(September 1535 to 1536.)
The death of the late tutor and friend of the prince was to be followed by a measure less cruel but far more general. The pope who treated kings so rudely should not be surprised if kings treated the monks3 severely4. Henry knew—had indeed been a close witness of their lazy and often irregular lives. One day, when he was hunting in the forest of Windsor, he lost his way, perhaps intentionally5, and about the dinner hour knocked at the gate of Reading Abbey. As he represented himself to be one of his Majesty6's guards, the abbot said:
{79}
'You will dine with me;' and the king sat down to a table covered with abundant and delicate dishes. After examining everything carefully: 'I will stick to this sirloin,' said he, pointing to a piece of beef of which he eat heartily7.[161] The abbot looked on with admiration8. 'I would give a hundred pounds,' he exclaimed, 'to eat with as much appetite as you; but alas9! my weak and qualmish stomach can hardly digest the wing of a chicken.'—'I know how to bring back your appetite,' thought the king. A few days later some soldiers appeared at the convent, took away the abbot, and shut him up in the Tower, where he was put upon bread and water. 'What have I done,' he kept asking, 'to incur10 his Majesty's displeasure to such a degree?' After a few weeks, Henry went to the state prison, and concealing11 himself in an ante-room whence he could see the abbot, ordered a sirloin of beef to be set before him. The famished12 monk2 in his turn fell upon the joint13, and (according to tradition) eat it all. The king now showed himself: 'Sir abbot,' he said, 'I have cured you of your qualms14; now pay me my wages. It is a hundred pounds, you know.' The abbot paid and returned to Reading; but Henry never after forgot the monks' kitchen.
=STATE OF THE MONASTERIES.=
The state of the monasteries was an occasion of scandal: for many centuries all religious life had died out in most of those establishments. The monks lived, generally, in idleness, gluttony, and licentiousness15, and the convents which should have been houses of saints had become in many cases mere16 sties of lazy gormandizers and impure17 sensualists. 'The only law they recognize,' said Luther, speaking of these cloisters19, 'is that of the seven deadly sins.' History encounters here a twofold danger: one is that of keeping back what is essential, the scandalous facts that justify20 the suppression
{80}
of monasteries; the other is that of saying things that cannot be named. We must strive to steer21 between these two quicksands.
All classes of society had become disgusted with the monasteries: the common people would say to the monks: 'We labor22 painfully, while you lead easy and comfortable lives.' The nobility regarded them with looks of envy and irony23 which threatened their wealth. The lawyers considered them as parasitical24 plants, which drew away from others the nutriment they required. These things made the religious orders cry out with alarm: 'If we no longer have the pope to protect us, it is all over with us and our monasteries.' And they set to work to prevent Henry from separating from the pope: they circulated anonymous25 stories, seditious songs, trivial lampoons26, frightful27 prophecies and biting satires28 against the king, Anne Boleyn, and the friends of the Reformation. They held mysterious interviews with the discontented, and took advantage of the confessional to alarm the weak-minded. 'The supremacy30 of the pope,' they said, 'is a fundamental article of the faith: none who reject it can be saved.' People began to fear a general revolt.
When Luther was informed that Henry VIII. had abolished the authority of the pope in his kingdom, but had suffered the religious orders to remain, he smiled at the blunder: 'The king of England,' he said, 'weakens the body of the papacy but at the same time strengthens the soul.'[162] That could not endure for long.
=CROMWELL'S ADVICE.=
Cromwell had now attained32 high honors and was to mount higher still. He thought with Luther that the pope and the monks could not exist or fall one without the other. After having abolished the Roman pontiff, it became necessary to abolish the monasteries. It was he who had prevailed on the king to take the place of head
{81}
of the Church; and now he wished him to be so really. 'Sire,' he said to Henry, 'cleanse33 the Lord's field from all the weeds that stifle34 the good corn, and scatter35 everywhere the seeds of virtue36.[163] In 1525, 1528, 1531 and 1534 the popes themselves lent you their help in the suppression of monasteries; now you no longer require their aid. Do not hesitate, Sire: the most fanatical enemies of your supreme37 authority are to be found in the convents. There is buried the wealth necessary to the prosperity of the nation. The revenues of the religious orders are far greater than those of all the nobility of England. The cloister18 schools have fallen into decay, and the wants of the age require better ones. To suppress the pope and to keep the monks is like deposing38 the general and delivering the fortresses39 of the country up to his army. Sire, imitate the example of the protestants and suppress the monasteries.'
Such language alarmed the friends of the papacy, who stoutly41 opposed a scheme which they believed to be sacrilegious. 'These foundations were consecrated42 to Almighty43 God,' they told the king; 'respect therefore those retreats where pious45 souls live in contemplation.'[164] 'Contemplation!' said Sir Henry Colt smiling; 'tomorrow, Sire, I undertake to produce proofs of the kind of contemplation in which these monks indulge.' Whereupon, says an historian, Colt, knowing that a certain number of the monks of Waltham Abbey had a fondness for the conversation of ladies, and used to pass the night with the nuns46 of Chesham Convent, went to a narrow path through which the monks would have to pass on their return, and stretched across it one of the stout40 nets used in stag-hunting. Towards daybreak, as the monks, lantern in hand, were making their way
{82}
through the wood, they suddenly heard a loud noise behind them—it was caused by men whom Colt had stationed for the purpose—and instantly blowing out their lights they were hurrying away, when they fell into the toils48 prepared for them.[165] The next morning, he presented them to the king, who laughed heartily at their piteous looks. 'I have often seen better game,' he said, 'but never fatter. Certainly,' he added, 'I can make a better use of the money which the monks waste in their debaucheries. The coast of England requires to be fortified49, my fleet and army to be increased, and harbors to be built for the commerce which is extending every day.[166] All that is well worth the trouble of suppressing houses of impurity50.'
The protectors of the religious orders were not discouraged, and maintained that it was not necessary to shut all the convents, because of a few guilty houses.
=REVIVING INFLUENCE OF THE LAITY52.=
Dr. Leighton, a former officer of Wolsey's, proposed a middle course: 'Let the king order a general visitation of monasteries,' he said, 'and in this way he will learn whether he ought to secularize54 them or not. Perhaps the mere fear of this inspection55 will incline the monks to yield to his Majesty's desires.' Henry charged Cromwell with the execution of this measure, and for that purpose named him vicegerent and vicar-general, conferring on him all the ecclesiastical authority which belonged to the king.[167] 'You will visit all the churches,' he said, 'even the metropolitan56, whether the see be vacant or not; all the monasteries both of men and women; and you will correct and punish whoever may be found guilty.' Henry gave to his vicar precedence over all the peers, and decided57 that the layman58 should preside over the assembly of the clergy59 instead of the
{83}
primate60; overlook the administration not only of the bishops62 but also of the archbishops; confirm or annul63 the election of prelates, deprive or suspend them, and assemble synods. This was at the beginning of September 1535. The influence of the laity thus re-entered the Church, but not through the proper door. They came forward in the name of the king and his proclamations, whilst they ought to have appeared in the name of Christ and of His Word. The king informed the primate, and through him all the bishops and archdeacons, that as the general visitation was about to commence, they should no longer exercise their jurisdiction64.[168] The astonished prelates made representations, but they were unavailing: they and their sees were to be inspected by laymen65. Although the commission of the latter did not contain the required conditions, namely the delegation66 of the flocks, this act was a pretty evident sign that the restoration of the members of the Church to their functions was at that time foreseen and perhaps even regarded by many as one of the most essential parts of the Reformation of England.
