Wyclif.
John Wyclif (born about 1329) was a man of great influence in his day; and the Reformation, when many of his ideas revived, probably found the embers of the fire which he had tended still glowing. He is said to have been born at Hipswell, near Richmond in Yorkshire, and certainly was of the Diocese of York. He was Master of Balliol College, Oxford12, in 1361. In 1372 Wyclif took the degree of Doctor in Theology: he had already written not a few Latin treatises13 on philosophical14 subjects. As a philosopher he was a believer in predestination (on which much might be said), but averse15 to the theory of the disintegration16 of matter; indeed his views on this subject controlled his theory of the Eucharist. His desire to reform the Church by reducing her[Pg 116] endowments endeared him to a political party in the State; and when he was summoned before Convocation in 1377, he was supported by John of Gaunt, uncle of Richard II.
The affair ended in a brawl17; and in a later examination his ideas were not pronounced heretical. The London mob as well as some persons of high rank were on his side, and when one Pope, Urban, proclaimed a crusade against the other Pope, Clement18, Wyclif opposed it in manuscript pamphlets. He had, about 1378, started a kind of order of "poor priests" who spread his doctrines19, and, in regard to the unlawfulness of owning private property, went beyond him.
The Bible, not the tradition of the Church, was the centre of Wyclif's inspiration: it would be a mistake to suppose that the Bible was then generally ignored, the literature of the time is full of quotations21 from Scripture22. There was no authorized23 translation of the Latin Bible, but many separate books of Scripture were circulating in English. There is much controversy24 as to whether or not Wyclif translated, or caused to be translated, the entire Bible, as a chronicler declares that he did: certainly he made much of it known in English tracts and sermons.
In 1382 he was suspended from teaching at Oxford; he retired25 to his rectory at Lutterworth, continued to write, and died on Old Year's Day, 1384.
It is impossible, here, to enter into theological details, but Wyclif anticipated many of the great multitude of ideas which flooded Western Europe at the beginning of the Reformation. If we open his sermons at random26, we find him preaching on Lazarus and Dives, "how richessis be perilouse, for lightli wole a riche man use hem28 unto moche lust," that is, luxury. Words of Latin origin are nearly as common in his style as in that of Chaucer or Piers29 Plowman. In his Englishing of the Bible, Wyclif uses "And" at the beginning of many sentences, just as Mandeville does in his amusing and fabulous30 "Travels". The sermons have the double merit of being very short, and very plain, with no rhetorical flowers. The tracts can scarcely be called amiable31: the word "stinking," for example, is not thought by Wyclif too strong to apply to "proud priests of Rome and Avignon".
[Pg 117]
All these brave and earnest men, the Wyclifite pamphleteers and "poor priests," and Piers Plowman, with their socialism and their doubts, their "New Theology," were rehearsing in mediaeval costume the drama of to-day; while Chaucer was arraying the heroes of the Fleece of Gold, of Troy, and of the Ach?ans, in the armour32 of the men who fought at Crécy and Poitiers. What remains33 as a gain to literature is the art of Chaucer.
Sweet reasonableness and urbane34 irony35 are not to be expected from men full of righteous indignation, and in great danger of being burned alive; for by this penalty did the Church and State suppress the preachers of doctrines which were apt to cause dangerous popular tumults36. The Wyclifite Biblical translations look like a canvas later embroidered37 on by the authors of King James's authorized version, that immortal38 monument of English prose.
Chaucer's Prose Style.
It was not in the nature of these Reformers to follow the counsel of Chaucer's good Parson in the "Parson's Tale" (the spelling may here be modernized39, as an example of the poet's prose).
"Certainly chiding40 may not come but out of a villain's heart, for after the abundance of the heart speaketh the mouth full often. And ye should understand that I Look ever when any man shall chastise41 another, that he beware of chiding and reproving, for truly, unless he be wary42, he may full lightly kindle43 the fire of anger and of wrath44 which he should quench45, and peradventure slayeth him whom he might chastise with benignity46.... Lo, what saith saint Augustine, 'there is nothing so like the Devil's child as he that often chideth'. Now cometh the sin of them that sow and make discord47 among folk; which is a sin that Christ hateth utterly48, and no wonder it is; for he died to make concord49. And more sin do they to Christ, than did they that him crucified; for God loveth better that friendship be among folk than he did his own body, which he gave for unity50."
Chaucer's country-priest, not the chiding Wyclifite Sons of Thunder, is the true Christian51. There is more of the spirit of the Master in the caressing52 words of Chaucer's address to "little Louis[Pg 118] my son... pray God save the king that is Lord of this lande, and all that him faith beareth and obeyeth, each in his degree, the more, and the less," than in torrents53 of bitter chiding, and a hail of unpublishable vituperation.
