1. Caluseri and Batuta, ancient traditional dances performed by men only, and often executed at fairs and public festivals. For these a fixed3 number of dancers is required, and a leader called the vatav. Each dancer is provided with a long staff, which he occasionally strikes on the ground in time to the music.
2. Hora and Bre?l, round dances executed either by both sexes or by men only.
3. Ardeleana, Lugojana, Marnteana, Pe-picior, and Hategeana, danced by both sexes together, and in which each man may have two or more female partners.
These last-named dances rather resemble a minuet or quadrille, and are chiefly made up of a sort of swaying, balancing movement, alternately advancing and retreating, with varied4 modes of expression and different rates of velocity5. Thus the Ardeleana is slow, the Marnteana rather quicker but still dignified6, and the Pe-picior is fastest of all. Also, each separate dance has two distinct measures, as in the Scotch7 reel or the Hungarian csardas—the slow rhythm being called domol, or reflectively, and the fast one being danced cu foc, with fire.
All these dances are found in different districts with varied appellations8.
There is also a very singular dance which I have not myself witnessed, but which is said to be sometimes performed in front of the church in order to insure a good harvest—one necessary condition of which is that the people should dance till in a state of violent perspiration9, figurative of the rain which is required to make the corn grow; then the arms must be held on high for the hops10 to grow, wild jumps in the air for the vines, and so on, each grain and fruit having a special movement attributed to it, the dance being kept up till the dancers have to give in from sheer fatigue11.
The Roumanian does not say that a man is dancing with a girl, but that “he dances her,” as you would talk of spinning a top. This conveys the right impression—namely, that the man directs her dancing and disposes her attitudes, so as to show off her grace and charms to the best advantage. Thus a good dancer here does not imply a man who dances well himself, but rather one skilful12 at showing off two or three partners at a time. He acts, in fact, as a sort of showman to the assortment13 of graces under his charge, to which he calls attention by appropriate rhymes and verses. Therefore the sharpest wit rather than the nimblest legs is required for the post of vatav flacailor, or director of dances in the village.
Dancing usually takes place in the open air; and in villages where ball-room etiquette14 is duly observed, the fair ones can only be conducted to the dance by the director himself, or by one of his appointed aides-de-camp. It is so arranged that after the leader has for a time shown off several girls in the manner described—so to say, set them agoing—he makes a sign to other young men to take them off his hands, while he himself repeats the proceeding15 with other débutantes.
The music usually consists of bagpipes16 and violin, the latter sometimes replaced by one or two flutes17. The musicians, who are frequently blind men or cripples, stand in the centre, the dancers revolving19 around them. Tzigane-players are rarely made use of for Roumanian dances, as they do not interpret the Roumanian music correctly, and are accused of imparting a bold, licentious20 character to it.
There are many occasions on which music is prescribed, and on all such it should not be wanting; but it is considered unseemly for music to play without special motive21, and when the Roumanian hears music he invariably asks, “La ce cantà?”—for whom do they play?
Fully22 as many matrons as maidens23 figure at the village merrymakings, for, unlike the Saxon, the Roumanian woman does not dream of giving up dancing at her marriage. Wedlock24 is to her an emancipation25, not a bondage26, and she only begins really to enjoy her life from the moment she becomes a wife. For instance, it is considered quite correct for a married woman, especially if she has got children, to suffer herself to be publicly kissed and embraced by her dancer, and no one present would think of taking umbrage27 at such harmless liberties.
In reciting or making a speech, the Roumanian is careful to speak slowly and distinctly, with dignity and deliberation, and to avoid much gesticulation, which is regarded as ridiculous. It is also considered distinguished28 to speak rather obscurely, and veil the meaning under figures of speech—a man who says his meaning plainly in so many words being considered as wanting in breeding.
As in Italy, the recitatore (story-teller), called here provestitore, holds an important place among the Roumanians. The stories recited usually belong to the class of ogre and fairy tale, and would seem rather adapted to a nursery audience than to a circle of full-grown men and women. Sometimes in verse, sometimes in prose, these stories oftenest set forth29 the adventures of some prince subjected to the cruel persecutions of a giant or sorcerer. The hero has usually a series of tasks allotted30 to him, or difficulties to be overcome, before he is permitted to enjoy his father’s throne in peace and lead home the beautiful princess to whom he is attached. The tasks dealt out to him must be three at least, sometimes six, seven, nine, or twelve; but never more than this last number, which indeed is quite sufficient for the endurance even of a fairy prince. When the tasks are nine or twelve in number they are then grouped together in batches32 of three, each batch31 being finished off with some stereotyped33 phrase, such as, “But our hero’s trials were not yet over by any means, and much remains34 still to be told.” As a matter of course, these trials must always be arranged crescendo35, advancing in horror and difficulty towards the end.