The monks began to tremble. Faith in the convents no longer existed—not even in the convents themselves. Confidence in monastic practices, relics67, and pilgrimages had grown weaker; the timbers of the monasteries were worm-eaten, their walls were just ready to fall, and the edifice68 of the Middle Ages, tottering69 on its foundations, was unable to withstand the hearty70 blows dealt against it. When an antiquary explores some ancient sepulchre, he comes upon a skeleton, apparently71 well preserved, but crumbling72 into dust at the slightest touch of the finger; in like manner the puissant73 hand of the sixteenth century had only to touch most of these monastic institutions to reduce them to powder. The real dissolver of the religious orders was neither Henry VIII.
{84}
nor Cromwell: it was the devouring75 worm which, for years and centuries, they had carried in their bosom76.
The vicar-general appointed his commissioners77[169] and then assembled them as a commander-in-chief calls his generals together. In the front rank was Dr. Leighton, his old comrade in Wolsey's household, a skilful78 man who knew the ground well and did not forget his own interests. After him came Dr. Loudon, a man of unparalleled activity, but without character and a weathercock turning to every wind. With him was Sir Richard Cromwell, nephew of the vicar-general, an upright man, though desirous of making his way through his uncle's influence. He was the ancestor of another Cromwell, far more celebrated79 than Henry VIII.'s vicegerent. Other two were Thomas Legh and John Apprice, the most daring of the colleagues of the king's ministers; besides other individuals of well known ability. The vicegerent handed to them the instructions for their guidance, the questions they were to put to the monks, and the injunctions they were to impose on the abbots and priors; after which they separated on their mission.
The Universities, which sadly needed a reform, were not overlooked by Henry and his representative. Since the time when Garret, the priest of a London parish, circulated the New Testament80 at Oxford81, the sacred volume had been banished82 from that city, as well as the Beggar's Petition and other evangelical writings. Slumber83 had followed the awakening84. The members of the university, especially certain ecclesiastics86 who, forsaking87 their parishes, had come and settled at Oxford, to enjoy the delights of Capua,[170] passed their lives in idleness and sensuality. The royal commissioners aroused them from this torpor88. They dethroned Duns Scotus, 'the subtle doctor,' who had reigned89 there for three hundred years, and the leaves of his books were scattered91 to the
{85}
winds. Scholasticism fell; new lectures were established; philosophical92 teaching, the natural sciences, Latin, Greek, and divinity were extended and developed. The students were forbidden to haunt taverns93, and the priests who had come to Oxford to enjoy life, were sent back to their parishes.
=CRANMER DENOUNCES ROME.=
The visitation of the monasteries began with those of Canterbury, the primatial94 church of England. In October 1535, shortly after Michaelmas, Dr. Leighton, the visitor, entered the cathedral, and Archbishop Cranmer went up into the pulpit. He had seen Rome: he had an intimate conviction that that city exerted a mischievous95 influence over all Christendom; he desired, as primate, to take advantage of this important opportunity to break publicly with her. 'No,' he said, 'the bishop61 of Rome is not God's vicar. In vain you will tell me that the See of Rome is called Sancta Sedes, and its bishop entitled Sanctissimus Papa: the pope's holiness is but a holiness in name.[171] Vain-glory, worldly pomp, unrestrained lust97, and vices98 innumerable prevail in Rome. I have seen it with my own eyes. The pope claims by his ceremonies to forgive men their sins: it is a serious error. One work only blots99 them out, namely, the death of our Lord Jesus Christ. So long as the See of Rome endures, there will be no remedy for the evils which overwhelm us. These many years I had daily prayed unto God that I might see the power of Rome destroyed.'[172] Language so frank necessarily displeased100 the adherents101 of the pope, and accordingly, when Cranmer alluded102 to his energetic daily prayer, the Superior of the Dominicans, trembling with excitement, exclaimed: 'What a want of charity!'
He was not the only person struck with indignation and fear. As soon as the sermon was over, the Dominicans assembled to prevent the archbishop from carrying out his intentions. 'We must support the
{86}
papacy,' they said, 'but do it prudently103.' The prior was selected, as being the most eloquent104 of the brothers, to reply to Cranmer. Going into the pulpit, he said: 'The Church of Christ has never erred105. The laws which it makes are equal in authority to the laws of God Himself. I do not know a single bishop of Rome who can be reproached with vice31.'[173] Evidently the prior, however eloquent he might be, was not learned in the history of the Church.
=MONKISH106 DEPRAVITIES.=
The visitation of the Canterbury monasteries began. The immorality107 of most of these houses was manifested by scandalous scenes, and gave rise to questions which we are forced to suppress. The abominable108 vices that prevailed in them are mentioned by St. Paul in his description of the pagan corruptions110.[174] The commissioners having taken their seats in one of the halls of the Augustine monastery111, all the monks came before them, some embarrassed, others bold, but most of them careless. Strange questions were then put to men who declared themselves consecrated to a devout112 and contemplative life: 'Are there any among you,' asked the commissioners, 'who disguising themselves, leave the convent and go vagabondizing about? Do you observe the vow113 of chastity, and has any one been convicted of incontinence? Do women enter the monastery,[175] or live in it habitually114?' We omit the questions that followed. The result was scandalous: eight of the brothers were convicted of abominable vices. The black sheep having been set apart for punishment, Leighton called the other monks together, and said to them: 'True religion does not consist in shaving the head, silence, fasting, and other observances; but in uprightness of soul, purity of life, sincere faith in Christ, brotherly love, and
{87}
the worship of God in spirit and in truth. Do not rest content with ceremonies, but rise to sublimer115 things, and be converted from all these outward practices to inward and deep considerations.'[176]
One visitation still more distressing116 followed this. The Carthusian monastery at Canterbury, four monks of which had died piously117, contained several rotten members. Some of them used to put on lay dresses, and leave the convent during the night. There was one house for monks and another for nuns, and the blacksmith of the monastery confessed that a monk had asked him to file away a bar of the window which separated the two cloisters. It was the duty of the monks to confess the nuns; but by one of those refinements118 of corruption109 which mark the lowest degree of vice, the sin and absolution often followed close upon each other. Some nuns begged the visitors not to permit certain monks to enter their house again.[177]
The visitation being continued through Kent, the visitors came on the 22nd of October to Langdon Abbey, near Dover. William Dyck, abbot of the monastery of the Holy Virgin119, possessed120 a very bad reputation. Leighton, who was determined121 to surprise him, ordered his attendants to surround the abbey in such a manner that no one could leave it. He then went to the abbot's house, which looked upon the fields, and was full of doors and windows by which any one could escape.[178] Leighton began to knock loudly, but no one answered. Observing an axe122, he took it up, dashed in the door with it, and entered. He found a woman with the monk, and the visitors discovered in a chest the men's clothes which she put on when she wished to pass for one of the younger brethren. She escaped, but one of Cromwell's servants caught her and took her before the mayor at
{88}
Dover, where she was placed in the cage. As for the holy father abbot, says Leighton, he was put in prison. A few of the monks signed an act by which they declared that their house being threatened with utter ruin, temporal and spiritual, the king alone could find a remedy, and they consequently surrendered it to his Majesty.[179]
The abbot of Fountains had ruined his abbey by publicly keeping six women. One night he took away the golden crosses and jewels belonging to the monastery, and sold them to a jeweller for a small sum.[180] At Mayden-Bradley, Leighton found another father prior, one Richard, who had five women, six sons, and a daughter pensioned on the property of the convent: his sons, tall, stout young men, lived with him and waited on him. Seeing that the Roman Church prohibited the clergy from obeying the commandment of Scripture123, which says: A bishop must be the husband of one wife, these wretched men took five or six. The impositions of the monks to extort124 money injured them in public opinion far more then their debauchery. Leighton found in St. Anthony's convent at Bristol a tunic125 of our Lord, a petticoat of the Virgin, a part of the Last Supper, and a fragment of the stone upon which Jesus was born at Bethlehem.[181] All these brought in money.