The English of Chaucer's treatise of "The Astrolabe," despite its difficult astronomical54 matter, is pellucid55, and there is a charm of rhythm in his prose translations of the verses in Bo?thius.
Trevisa.
The English prose of John Trevisa, a Cornish priest, educated at Oxford, and a traveller on the continent (died 1412), was entirely56 given to translation from the Latin. He is said, by Caxton, to have translated the Bible: he certainly made an English version of the "Polychronicon" of Ranulf Higden, the monk57 of Chester, which begins with the Creation, and is rich in geographical58 and social information.
Trevisa occasionally inserts notes of his own. His versions of Higden, and of the mythical59 popular science and prodigious60 fables61 contained in the "De Proprietatibus Rerum" ("Concerning the Properties of Things") of Bartholom?us the Englishman, were very popular, as their amusing nature deserved, and the "Polychronicon" was printed by Caxton. Trevisa himself tells us that in his day English boys in grammar schools were ceasing to learn French, and there was a public for English books supposed to be educational.
Mandeville.
The most famous and by far the most interesting of these adapters of foreign books is the so-called Sir John Mandeville, with his "Voiage and Travaile". The author of this book was not an Englishman, at least he did not write in English, and did write in French, at Liège, about the end of the fourteenth century. It is impossible and unnecessary to discuss here the fables about Mandeville. The author of the book declares that he himself is "Sir John to all Europe," is an Englishman born at St. Albans, that he passed the sea in 1322, that he travelled in Tartary, Persia, Armenia, Lybia, Chald?a, the land of the Amazons, India, and[Pg 119] so forth62. In fact he resembles Widsith in the ancient Anglo-Saxon poem—he has been almost everywhere and knows almost everything. He especially writes for pilgrims to Jerusalem; he first wrote his book in Latin, then translated it into French, and finally into English. There are countries that he has not seen; and he says that he could not play a part in the deeds of arms which he beheld63. Now he suffers from arthritis64, "gowtes artetykes," and he amuses himself by writing his adventures in 1357.
Another version of Sir John's career is given by Jean d'Outremeuse, a writer of histories, who had the felicity of hearing from an old man with a beard in 1472, that he was the genuine Mandeville: but that the author was really Jean d'Outremeuse is not so certain. The author, whoever he was, stole from a manuscript of the time of the First Crusade, and from the book of Odoric, a Franciscan missionary65, and the Itinerary66 of William of Boldensele, (1332-1336) from a History of the Mongols, from a forged letter of Prester John—from every source whence he could pick amusing stories. He fabled67 with a direct and honourable68 simplicity69 which is comparable to that of Defoe, and to the straightforward70 and moderate statements of Swift's Captain Lemuel Gulliver. With the spelling modernized it is thus that the good knight71 tells the story of the Pygmies who were known to Homer for their battles with the cranes.
"The folk be of little stature72, but three span long, and they be right fair and gentle, after their quantity, both the men and the women. And they marry them when they be half a year of age, and get children. And they live not but six or seven years at the most. And he that liveth eight years, men hold him there right passing old.... And they have often war with the birds of the country that they take and eat. These little folks labour neither in lands nor in vineyards. But they have great men among them of our stature that till the land and labour amongst the vines for them. And of the men of our stature have they a great scorn and wonder as we would have among us of Giants if they were amongst us."
Mandeville speaks as calmly about the ants, known to Herodotus, which guard the hills of gold, and are as large as hounds;[Pg 120] and of the devil's head in the valley perilous27, through which the knight and his company travelled in great fear, "and therefore were we the more devout73 a great deal". Thence he reached an isle74 where men are from twenty-eight to thirty feet in stature, "and they eat more gladly men's flesh than any other flesh," being indeed the L?strygonians who devoured75 the men of Odysseus, or the Mermedonians of the Anglo-Saxon poem of "St. Andreas," who meant to devour76 St. Matthew. Mandeville enjoyed and deserved great popularity, being a follower9 of Lucian's "True History," and a predecessor77 of Gulliver.
Pecock. "The Repressor."
A writer of English prose even more interesting, though much less popular and amusing than Mandeville, is Reginald Pecock (1395-1460), the deposed78 Bishop79 of Chichester, author of "The Repressor of overmuch blaming of the Clergy80". The clergy blamed Pecock, and repressed him. This remarkable81 man, born shortly before the date of Chaucer's death, in North Wales, was a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford (1417), was patronized by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, obtaining the Mastership of Lord Mayor Whittington's school in London (1431), became Bishop of St. Asaph (1444), and passed his life in attempts to convert the Lollards by persuasion82, not by the stake. "The clergy shall be condemned83 at the last day," he writes, "if by clear wit they draw not men into consent of true faith otherwise than by fire, sword and hangment; although I will not deny these second means to be lawful20, provided the former be first used." In the opinion of the Lollards, nothing in ecclesiastical matters was defensible that was not positively84 inculcated in the Bible as interpreted by the average Christian man, however unlettered. Pecock defended Episcopacy, and even defended non-preaching Bishops85, on the score that they had to discharge more important duties. Even the much abused friars he stood up for, arguing that, whatever their offences, they and the world would be worse rather than better if there were no religious orders. His arguments in support of the begging Franciscans who, in counting up money, touched[Pg 121] it with a stick, not with the hand, are certainly even more sophistical than ingenious.