The story invariably opens with the words,
“A fost ce a fost; dacà n’ar fi fost nici nu s’ar povesti,” which, corresponding to our “once upon a time,” may be thus translated: “It was what once took place, and if it had never been, it would not now be related;” and the concluding phrase is often this one, “And if they have not died, they are all yet alive.”
It is not every one who can relate a story correctly according to the Roumanian’s mode of thinking. He is most particular as to the precise inflections of voice, which must alternately be slow and impressive, or impetuous and hurried, according to the requirements of the narrative36. If the story winds up with a wedding, the narrator is careful to observe that he also was present on the occasion, in proof of which he enumerates37 at great length the names of the guests invited and the dishes which formed part of the banquet; and according to the fertility of imagination he displays in describing these details he will be classed by his audience as a provestitore of first, second, or third rank.
The Roumanians have a vast répertoire of songs and rhymes for particular occasions, and many of these people seem to possess great natural fluency38 for expressing themselves in verse, assisted, no doubt, by the rich choice of rhymes offered by their language. Some people would seem to talk as easily in verse as in prose, and there are districts where it is not considered seemly to court a girl otherwise than in rhymed speech. All these rhymes, as well as most of their songs and ballads40, are moulded in four feet verse, which best adapts itself to the fundamental measure of Roumanian music. Among the principal forms of song prevalent in the country are the Doina, the Ballad39, the Kolinda, the Cantece de Irogi, the Cantece de Stea, the Plugul, the Cantece de Paparuga, the Cantece de Nunta, the Descantece, and the Bocete.
1. The Doina is a lyrical poem, mostly of a mournful, monotonous41 character, much resembling the gloomy Dumkas of the Ruthenians, and from which, perhaps, its name is derived42; and this is all the more probable, as many of the songs sung by the Roumanians of the Bukowina are identical with those to be heard sung by their countrymen living in the Hungarian Banat. Thus it is of curious effect to hear the celebrated43 song of the Dniester, “Nistrule riu blestemal” (Dniester, cursed river), in which lament44 is made over the women carried off by the Tartars, sung on the plains of Hungary, so many hundred miles away from the scenes which originated it.
2. The Ballad, also called Cantece, or song proper, its title usually specifying45 whose particular song it is; for instance, “Cantecul lui Horia”—the song of Hora, or more literally46, Hora, his song—lui Jancu, lui Marko, etc.
These ballads are sung to the accompaniment of a shepherd’s pipe or flute18, but are oftener merely recited, it not being considered good form to have them sung except by blind or crippled beggars, such as go about at markets or fairs.
3. The Kolinda, or Christmas song, the name derived from a heathen goddess, Lada. These consist of songs and dialogues, oftenest of a mythological47 character, and bearing no sort of allusion48 to the Christian49 festival. The performers go about from house to house knocking at each door, with the usual formula, “Florile s’dalbe, buna sara lui Cracinim”—white is the flower, a happy Christmas-night to you.
The Turca, or Brezaia, also belongs to the same category as the Kolinda, but is of a somewhat more boisterous50 character, and is performed by young men, who, all following a leader grotesquely51 attired52 in a long cloak and mask (oftenest representing the long beak53 of a stork54, or a bull’s head, hence the name), go about the villages night and day as long as the Christmas festivities last, pursuing the girls and terrifying the children. A certain amount of odium is attached to the personification of the Turca himself, and the man who has acted this part is regarded as unclean or bewitched by the devil during a period of six weeks, and may not enter a church nor approach a sacrament till this time has elapsed.
In the Bukowina the Turca, or Tur, goes by the name of the Capra, and is called Cleampa in the east of Transylvania.
4. The Cantece de Irogi is the name given to the text of many carnival55 games and dialogues in which Rahula (Rachel) and her child, a shepherd, a Jew, a Roumanian popa, and the devil appear in somewhat unintelligible56 companionship.
5. The Cantece de Stea—songs of the star—are likewise sung at this period by children, who go about with a tinsel star at the end of a stick.
6. The Plugul—song of the plough—a set of verses sung on New-year’s Day by young men fantastically dressed up, and with manifold little bells attached to feet and legs. They proceed noisily through the streets of towns and villages, cracking long whips as though urging on a team of oxen at the plough.
7. The Cantece de Paparuga are songs which are sung on the third Sunday after Easter, or in cases of prolonged drought.
8. The Cantece de Nunta are the wedding songs, of which there are a great number. These are, however, rarely sung, but oftener recited. They take various forms, such as that of invitation, health-drinking, congratulations, etc. To these may be added the Cantece de Cumetrie and the Cantecul ursitelor, which express rejoicings over a new-born infant.
9. The Descantece, or descantations, are very numerous. They consist in secret charms or spells expressed in rhyme, which, in order to be efficacious, must be imparted to children or grandchildren only when the parent is lying on his death-bed. These oftenest relate to illnesses of man or beast, to love or to life; and each separate contingency57 has its own set formula, which is thus transmitted from generation to generation.