Every religious and moral sentiment is disgusted at hearing of the disorders127 and frauds of the monks, and yet the truth of history requires that they should be made known. Here is one of the means—of the blasphemous128 means—they employed to deceive the people. At Hales in Gloucestershire, the monks pretended that
{89}
they had preserved some of Christ's blood in a bottle. The man whose deadly sins God had not yet pardoned could not see it, they said; while the absolved129 sinner saw it instantaneously. Thousands of penitents131 crowded thither132 from all parts. If a rich man confessed to the priest and laid his gift on the altar, he was conducted into the mysterious chapel133, where the precious vessel134 stood in a magnificent case. The penitent130 knelt down and looked, but saw nothing. 'Your sin is not yet forgiven,' said the priest. Then came another confession29, another offering, another introduction into the sanctuary135; but the unfortunate man opened his eyes in vain, he could see nothing until his contribution satisfied the monks. The commissioners having sent for the vessel, found it to be a 'crystall very thick on one side and very transparent136 on the other.'[182] 'You see, my lords,' said a candid137 friar, 'when a rich penitent appears, we turn the vessel on the thick side; that, you know, opens his heart and his purse.'[183] The transparent side did not appear until he had placed a large donation on the altar.
=THE FRAUD AT BOXLEY.=
No discovery produced a greater sensation in England than that of the practices employed at Boxley in Kent. It possessed a famous crucifix, the image on which, carved in wood, gave an affirmative nod with the head, if the offering was accepted, winked138 the eyes and bent139 the body. If the offering was too small, the indignant figure turned away its head and made a sign of disapproval140.[184] One of the Commissioners took down the crucifix from the wall, and discovered the pipes which carried the wires that the priestly conjuror141 was wont142 to pull.[185] Having put the machine in motion, he
{90}
said: 'You see what little account the monks have made of us and our forefathers143.' The friars trembled with shame and alarm, while the spectators, says the record, roared with laughter, like Ajax.[186] The king sent for the machine, and had it worked in the presence of the court. The figure rolled its eyes, opened its mouth, turned up its nose, let its head fall, and bent its back. 'Upon my word,' said the king, 'I do not know whether I ought not to weep rather than laugh, on seeing how the poor people of England have been fooled for so many centuries.'
These vile144 tricks were the least of the sins of those wretches145. In several convents the visitors found implements146 for coining base money.[187] In others they discovered traces of the horrible cruelties practised by the monks of one faction147 against those of another. Descending148 into the gloomy dungeons149, they perceived, by the help of their torches, the bones of a great number of wretched people, some of whom had died of hunger and others had been crucified.[188] But debauchery was the most frequent case. Those pretended priests of a God who has said: Be ye holy, for I the Lord am holy, covered themselves with the hypocritical mantle150 of their priesthood, and indulged in infamous152 impurities153. They discovered one monk, who, turning auricular confession to an abominable purpose, had carried adultery into two or three hundred families. The list was exhibited, and some of the Commissioners, to their great astonishment154, says a contemporary writer, found the names of their own wives upon it.[189]
There were sometimes riots, sieges, and battles. The
{91}
Royal Commissioners arrived at Norton Abbey in Cheshire, the abbots of which were notorious for having carried on a scandalous traffic with the convent plate. On the last day of their visit, the abbot sent out his monks to muster155 his supporters, and collected a band of two or three hundred men, who surrounded the monastery, to prevent the commissioners from carrying anything away. The latter took refuge in a tower, which they barricaded156. It was two hours past midnight: the abbot had ordered an ox to be killed to feed his rabble157, seated round the fires in front of the convent, and even in the courtyard. On a sudden Sir Piers158 Dulton, a justice of the peace, arrived, and fell with his posse upon the monks and their defenders159. The besiegers were struck with terror, and ran off as fast as they could, hiding themselves in the fish-ponds and out-houses. The abbot and three canons, the instigators of the riot, were imprisoned160 in Halton Castle.[190]
Fortunately, the king's Commissioners met with convents of another character. When George Gifford was visiting the monasteries of Lincolnshire, he came to a lonely district, abounding161 in water but very poor,[191] where the abbey of Woolstrop was situated162. The inhabitants of the neighborhood, notwithstanding their destitution163, praised the charity of the recluses164. Entering the convent, Gifford found an honest prior and some pious monks, who copied books, made their own clothes, and practised the arts of embroidering165, carving166, painting, and engraving167. The visitor petitioned the king for the preservation168 of this monastery.
=THE NUNNERIES.=
The Commissioners had particular instructions for the women's convents. 'Is your house perfectly169 closed?' they asked the abbess and the nuns. 'Can a man get into it?[192] Are you in the habit of writing love-letters?'[193]
{92}
At Litchfield the nuns declared that there was no disorder126 in the convent; but one good old woman told everything, and when Leighton reproached the prioress for her falsehood, she replied: 'Our religion compels us to it. At our admission we swore never to reveal the secret sins that were committed among us.'[194] There were some houses in which nearly all the nuns trampled170 under foot the most sacred duties of their sex, and were without mercy for the unhappy fruits of their disorders.
Such were frequently in those times the monastic orders of the West. The eloquent apologists who eulogize their virtues171 without distinction, and the exaggerating critics who pronounce the same sentence of condemnation172 against all, are both mistaken. We have rendered homage173 to the monks who were upright; we may blame those who were guilty. The scandals, let us say, did not proceed from the founders174 of these orders. Sentiments, opposed beyond a doubt to the principles of the Gospel, although they were well-intentioned, had presided over the formation of the monasteries. The hermits175 Paul, Anthony, and others of the third and fourth centuries gave themselves up to an anti-Evangelical asceticism176, but still they struggled courageously177 against temptation. However, one must be very ignorant not to see that corruption must eventually issue from monastic institutions. Every plant which my heavenly Father hath not planted shall be rooted up, is the language of the Gospel.
We do not exaggerate. The monasteries were sometimes an asylum178 in which men and women, whose hearts had been wrecked179 in the tempests of life, sought a repose180 which the world did not offer. They were mistaken; they ought to have lived with God, but in the
{93}
midst of society. And yet there is a pleasure in believing that behind those walls, which hid so much corruption, there were some elect souls who loved God. Such were found at Catesby, at Godstow, near Oxford, and in other places. The Visitors asked for the preservation of these houses.