He wrote many pamphlets still in manuscript; the "Repressor" is of 1455, and is a most remarkable book in all ways. Pecock became vastly unpopular, because he was too clever, and, in his dislike of religious persecution86, as well as in the nature of his arguments, was in advance, not only of his own age, but of the age of the Reformation. He was thought to give far too high authority to reason, and to the natural faculties87 of man in the way of developing unrevealed morality and unrevealed religion. "No virtue88 or governance or truth into which the judgment89 of man's reason may sufficiently90 ascend91 or come to, to find, learn, and know it without revelation from God, is grounded on Holy Scripture."
This conclusion arrives at the end of a sentence of thirty lines, a fair example of Pecock's logical and legal style, by him first used in English. It is not possible, here, to discuss Pecock's ideas, which are concerned with questions that still divide the Church and the world, Anglicans, Catholics, Nonconformists, and Agnostics. The "Repressor" has been described as "the earliest piece of good philosophical disquisition of which our English prose literature can boast"; it may still be read with interest, especially by students of the Reformation. Pecock was opposed to the unjust and brutal92 war of conquest and of disaster waged by England in France.
In 1450 he became Bishop of Chichester, and shared the unpopularity of the Duke of Suffolk, who was blamed for the disasters in France. His "Book of Faith" (1456) practically abandoned the infallibility of the Church in 1457; he was as unpopular with the clergy as with the mob; twenty-four doctors reported unfavourably on his works: he was a defender93 of "drowsy94 reason" and of "unrevealed morality": he was found guilty of heresies95 which were no heresies, and, with no choice except that of being burned alive, he signed a confession96 and abjuration97 of sins which he had not committed: he was consigned98 to close confinement99 in the Abbey of Thorney, was deprived of his bishopric—and of writing materials—and died obscurely.
[Pg 122]
The source of his misfortunes was this: he was not only clever but he knew it, and wrote that whatsoever100 man did not agree with an argument of his "is duller than any man ought to be". As few agreed, most were dull, and they did not like to be told it.
Capgrave.
John Capgrave (1393-1464), a Norfolk priest, and Augustinian canon, author of many scriptural commentaries and of a work on "Illustrious Henrys," wrote in English a "Chronicle of England," beginning with the Creation and ending in 1417. Capgrave reminds us that Adam "was made on a Friday, in the field of Damascus"; the date was unlucky. He is nearly as brief as the Anglo-Saxon "Chronicle," his account of Agincourt is no longer than the "Chronicle's" description of Hastings. Here is a sample of his style. "In the same yere III beggeres stole III childyr at Lenne, and of on thei put oute his eyne, the othir they broke his bak, and the thirde thei cut off his handis and his feet, that men schuld of pite give hem good. Long aftir the fadir of on of hem, wheech was a marchaund, cam to London, and the child knew him and cried loude 'This is my fadir.' The fadir took his child fro the beggeris and mad hem to be arrested. The childirn told alle the processe, and the beggeris were hangen, ful well worthy101." Such is Capgrave's work, described by himself as "a short remembrance of old stories."
Lord Berners.
Later by two generations, John Bourchier, Lord Berners, was born about the time of Capgrave's death, and while Malory was writing his "Morte d'Arthur" (born 1467, died 1533). As Captain of Calais, the last spot of land held by England in France, Lord Berners had leisure enough, which he spent in translating Froissart, and the French romance of "Huon of Bordeaux" and Oberon the fairy king, "Arthur of Little Britain," and Guevara's Spanish "Dial for Princes," with the "Carcel de Amor" and the "Libro Aureo," books which more or less anticipate the antitheses102 of "Euphuism". In his translation of Froissart, Berners follows[Pg 123] the style of the original, his language is much akin103 to that of Malory: in his prefaces he is more rhetorical and "aureate," and has a habit, like Sir Robert Hazlewood in "Guy Mannering," of treble-shotting his verbs. "Histories show, open, manifest, and declare to the reader by example of old antiquity104, what we should inquire, desire, and follow, and also what we should eschew105, avoid, and utterly fly." This mannerism106 is tedious, but the translation itself is in admirably simple and expressive107 English.
