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| n. 不愿意，不情愿 | |
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55
conclusive
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| adj.最后的，结论的；确凿的，消除怀疑的 | |
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56
purged
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| 清除（政敌等）( purge的过去式和过去分词 )； 涤除（罪恶等）； 净化（心灵、风气等）； 消除（错事等）的不良影响 | |
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57
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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58
incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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59
straightforward
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| adj.正直的，坦率的；易懂的，简单的 | |
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60
honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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61
dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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62
sanguine
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| adj.充满希望的，乐观的，血红色的 | |
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63
condemning
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|
| v.（通常因道义上的原因而）谴责( condemn的现在分词 )；宣判；宣布…不能使用；迫使…陷于不幸的境地 | |
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64
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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65
impaired
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|
| adj.受损的；出毛病的；有（身体或智力）缺陷的v.损害，削弱( impair的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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66
promptly
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| adv.及时地，敏捷地 | |
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67
portentous
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| adj.不祥的，可怕的，装腔作势的 | |
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68
folly
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| n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话 | |
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69
inflamed
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| adj.发炎的，红肿的v.（使）变红，发怒，过热( inflame的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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70
inclement
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|
| adj.严酷的，严厉的，恶劣的 | |
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71
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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72
destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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73
artillery
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| n.(军)火炮，大炮；炮兵(部队) | |
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74
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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75
favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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76
torrents
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| n.倾注；奔流( torrent的名词复数 )；急流；爆发；连续不断 | |
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77
miserable
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|
| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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78
exhaustion
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| n.耗尽枯竭，疲惫，筋疲力尽，竭尽，详尽无遗的论述 | |
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79
trot
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| n.疾走，慢跑；n.老太婆；现成译本；(复数）trots:腹泻（与the 连用）；v.小跑，快步走，赶紧 | |
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80
miserably
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| adv.痛苦地；悲惨地；糟糕地；极度地 | |
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81
cavalry
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| n.骑兵；轻装甲部队 | |
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82
resolute
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| adj.坚决的，果敢的 | |
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83
covenant
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| n.盟约，契约；v.订盟约 | |
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84
delinquent
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| adj.犯法的，有过失的；n.违法者 | |
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85
exasperated
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| adj.恼怒的 | |
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86
vehement
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| adj.感情强烈的；热烈的；(人)有强烈感情的 | |
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87
nominal
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|
| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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88
recalcitrant
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| adj.倔强的 | |
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89
recoil
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| vi.退却，退缩，畏缩 | |
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90
isles
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| 岛( isle的名词复数 ) | |
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91
subdue
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| vt.制服，使顺从，征服；抑制，克制 | |
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92
unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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93
lighter
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| n.打火机，点火器；驳船；v.用驳船运送；light的比较级 | |
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94
enticed
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| 诱惑，怂恿( entice的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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95
regiments
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| （军队的）团( regiment的名词复数 )； 大量的人或物 | |
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96
forfeit
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| vt.丧失；n.罚金，罚款，没收物 | |
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97
civilians
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| 平民，百姓( civilian的名词复数 )； 老百姓 | |
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98
esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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99
insolence
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| n.傲慢；无礼；厚颜；傲慢的态度 | |
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100
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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101
outrages
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| 引起…的义愤，激怒( outrage的第三人称单数 ) | |
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102
kindled
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| （使某物）燃烧，着火( kindle的过去式和过去分词 )； 激起（感情等）； 发亮，放光 | |
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103
vengeance
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| n.报复，报仇，复仇 | |
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104
gallant
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| adj.英勇的，豪侠的；(向女人)献殷勤的 | |
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105
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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106
creeds
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| （尤指宗教）信条，教条( creed的名词复数 ) | |
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107
slaughter
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| n.屠杀，屠宰；vt.屠杀，宰杀 | |
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108
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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109
plunder
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| vt.劫掠财物，掠夺；n.劫掠物，赃物；劫掠 | |
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110
inflexible
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| adj.不可改变的，不受影响的，不屈服的 | |
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111
joyfully
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| adv. 喜悦地, 高兴地 | |
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112