If the visitation of the convents was a bitter draught181 to many of the inmates182, it was a cup of joy to the greater number. Many monks and nuns had been put into the convents during their infancy183, and were detained in them against their will. No one ought to be forced, according to Cromwell's principles. When the visitation took place, the Visitors announced to every monk under twenty-four years of age, and to every nun47 under twenty-one, that they might leave the convent. Almost all to whom the doors were thus opened, hastened to profit by it. A secular53 dress was given them, with some money, and they departed with pleasure. But great was the sorrow among many whose age exceeded the limit. Falling on their knees, they entreated184 the Commissioners to obtain a similar favor for them. 'The life we lead here,' they said, 'is contrary to our conscience.'[195]
=REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONERS.=
The Commissioners returned to London, and made their report to the Council. They were distressed185 and disgusted. 'We have discovered,' they said, 'not seven, but more than seven hundred thousand deadly sins.[196] ... These abominable monks are the ravening186 wolves whose coming Christ has announced, and who under sheep's clothing devour74 the flock. Here are the confessions187 of the monks and nuns, subscribed188 with their own hands.[197] This book may well be called The Book of God's Judgment189. The monasteries are so full of iniquity190 that they ought to fall down under such a weight. If there be here and there any innocent cloister, they are
{94}
so few in number that they cannot save the others. Our hearts melt and all our limbs tremble at the thought of the abominations we have witnessed. O Lord! what wilt191 Thou answer to the five cities which Thou didst consume by fire, when they remind Thee of the iniquities192 of those monks, whom Thou hast so long supported?[198] The eloquence193 of Ptolemy, the memory of Pliny, and the pen of St. Augustine would not be able to give us the detestable history of these abominations.'
=DELIBERATIONS OF THE COUNCIL.=
The Council began to deliberate, and many of the members called for the secularization194 of a part of the monasteries. The partisans195 of the religious orders took up their defence, and acknowledged that there was room for reform. 'But,' they added, 'will you deprive of all asylum the pious souls who desire to quit the world, and lead a devout life to the glory of their Maker196?' They tried even to invalidate in some points the testimony197 of the Visitors; but the latter declared that, far from having recorded lightly those scandalous facts, they had excluded many.[199] 'We have not reported certain public scandals,' they said, 'because they seem opposed to the famous charter of the monks—Si non caste, tamen caute.' Men of influence supported the Commissioners' conclusions; a few members of the Council were inclined to indulgence; even Cromwell seemed disposed to attempt the reform of whatever was susceptible198 of improvement; but many believed that all amendment199 was impossible. 'We must, above all things, diminish the wealth of the clergy,' said Dr. Cox; 'for so long as they do not imitate the poverty of Christ, the people will not follow their teaching. I have no doubt,' he added, with a touch of irony, 'that the bishops, priests, and monks will readily free themselves from the heavy burden of wealth of every kind, which renders
{95}
the fulfilment of their spiritual duties impossible.'[200] Other reasons were alleged200. 'The income of the monasteries,' said one of the privy-councillors, 'amounts to 500,000 ducats, while that of all the nobility of England is only 380,000.[201] This disproportion is intolerable, and must be put an end to. For the welfare of his subjects and of the Church, the King should increase the number of bishoprics, parishes, and hospitals. He must augment201 the forces of the State, and prepare to resist the Emperor, whose fleets and armies threaten us. Shall we ask the people for taxes, who have already so much trouble to get a living, while the monks continue to consume their wealth in laziness and debauchery? It would be monstrous202 injustice203. The treasures which the convents derive204 from the nation ought no longer to be useless to the nation.'
In February 1536, this serious matter was laid before Parliament. It was Thomas Cromwell whose heavy hand struck these receptables of impurity, and whom men called 'the hammer of the monks,'[202] who proposed this great reform. He laid on the table of the Commons that famous Black Book, in which were inscribed205 the misdeeds of the religious orders, and desired that it should be read to the House. The book is no longer in existence: it was destroyed, in the reign90 of Queen Mary, by those who had an interest in its suppression. But it was then opened before the Parliament of England. There had never before been such a reading in any assembly. The facts were clearly recorded—the most detestable enormities were not veiled: the horrible confessions of the monks, signed with their own hands were exhibited to the members of the Commons. The recital206 produced an extraordinary effect. Men had had
{96}
no idea of such abominable scandals.[203] The House was horror-stricken, and 'Down with them—down with them!' was shouted on every side.
The debate commenced. Personally, the members were generally interested in the preservation of the monasteries: most of them had some connection with one cloister or another; priors and other heads had relations and friends in Parliament. Nevertheless the condemnation was general, and men spoke207 of those monkish sanctuaries208 as, in former times, men had spoken of the priests of Jezebel—'Let us pull down their houses, and overturn their altars.'[204] There were, however, some objections. Twenty-six abbots, heads of the great monasteries, sat as barons209 in the Upper House: these were respected. Besides, the great convents were less disorderly than the small ones. Cromwell restricted himself for the moment to the secularization of 376 cloisters, in each of which there were fewer than twelve persons. The abbots, flattered by the exception made in their favor, were silent, and even the bishops hardly cared to defend institutions which had long been withdrawn210 from their authority. 'These monasteries,' said Cromwell, 'being the dishonor of religion, and all the attempts, repeated through more than two centuries, having shown that their reformation is impossible, the King, as supreme head of the Church under God, proposes to the Lords and Commons, and these agree, that the possessions of the said houses, shall cease to be wasted for the maintenance of sin, and shall be converted to better uses.'[205]
=REAL RELIGIOUS HOUSES.=
There was immediately a great commotion212 throughout England. Some rejoiced, while others wept: superstition213
{97}
became active, and weak minds believed everything that was told them. 'The Virgin,' they were assured, 'had appeared to certain monks, and ordered them to serve her as they had hitherto done.' 'What! no more religious houses,' exclaimed others, through their tears.[206] 'On the contrary,' said Latimer; 'look at that man and woman living together piously, tranquilly214, in the fear of God, keeping His Word and active in the duties of their calling: they form a religious house, one that is truly acceptable to God. Pure religion consists not in wearing a hood151, but in visiting the fatherless and the widows, and keeping ourselves unspotted from the world. What has hitherto been called a religious life was an irreligious life.'[207] 'And yet,' said the devout, 'the monks had more holiness than those who live in the world.' Latimer again went into the pulpit and said: 'When St. Anthony, the father of monkery, lived in the desert, and thought himself the most holy of men, he asked God who should be his companion in heaven, if it were possible for him to have one. "Go to Alexandria," said the Lord; "in such a street and house you will find him."[208] Anthony left the desert, sought the house, and found a poor cobbler in a wretched shop mending old shoes. The saint took up his abode215 with him, that he might learn by what mortifications the cobbler had made himself worthy216 of such great celestial217 honor. Every morning the poor man knelt down in prayer with his wife, and then went to work. When the dinner-hour arrived, he sat down at a table on which were bread and cheese; he gave thanks, ate his meal with joy, brought up his children in the fear of God, and faithfully discharged all his duties. At this sight, St. Anthony looked inwards, became contrite218 of heart, and put away his pride. Such is the new sort of religious houses,'
{98}
added Latimer, 'that we desire to have now.'