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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prosaic
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| adj.单调的，无趣的 | |
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hermit
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| n.隐士，修道者；隐居 | |
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premature
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| adj.比预期时间早的；不成熟的，仓促的 | |
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prolific
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| adj.丰富的，大量的；多产的，富有创造力的 | |
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treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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follower
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| n.跟随者；随员；门徒；信徒 | |
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tracts
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| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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Oxford
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| n.牛津（英国城市） | |
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treatises
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| n.专题著作，专题论文，专著( treatise的名词复数 ) | |
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philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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averse
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| adj.厌恶的；反对的，不乐意的 | |
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disintegration
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brawl
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clement
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| adj.仁慈的；温和的 | |
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doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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lawful
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quotations
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scripture
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| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
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authorized
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| a.委任的，许可的 | |
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controversy
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retired
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random
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perilous
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hem
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piers
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fabulous
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| adj.极好的；极为巨大的；寓言中的，传说中的 | |
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amiable
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| adj.和蔼可亲的，友善的，亲切的 | |
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armour
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| （=armor）n.盔甲；装甲部队 | |
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remains
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urbane
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irony
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tumults
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| 吵闹( tumult的名词复数 )； 喧哗； 激动的吵闹声； 心烦意乱 | |
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embroidered
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immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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modernized
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| 使现代化，使适应现代需要( modernize的过去式和过去分词 )； 现代化，使用现代方法 | |
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chiding
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| v.责骂，责备( chide的现在分词 ) | |
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chastise
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| vt.责骂，严惩 | |
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wary
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| adj.谨慎的，机警的，小心的 | |
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kindle
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wrath
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quench
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| vt.熄灭，扑灭；压制 | |
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benignity
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| n.仁慈 | |
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discord
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utterly
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concord
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| n.和谐；协调 | |
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unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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caressing
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| 爱抚的，表现爱情的，亲切的 | |
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torrents
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| n.倾注；奔流( torrent的名词复数 )；急流；爆发；连续不断 | |
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astronomical
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| adj.天文学的，（数字）极大的 | |
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pellucid
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| adj.透明的，简单的 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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geographical
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| adj.地理的；地区(性)的 | |
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mythical
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| adj.神话的；虚构的；想像的 | |
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prodigious
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| adj.惊人的，奇妙的；异常的；巨大的；庞大的 | |
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fables
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| n.寓言( fable的名词复数 )；神话，传说 | |
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forth
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beheld
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| v.看，注视( behold的过去式和过去分词 )；瞧；看呀；（叙述中用于引出某人意外的出现）哎哟 | |
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arthritis
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missionary
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| adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士 | |
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itinerary
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fabled
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| adj.寓言中的，虚构的 | |
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honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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straightforward
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| adj.正直的，坦率的；易懂的，简单的 | |
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knight
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| n.骑士，武士；爵士 | |
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stature
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| n.（高度）水平，（高度）境界，身高，身材 | |
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devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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isle
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| n.小岛，岛 | |
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devoured
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| 吞没( devour的过去式和过去分词 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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devour
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| v.吞没；贪婪地注视或谛听，贪读；使着迷 | |
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predecessor
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| n.前辈，前任 | |
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deposed
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| v.罢免( depose的过去式和过去分词 )；（在法庭上）宣誓作证 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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persuasion
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| n.劝说；说服；持有某种信仰的宗派 | |
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condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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positively
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| adv.明确地，断然，坚决地；实在，确实 | |
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bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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persecution
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| n. 迫害,烦扰 | |
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87
faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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ascend
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| vi.渐渐上升，升高；vt.攀登，登上 | |
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brutal
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| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
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defender
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| n.保卫者，拥护者，辩护人 | |
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drowsy
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| adj.昏昏欲睡的，令人发困的 | |
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heresies
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| n.异端邪说，异教( heresy的名词复数 ) | |
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confession
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| n.自白，供认，承认 | |
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abjuration
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| n.发誓弃绝 | |
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consigned
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| v.把…置于（令人不快的境地）( consign的过去式和过去分词 )；把…托付给；把…托人代售；丟弃 | |
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confinement
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| n.幽禁，拘留，监禁；分娩；限制，局限 | |
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whatsoever
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| adv.（用于否定句中以加强语气）任何；pron.无论什么 | |
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101
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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102
antitheses
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| n.对照，对立的，对比法；对立( antithesis的名词复数 )；对立面；对照；对偶 | |
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103
akin
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| adj.同族的，类似的 | |
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104
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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105
eschew
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| v.避开，戒绝 | |
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mannerism
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| n.特殊习惯，怪癖 | |
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107
expressive
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| adj.表现的，表达…的，富于表情的 | |
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