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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113
commonwealth
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| n.共和国，联邦，共同体 | |
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114
entreaty
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| n.恳求，哀求 | |
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115
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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116
monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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117
confinement
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| n.幽禁，拘留，监禁；分娩；限制，局限 | |
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118
corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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119
relic
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| n.神圣的遗物，遗迹，纪念物 | |
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120
mustered
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| v.集合，召集，集结（尤指部队）( muster的过去式和过去分词 )；（自他人处）搜集某事物；聚集；激发 | |
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121
precedent
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| n.先例，前例；惯例；adj.在前的，在先的 | |
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122
entrench
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| v.使根深蒂固；n.壕沟；防御设施 | |
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123
entrenched
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| adj.确立的，不容易改的(风俗习惯) | |
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124
rout
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| n.溃退，溃败；v.击溃，打垮 | |
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125
efficiently
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| adv.高效率地，有能力地 | |
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126
moor
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| n.荒野，沼泽；vt.(使)停泊；vi.停泊 | |
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127
scotch
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| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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128
remodelling
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| v.改变…的结构[形状]( remodel的现在分词 ) | |
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129
leaven
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| v.使发酵；n.酵母；影响 | |
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defensive
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| adj.防御的；防卫的；防守的 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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regain
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| vt.重新获得，收复，恢复 | |
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defile
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| v.弄污，弄脏；n.(山间)小道 | |
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embark
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| vi.乘船，着手，从事，上飞机 | |
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descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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unwillingly
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| adv.不情愿地 | |
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declivity
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| n.下坡，倾斜面 | |
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apex
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| n.顶点，最高点 | |
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dispositions
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| 安排( disposition的名词复数 )； 倾向； （财产、金钱的）处置； 气质 | |
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hurled
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| v.猛投，用力掷( hurl的过去式和过去分词 )；大声叫骂 | |
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141
gorge
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| n.咽喉，胃，暴食，山峡；v.塞饱，狼吞虎咽地吃 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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entrusted
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| v.委托，托付( entrust的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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liking
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| n.爱好；嗜好；喜欢 | |
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trumpet
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| n.喇叭，喇叭声；v.吹喇叭，吹嘘 | |
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trumpets
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| 喇叭( trumpet的名词复数 )； 小号； 喇叭形物； （尤指）绽开的水仙花 | |
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gallantly
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| adv. 漂亮地，勇敢地，献殷勤地 | |
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obsolete
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| adj.已废弃的，过时的 | |
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onset
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| n.进攻，袭击，开始，突然开始 | |
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odds
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| n.让步，机率，可能性，比率；胜败优劣之别 | |
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infantry
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| n.[总称]步兵(部队) | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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stoutest
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| 粗壮的( stout的最高级 )； 结实的； 坚固的； 坚定的 | |
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spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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156
canopy
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| n.天篷，遮篷 | |
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darting
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| v.投掷，投射( dart的现在分词 )；向前冲，飞奔 | |
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flickering
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| adj.闪烁的，摇曳的，一闪一闪的 | |
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159
exultation
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| n.狂喜，得意 | |
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desperately
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| adv.极度渴望地，绝望地，孤注一掷地 | |
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psalm
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| n.赞美诗，圣诗 | |
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swelling
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| n.肿胀 | |
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trotted
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| 小跑，急走( trot的过去分词 )； 匆匆忙忙地走 | |
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gratuity
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| n.赏钱，小费 | |
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effigy
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| n.肖像 | |
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Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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hypocrisy
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| n.伪善，虚伪 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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disastrously
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| ad.灾难性地 | |
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exhorting
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| v.劝告，劝说( exhort的现在分词 ) | |
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retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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eastward
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| adv.向东；adj.向东的；n.东方，东部 | |
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converge
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| vi.会合；聚集，集中；(思想、观点等)趋近 | |
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175
fortify
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| v.强化防御，为…设防；加强，强化 | |
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176
militia
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| n.民兵，民兵组织 | |
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