And yet, strange to say, Latimer was almost the only person among the Evangelicals who raised his voice in favor of the religious bodies. He feared that if the property of the convents passed into the greedy hands of Henry's courtiers, the tenants219, accustomed to the mild treatment of the abbots, would be oppressed by the lay landlords, desirous of realizing the fruits of their estate unto the very last drop. The Bishop of Worcester, being somewhat enthusiastic, was anxious that a few convents should be preserved as houses of study, prayer, hospitality, charity, and preaching.[209] Cranmer, who had more discernment and a more practical spirit, had no hope of the monks. 'Satan,' he said, 'lives in the monasteries; he is satisfied and at his ease, like a gentleman in his inn, and the monks and nuns are his very humble220 servants.'[210] The primate, however, took little part in this great measure.[211]
=SUPPRESSION OF THE MONASTERIES.=
The Bill for the suppression of the monasteries passed the two Houses on the 4th of February, 1536. It gave to the king and his heirs all the convents whose annual income did not exceed £200 sterling221. About ten thousand monks and nuns were secularized. This Act added to the revenue of the Crown a yearly rental222 of £32,000 sterling, besides the immediate211 receipt of £100,000 sterling in silver, jewels, and other articles. The possessions hitherto employed by a few to gratify their carnal appetites seemed destined223 to contribute to the prosperity of the whole nation.
Unhappily, the shameless cupidity224 of the monks was replaced by a cupidity of a different nature. Petitions poured in to Cromwell from every quarter. The saying of Scripture was fulfilled, Wheresoever the carcass is, there
{99}
will the eagles be gathered together. Thomas Cobham, brother of Lord Cobham, represented that the Grey Friars' monastery at Canterbury was in a convenient position for him; that it was the city where he was born, and where all his friends lived. He consequently asked that it should be given him, and Cranmer, whose niece he had married, supported the prayer.[212] 'My good Lord,' said Lord-Chancellor Audley, 'my only salary is that of the chancellorship225; give me a few good convents; I will give you my friendship during my life, and twenty pounds sterling for your trouble.' 'My specially85 dear Lord,' said Sir Thomas Eliot, 'I have been the king's ambassador at Rome; my services deserve some recompense. Pray his Majesty to grant me some of the suppressed convent lands. I will give your lordship the income of the first year.'
History has to record evils of another nature. Some of the finest libraries in England were destroyed, and works of great value sold for a trifle to the grocers. Friends of learning on the continent bought many of them, and carried away whole shiploads. One man changed his religion for the sake of a piece of abbey land. The king lost at play the treasures of which he had stripped the monastic orders, and used convents as stables for his horses. Some persons had imagined that the suppression of the monasteries would lead to the abolition226 of taxes and subsidies227; but it was not so, and the nation found itself burdened with a poor-law in addition to the ordinary taxes.[213] There were, however, more worthy cases than those of the king and his courtiers. 'Most dread228, mighty44, and noble prince,' wrote the lord-mayor of London to the king, 'give orders that the three city hospitals shall henceforward subserve not the pleasures of those canons, priests, and
{100}
monks, whose dirty and disgusting bodies encumber229 our streets; but be used for the comfort of the sick and blind, the aged51 and crippled.'
The Act of Parliament was immediately carried out. The earl of Sussex, Sir John St. Clair, Anthony Fitzherbert, Richard Cromwell, and several other commissioners, travelled through England and made known to the religious communities the statutory dissolution. The voice of truth was heard from a small number of monasteries. 'Assuredly,' said the Lincolnshire Franciscans, 'the perfection of Christian230 life does not consist in wearing a gray frock, in disguising ourselves in strange fashion, in bending the body and nodding the head,[214] and in wearing a girdle full of knots. The true Christian life has been divinely manifested to us in Christ; and for that reason we submit with one consent to the king's orders.' The monks of the convent of St. Andrew at Northampton acknowledged to the commissioners that they had taken the habit of the order to live in comfortable idleness and not by virtuous231 labor, and had indulged in continual drunkenness, and in carnal and voluptuous232 appetites.[215] 'We have covered the gospel of Christ with shame,' they said. 'Now, seeing the gulf233 of everlasting234 fire gaping235 to swallow us up, and impelled236 by the stings of our conscience, we humble ourselves with lowly repentance237, and pray for pardon, giving up ourselves and our convent to our sovereign king and lord.'
=SORROW AND DESPAIR.=
But they did not all use the same language. It was the last hour for the convents. There was a ceaseless movement in the cloisters; bursts of sorrow and fear, of anger and despair. What! No more monasteries! no more religious pomps! no more gossip! no more refectory! Those halls, wherein their predecessors238 had paced for centuries; those chapels239, in which they had worshipped kneeling on the pavement, were to be converted
{101}
to vulgar uses. A few convents endeavored to bribe240 Cromwell: 'If you save our house,' said the abbot of Peterborough, 'I will give the king two million five hundred marks, and yourself three hundred pounds sterling.'[216] But Cromwell had conceived a great national measure, and wished to carry it out. Neither the eloquence of the monks, their prayers, their promises, nor their money could move him.
Some of the abbots set themselves in open revolt against the king, but were forced to submit at last. The old halls, the long galleries, the narrow cells of the convents, became emptier from day to day. The monks received a pension in proportion to their age. Those who desired to continue in the religious life were sent to the large monasteries. Many were dismissed with a few shillings for their journey and a new gown.[217] 'As for you,' said the commissioners to the young monks under twenty-five, 'you must earn a living by the work of your hands.' The same rule was applied241 to the nuns.
There was great suffering at this period. The inhabitants of the cloisters were strangers in the world: England was to them an unknown land. Monks and nuns might be seen wandering from door to door, seeking an asylum for the night. Many, who were young then, grew old in beggary. Their sin had been great, and so was their chastisement242. Some of the monks fell into a gloomy melancholy243, even into frightful despair: the remembrance of their faults pursued them; God's judgment terrified them; the sight of their miseries244 infuriated them. 'I am like Esau,' said one of them, 'I shall be eternally damned.' And he strangled himself with his collar. Another stabbed himself with a penknife. Some compassionate245 people having deprived him of the power of injuring himself, he exclaimed with rage,
{102}
'If I cannot die in this manner, I shall easily find another;' and taking a piece of paper, he wrote on it: Rex tanquam tyrannus opprimit populum suum.[218] This he placed in one of the church books, where it was found by a parishioner, who in great alarm called out to the persons around him. The monk, full of hope that he would be brought to trial, drew near and said, 'It was I who did it: here I am; let them put me to death.'
Erelong those gloomy clouds, which seemed to announce a day of storms, appeared to break. There were tempests afterwards, but, speaking generally, England found in this energetic act one of the sources of her greatness, instead of the misfortunes with which she was threatened. At the moment when greedy eyes began to covet246 the revenues of Cambridge and Oxford, a recollection of the pleasant days of his youth was awakened247 in Henry's mind. 'I will not permit the wolves around me,' he said, 'to fall upon the universities.' Indeed, the incomes of a few convents were employed in the foundation of new schools, and particularly of Trinity College, Cambridge; and these institutions helped to spread throughout England the lights of the Renaissance248 and of the Reformation. An eloquent voice was heard from those antique halls, saying: 'O most invincible249 prince, great is the work that you have begun. Christ had laid the foundation; the apostles raised the building. But alas! barren weeds had overrun it; the papal tyranny had bowed all heads beneath its yoke250. Now, you have rejected the pope; you have banished the race of monks. What more can we ask for? We pray that those houses of cenobites, where an ignorant swarm251 of drones was wont to buzz,[219] should behold252 in
{103}
their academic halls a generous youth, eager to be taught, and learned men to teach them. Let the light which has been restored to us spread its rays through all the universe and kindle253 other torches, so that the darkness should flee all over the world[220] before the dawn of a new day.'