10. The Bocete are songs of mourning, usually sung over the corpse58 by paid mourners.
On the principle that the character of a people is best demonstrated by its proverbs, a few specimens59 of those most current among Roumanians may be here quoted:
“A man without enemies is of little value.”
“It is easier to keep guard over a bush full of live hares than over one woman.”
“A hen which cackles overnight lays no egg in the morning.”
“A wise enemy is better than a foolish friend.”
“In the daytime he runs away from the buffalo60, but in the night he seizes the devil by the horn.”[25]
“Carry your wife your whole life on your back, but, if once you set her down, she will say, ‘I am tired.’”
“The just man always goes about with a bruised61 head.”
“Sit crooked62, but speak straight.”
“Father and mother you will never find again, but wives as many as you list.”
“The blessing63 of many children has broken no man’s roof as yet.”
“Better an egg to-day than an ox next year.”
“No one throws a stone at a fruitless tree.”
“Patience and silence give the grapes time to grow sweet.”
“If you seek for a faultless friend you will be friendless all your life.”
“There where you cannot catch anything, do not stretch out your hand.”
“Who runs after two hares will not even catch one.”
“The dog does not run away from a whole forest of trees, but a single stick will make him run.”
“A real Jew will never pause to eat until he has cheated you.”
“You cannot carry two melons in one hand.”
“Who has been bitten by a snake is afraid of a lizard64.”
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1
habitual
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| adj.习惯性的；通常的，惯常的 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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velocity
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| n.速度，速率 | |
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dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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7
scotch
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| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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appellations
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| n.名称，称号( appellation的名词复数 ) | |
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perspiration
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| n.汗水；出汗 | |
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hops
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| 跳上[下]( hop的第三人称单数 )； 单足蹦跳； 齐足（或双足）跳行； 摘葎草花 | |
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fatigue
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| n.疲劳，劳累 | |
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skilful
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| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
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13
assortment
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| n.分类，各色俱备之物，聚集 | |
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etiquette
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| n.礼仪，礼节；规矩 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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16
bagpipes
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| n.风笛；风笛( bagpipe的名词复数 ) | |
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17
flutes
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| 长笛( flute的名词复数 )； 细长香槟杯（形似长笛） | |
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18
flute
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| n.长笛；v.吹笛 | |
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19
revolving
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| adj.旋转的，轮转式的；循环的v.（使）旋转( revolve的现在分词 )；细想 | |
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20
licentious
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| adj.放纵的，淫乱的 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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23
maidens
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| 处女( maiden的名词复数 )； 少女； 未婚女子； （板球运动）未得分的一轮投球 | |
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24
wedlock
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| n.婚姻，已婚状态 | |
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25
emancipation
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| n.（从束缚、支配下）解放 | |
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26
bondage
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| n.奴役，束缚 | |
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umbrage
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| n.不快；树荫 | |
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28
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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29
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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30
allotted
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| 分配，拨给，摊派( allot的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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31
batch
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| n.一批(组，群)；一批生产量 | |
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batches
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| 一批( batch的名词复数 )； 一炉； （食物、药物等的）一批生产的量； 成批作业 | |
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33
stereotyped
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| adj.(指形象、思想、人物等)模式化的 | |
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34
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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crescendo
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| n.(音乐)渐强，高潮 | |
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36
narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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enumerates
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| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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38
fluency
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| n.流畅，雄辩，善辩 | |
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ballad
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| n.歌谣，民谣，流行爱情歌曲 | |
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ballads
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| 民歌，民谣，特别指叙述故事的歌( ballad的名词复数 )； 讴 | |
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41
monotonous
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| adj.单调的，一成不变的，使人厌倦的 | |
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42
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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43
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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44
lament
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| n.悲叹，悔恨，恸哭；v.哀悼，悔恨，悲叹 | |
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45
specifying
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| v.指定( specify的现在分词 )；详述；提出…的条件；使具有特性 | |
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46
literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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mythological
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| adj.神话的 | |
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48
allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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49
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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50
boisterous
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| adj.喧闹的，欢闹的 | |
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51
grotesquely
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| adv. 奇异地,荒诞地 | |
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52
attired
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| adj.穿着整齐的v.使穿上衣服，使穿上盛装( attire的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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53
beak
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| n.鸟嘴，茶壶嘴，钩形鼻 | |
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54
stork
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| n.鹳 | |
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55
carnival
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| n.嘉年华会，狂欢，狂欢节，巡回表演 | |
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56
unintelligible
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| adj.无法了解的，难解的，莫明其妙的 | |
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57
contingency
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| n.意外事件，可能性 | |
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58
corpse
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| n.尸体，死尸 | |
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59
specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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60
buffalo
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| n.(北美)野牛；(亚洲)水牛 | |
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61
bruised
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| [医]青肿的，瘀紫的 | |
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62
crooked
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| adj.弯曲的；不诚实的，狡猾的，不正当的 | |
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63
blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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64
lizard
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| n.蜥蜴，壁虎 | |
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