It was not learning alone that gained by the suppression of the monasteries. The revenues of the crown, which were about seven hundred thousand ducats, increased by those of the convents which were about nine hundred thousand, were more than doubled. This wealth, hitherto useless, served to fortify254 England and Ireland, build fortresses along the coasts, repair the harbors, and create an imposing255 fleet. The kingdom took a step in the career of power. By the reformation of the convents the moral force of the nation gained still more than the material force. The abolition of the papacy restored to the people that national unity96 which Rome had taken away; and England, freed from subjection to a foreign power, could oppose her enemies with a sword of might and a front of iron.
=NATIONAL PROSPERITY.=
Political economy, rural economy, all that concerns the collection and distribution of wealth, then took a start that nothing has been able to check. The estates, taken from the easy-going monks, produced riches. The king and the nobility, desirous of deriving256 the greatest gain possible from the domains257 that had fallen to them, endeavored to improve agriculture. Many men, until that time useless, electrified258 by the movement of minds, sought the means of existence. The Reformation, from which the nation expected only purity of doctrine259, helped to increase the general prosperity, industry, commerce, and navigation. The poor remembered that God had commanded man to eat his
{104}
bread, not in the shade of the monasteries, but in the sweat of his brow. To this epoch260 we must ascribe the origin of those mercantile enterprises, of those long and distant voyages which were to be one day the strength of Great Britain. Henry VIII. was truly the father of Elizabeth.
Moral, social, and political development was no less a gainer by the order that was established. At the first moment, no doubt, England presented the appearance of a vast chaos261: but from that chaos there sprang a new world. Forces which had hitherto been lost in obscure cells, were employed for the good of society. The men who had been dwelling262 carelessly within or without the cloister walls, and had expended263 all their activity in listlessly giving or listlessly receiving alms, were violently shaken by the blows from the Malleus monachorum, the hammer of the monks: they aroused themselves, and made exertions264 which turned to the public good. Their children, and especially their grandchildren, became useful citizens. The third estate appeared. The population of the cloisters was transformed into an active and intelligent middle class. The very wealth, acquired, it is true, greedily by the nobility, secured them an independence, which enabled them to oppose a salutary counterpoise to the pretensions265 of the crown. The Upper House, where the ecclesiastical element had predominated, became essentially266 a lay house by the absence of the abbots and priors. A public grew up. A new life animated267 antique institutions that had remained almost useless. It was not, in truth, until later that mighty England, having become decidedly evangelical and constitutional, sat down victoriously268 on the two great ruins of feudalism and popery; but an important step was taken under Henry VIII. That great transformation269 extended its influence even beyond the shores of Great Britain. The blow aimed at the system of the Middle Ages re-echoed throughout Europe, and everywhere
{105}
shook the artificial scaffolding. Spain and Italy alone remained almost motionless in the midst of their ancient darkness.
The suppression of the monasteries, begun in 1535, was continued in 1538, and brought to a conclusion in 1539 by an Act of Parliament.
=A PROPHECY.=
A voice was heard from these ruined convents, exclaiming: 'Praise and thanksgiving to God! For other foundation can no man lay than Jesus Christ. Whoever believes that Jesus Christ is the pacifier who turneth away from our heads the strokes of God's wrath,[221] lays the true foundation; and on that firm base he shall raise a better building than that which had the monks for its pillars!' This prophecy of Sir William Overbury's did not fail to be accomplished270.
点击
收听单词发音
收听单词发音 |
1
monasteries
|
|
| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
2
monk
|
|
| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
3
monks
|
|
| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
4
severely
|
|
| adv.严格地；严厉地；非常恶劣地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
5
intentionally
|
|
| ad.故意地，有意地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
6
majesty
|
|
| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
7
heartily
|
|
| adv.衷心地，诚恳地，十分，很 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
8
admiration
|
|
| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
9
alas
|
|
| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
10
incur
|
|
| vt.招致，蒙受，遭遇 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
11
concealing
|
|
| v.隐藏，隐瞒，遮住( conceal的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
12
famished
|
|
| adj.饥饿的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
13
joint
|
|
| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
14
qualms
|
|
| n.不安；内疚 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
15
licentiousness
|
|
| n.放肆，无法无天 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
16
mere
|
|
| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
17
impure
|
|
| adj.不纯净的，不洁的；不道德的，下流的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
18
cloister
|
|
| n.修道院；v.隐退，使与世隔绝 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
19
cloisters
|
|
| n.（学院、修道院、教堂等建筑的）走廊( cloister的名词复数 )；回廊；修道院的生活；隐居v.隐退，使与世隔绝( cloister的第三人称单数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
20
justify
|
|
| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
21
steer
|
|
| vt.驾驶，为…操舵；引导；vi.驾驶 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
22
labor
|
|
| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
23
irony
|
|
| n.反语，冷嘲；具有讽刺意味的事，嘲弄 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
24
parasitical
|
|
| adj. 寄生的(符加的) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
25
anonymous
|
|
| adj.无名的；匿名的；无特色的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
26
lampoons
|
|
| n.讽刺文章或言辞( lampoon的名词复数 )v.冷嘲热讽，奚落( lampoon的第三人称单数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
27
frightful
|
|
| adj.可怕的；讨厌的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
28
satires
|
|
| 讽刺，讥讽( satire的名词复数 )； 讽刺作品 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
29
confession
|
|
| n.自白，供认，承认 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
30
supremacy
|
|
| n.至上；至高权力 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
31
vice
|
|
| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
32
attained
|
|
| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
33
cleanse
|
|
| vt.使清洁，使纯洁，清洗 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
34
stifle
|
|
| vt.使窒息；闷死；扼杀；抑止，阻止 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
35
scatter
|
|
| vt.撒，驱散，散开；散布/播；vi.分散，消散 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
36
virtue
|
|
| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
37
supreme
|
|
| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
38
deposing
|
|
| v.罢免( depose的现在分词 )；（在法庭上）宣誓作证 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
39
fortresses
|
|
| 堡垒，要塞( fortress的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
41
stoutly
|
|
| adv.牢固地，粗壮的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
42
consecrated
|
|
| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
43
almighty
|
|
| adj.全能的，万能的；很大的，很强的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
44
mighty
|
|
| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
45
pious
|
|
| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
46
nuns
|
|
| n.（通常指基督教的）修女， （佛教的）尼姑( nun的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
47
nun
|
|
| n.修女，尼姑 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
48
toils
|
|
| 网 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
49
fortified
|
|
| adj. 加强的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
50
impurity
|
|
| n.不洁，不纯，杂质 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
51
aged
|
|
| adj.年老的，陈年的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
52
laity
|
|
| n.俗人；门外汉 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
53
secular
|
|
| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
54
secularize
|
|
| vt.使凡俗化，使还俗，改作俗用 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
55
inspection
|
|
| n.检查，审查，检阅 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
56
metropolitan
|
|
| adj.大城市的，大都会的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
57
decided
|
|
| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
58
layman
|
|
| n.俗人，门外汉，凡人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
59
clergy
|
|
| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
60
primate
|
|
| n.灵长类（目）动物，首席主教；adj.首要的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
61
bishop
|
|
| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
62
bishops
|
|
| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
63
annul
|
|
| v.宣告…无效，取消，废止 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
64
jurisdiction
|
|
| n.司法权，审判权，管辖权，控制权 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
65
laymen
|
|
| 门外汉，外行人( layman的名词复数 )； 普通教徒（有别于神职人员） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
66
delegation
|
|
| n.代表团；派遣 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
67
relics
|
|
| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
68
edifice
|
|
| n.宏伟的建筑物(如宫殿，教室) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
69
tottering
|
|
| adj.蹒跚的，动摇的v.走得或动得不稳( totter的现在分词 )；踉跄；蹒跚；摇摇欲坠 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
70
hearty
|
|
| adj.热情友好的；衷心的；尽情的，纵情的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
71
apparently
|
|
| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
72
crumbling
|
|
| adj.摇摇欲坠的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
73
puissant
|
|
| adj.强有力的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
74
devour
|
|
| v.吞没；贪婪地注视或谛听，贪读；使着迷 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
75
devouring
|
|
| 吞没( devour的现在分词 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
76
bosom
|
|
| n.胸，胸部；胸怀；内心；adj.亲密的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
77
commissioners
|
|
| n.专员( commissioner的名词复数 )；长官；委员；政府部门的长官 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
78
skilful
|
|
| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
79
celebrated
|
|
| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
80
testament
|
|
| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
81
Oxford
|
|
| n.牛津（英国城市） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
82
banished
|
|
| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
83
slumber
|
|
| n.睡眠，沉睡状态 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
84
awakening
|
|
| n.觉醒，醒悟 adj.觉醒中的；唤醒的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
85
specially
|
|
| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
86
ecclesiastics
|
|
| n.神职者，教会，牧师( ecclesiastic的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
87
forsaking
|
|
| 放弃( forsake的现在分词 )； 弃绝； 抛弃； 摒弃 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
88
torpor
|
|
| n.迟钝；麻木；（动物的）冬眠 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
89
reigned
|
|
| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
90
reign
|
|
| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
91
scattered
|
|
| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
92
philosophical
|
|
| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
93
taverns
|
|
| n.小旅馆，客栈，酒馆( tavern的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
94
primatial
|
|
| 大主教的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
95
mischievous
|
|
| adj.调皮的，恶作剧的，有害的，伤人的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
96
unity
|
|
| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
97
lust
|
|
| n.性(淫)欲；渴(欲)望；vi.对…有强烈的欲望 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
98
vices
|
|
| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
99
blots
|
|
| 污渍( blot的名词复数 )； 墨水渍； 错事； 污点 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
100
displeased
|
|
| a.不快的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
101
adherents
|
|
| n.支持者，拥护者( adherent的名词复数 )；党羽；徒子徒孙 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
102
alluded
|
|
| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
103
prudently
|
|
| adv. 谨慎地，慎重地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
104
eloquent
|
|
| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
105
erred
|
|
| 犯错误，做错事( err的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
106
monkish
|
|
| adj.僧侣的，修道士的，禁欲的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
107
immorality
|
|
| n. 不道德, 无道义 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
108
abominable
|
|
| adj.可厌的，令人憎恶的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
109
corruption
|
|
| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
110
corruptions
|
|
| n.堕落( corruption的名词复数 )；腐化；腐败；贿赂 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
111
monastery
|
|
| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
112
devout
|
|
| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
113
vow
|
|
| n.誓(言)，誓约；v.起誓，立誓 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
114
habitually
|
|
| ad.习惯地，通常地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
115
sublimer
|
|
| 使高尚者，纯化器 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
116
distressing
|
|
| a.使人痛苦的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
117
piously
|
|
| adv.虔诚地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
118
refinements
|
|
| n.（生活）风雅；精炼( refinement的名词复数 )；改良品；细微的改良；优雅或高贵的动作 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
119
virgin
|
|
| n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
120
possessed
|
|
| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
121
determined
|
|
| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
122
axe
|
|
| n.斧子；v.用斧头砍，削减 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
123
scripture
|
|
| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
124
extort
|
|
| v.勒索，敲诈，强要 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
125
tunic
|
|
| n.束腰外衣 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
126
disorder
|
|
| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
127
disorders
|
|
| n.混乱( disorder的名词复数 )；凌乱；骚乱；（身心、机能）失调 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
128
blasphemous
|
|
| adj.亵渎神明的，不敬神的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
129
absolved
|
|
| 宣告…无罪，赦免…的罪行，宽恕…的罪行( absolve的过去式和过去分词 )； 不受责难，免除责任 [义务] ,开脱（罪责） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
130
penitent
|
|
| adj.后悔的；n.后悔者；忏悔者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
131
penitents
|
|
| n.后悔者( penitent的名词复数 )；忏悔者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
132
thither
|
|
| adv.向那里；adj.在那边的，对岸的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
133
chapel
|
|
| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
134
vessel
|
|
| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
135
sanctuary
|
|
| n.圣所，圣堂，寺庙；禁猎区，保护区 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
136
transparent
|
|
| adj.明显的，无疑的；透明的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
137
candid
|
|
| adj.公正的，正直的；坦率的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
138
winked
|
|
| v.使眼色( wink的过去式和过去分词 )；递眼色（表示友好或高兴等）；（指光）闪烁；闪亮 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
139
bent
|
|
| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
140
disapproval
|
|
| n.反对，不赞成 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
141
conjuror
|
|
| n.魔术师，变戏法者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
142
wont
|
|
| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
143
forefathers
|
|
| n.祖先，先人；祖先，祖宗( forefather的名词复数 )；列祖列宗；前人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
144
vile
|
|
| adj.卑鄙的，可耻的，邪恶的；坏透的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
145
wretches
|
|
| n.不幸的人( wretch的名词复数 )；可怜的人；恶棍；坏蛋 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
146
implements
|
|
| n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
147
faction
|
|
| n.宗派，小集团；派别；派系斗争 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
148
descending
|
|
| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
149
dungeons
|
|
| n.地牢( dungeon的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
150
mantle
|
|
| n.斗篷，覆罩之物，罩子；v.罩住，覆盖，脸红 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
151
hood
|
|
| n.头巾，兜帽，覆盖；v.罩上，以头巾覆盖 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
152
infamous
|
|
| adj.声名狼藉的，臭名昭著的，邪恶的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
153
impurities
|
|
| 不纯( impurity的名词复数 )； 不洁； 淫秽； 杂质 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
154
astonishment
|
|
| n.惊奇，惊异 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
155
muster
|
|
| v.集合，收集，鼓起，激起；n.集合，检阅，集合人员，点名册 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
156
barricaded
|
|
| 设路障于，以障碍物阻塞( barricade的过去式和过去分词 )； 设路障[防御工事]保卫或固守 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
157
rabble
|
|
| n.乌合之众，暴民；下等人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
158
piers
|
|
| n.水上平台( pier的名词复数 )；（常设有娱乐场所的）突堤；柱子；墙墩 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
159
defenders
|
|
| n.防御者( defender的名词复数 )；守卫者；保护者；辩护者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
160
imprisoned
|
|
| 下狱，监禁( imprison的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
161
abounding
|
|
| adj.丰富的，大量的v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
162
situated
|
|
| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
163
destitution
|
|
| n.穷困，缺乏，贫穷 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
164
recluses
|
|
| n.隐居者，遁世者，隐士( recluse的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
165
embroidering
|
|
| v.（在织物上）绣花( embroider的现在分词 )；刺绣；对…加以渲染（或修饰）；给…添枝加叶 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
166
carving
|
|
| n.雕刻品，雕花 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
167
engraving
|
|
| n.版画；雕刻（作品）；雕刻艺术；镌版术v.在（硬物）上雕刻（字，画等）( engrave的现在分词 )；将某事物深深印在（记忆或头脑中） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
168
preservation
|
|
| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
169
perfectly
|
|
| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
170
trampled
|
|
| 踩( trample的过去式和过去分词 )； 践踏； 无视； 侵犯 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
171
virtues
|
|
| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
172
condemnation
|
|
| n.谴责; 定罪 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
173
homage
|
|
| n.尊敬，敬意，崇敬 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
174
founders
|
|
| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
175
hermits
|
|
| （尤指早期基督教的）隐居修道士，隐士，遁世者( hermit的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
176
asceticism
|
|
| n.禁欲主义 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
177
courageously
|
|
| ad.勇敢地，无畏地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
178
asylum
|
|
| n.避难所，庇护所，避难 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
179
wrecked
|
|
| adj.失事的，遇难的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
180
repose
|
|
| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
181
draught
|
|
| n.拉，牵引，拖；一网（饮，吸，阵)；顿服药量，通风；v.起草，设计 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
182
inmates
|
|
| n.囚犯( inmate的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
183
infancy
|
|
| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
184
entreated
|
|
| 恳求，乞求( entreat的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
185
distressed
|
|
| 痛苦的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
186
ravening
|
|
| a.贪婪而饥饿的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
187
confessions
|
|
| n.承认( confession的名词复数 )；自首；声明；（向神父的）忏悔 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
188
subscribed
|
|
| v.捐助( subscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；签署，题词；订阅；同意 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
189
judgment
|
|
| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
190
iniquity
|
|
| n.邪恶；不公正 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
191
wilt
|
|
| v.(使)植物凋谢或枯萎；(指人)疲倦，衰弱 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
192
iniquities
|
|
| n.邪恶( iniquity的名词复数 )；极不公正 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
193
eloquence
|
|
| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
194
secularization
|
|
| n.凡俗化，还俗，把教育从宗教中分离 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
195
partisans
|
|
| 游击队员( partisan的名词复数 )； 党人； 党羽； 帮伙 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
196
maker
|
|
| n.制造者，制造商 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
197
testimony
|
|
| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
198
susceptible
|
|
| adj.过敏的，敏感的；易动感情的，易受感动的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
199
amendment
|
|
| n.改正，修正，改善，修正案 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
200
alleged
|
|
| a.被指控的，嫌疑的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
201
augment
|
|
| vt.(使)增大，增加，增长，扩张 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
202
monstrous
|
|
| adj.巨大的；恐怖的；可耻的，丢脸的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
203
injustice
|
|
| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
204
derive
|
|
| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
205
inscribed
|
|
| v.写，刻( inscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；内接 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
206
recital
|
|
| n.朗诵，独奏会，独唱会 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
207
spoke
|
|
| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
208
sanctuaries
|
|
| n.避难所( sanctuary的名词复数 )；庇护；圣所；庇护所 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
209
barons
|
|
| 男爵( baron的名词复数 )； 巨头； 大王； 大亨 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
210
withdrawn
|
|
| vt.收回；使退出；vi.撤退，退出 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
211
immediate
|
|
| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
212
commotion
|
|
| n.骚动，动乱 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
213
superstition
|
|
| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
214
tranquilly
|
|
| adv. 宁静地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
215
abode
|
|
| n.住处，住所 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
216
worthy
|
|
| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
217
celestial
|
|
| adj.天体的；天上的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
218
contrite
|
|
| adj.悔悟了的，后悔的，痛悔的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
219
tenants
|
|
| n.房客( tenant的名词复数 )；佃户；占用者；占有者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
220
humble
|
|
| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
221
sterling
|
|
| adj.英币的(纯粹的，货真价实的)；n.英国货币(英镑) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
222
rental
|
|
| n.租赁，出租，出租业 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
223
destined
|
|
| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
224
cupidity
|
|
| n.贪心，贪财 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
225
chancellorship
|
|
| 长官的职位或任期 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
226
abolition
|
|
| n.废除，取消 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
227
subsidies
|
|
| n.补贴，津贴，补助金( subsidy的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
228
dread
|
|
| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
229
encumber
|
|
| v.阻碍行动，妨碍，堆满 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
230
Christian
|
|
| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
231
virtuous
|
|
| adj.有品德的，善良的，贞洁的，有效力的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
232
voluptuous
|
|
| adj.肉欲的，骄奢淫逸的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
233
gulf
|
|
| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
234
everlasting
|
|
| adj.永恒的，持久的，无止境的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
235
gaping
|
|
| adj.口的；张口的；敞口的；多洞穴的v.目瞪口呆地凝视( gape的现在分词 )；张开，张大 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
236
impelled
|
|
| v.推动、推进或敦促某人做某事( impel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
237
repentance
|
|
| n.懊悔 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
238
predecessors
|
|
| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
239
chapels
|
|
| n.小教堂， （医院、监狱等的）附属礼拜堂( chapel的名词复数 )；（在小教堂和附属礼拜堂举行的）礼拜仪式 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
240
bribe
|
|
| n.贿赂；v.向…行贿，买通 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
241
applied
|
|
| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
242
chastisement
|
|
| n.惩罚 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
243
melancholy
|
|
| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
244
miseries
|
|
| n.痛苦( misery的名词复数 )；痛苦的事；穷困；常发牢骚的人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
245
compassionate
|
|
| adj.有同情心的，表示同情的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
246
covet
|
|
| vt.垂涎；贪图(尤指属于他人的东西) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
247
awakened
|
|
| v.（使）醒( awaken的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）觉醒；弄醒；（使）意识到 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
248
renaissance
|
|
| n.复活，复兴，文艺复兴 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
249
invincible
|
|
| adj.不可征服的，难以制服的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
250
yoke
|
|
| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
251
swarm
|
|
| n.(昆虫)等一大群；vi.成群飞舞；蜂拥而入 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
252
behold
|
|
| v.看，注视，看到 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
253
kindle
|
|
| v.点燃，着火 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
254
fortify
|
|
| v.强化防御，为…设防；加强，强化 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
255
imposing
|
|
| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
256
deriving
|
|
| v.得到( derive的现在分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
257
domains
|
|
| n.范围( domain的名词复数 )；领域；版图；地产 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
258
electrified
|
|
| v.使电气化( electrify的过去式和过去分词 )；使兴奋 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
259
doctrine
|
|
| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
260
epoch
|
|
| n.(新)时代；历元 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
261
chaos
|
|
| n.混乱，无秩序 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
262
dwelling
|
|
| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
263
expended
|
|
| v.花费( expend的过去式和过去分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
264
exertions
|
|
| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
265
pretensions
|
|
| 自称( pretension的名词复数 )； 自命不凡； 要求； 权力 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
266
essentially
|
|
| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
267
animated
|
|
| adj.生气勃勃的，活跃的，愉快的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
268
victoriously
|
|
| adv.获胜地，胜利地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
269
transformation
|
|
| n.变化；改造；转变 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
270
accomplished
|
|
| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
| 欢迎访问英文小说网 |