(1) The knowledge that concerneth man’s body is divided as the good of man’s body is divided, unto which it referreth. The good of man’s body is of four kinds — health, beauty, strength, and pleasure: so the knowledges are medicine, or art of cure; art of decoration, which is called cosmetic1; art of activity, which is called athletic2; and art voluptuary, which Tacitus truly calleth eruditus luxus. This subject of man’s body is, of all other things in nature, most susceptible3 of remedy; but then that remedy is most susceptible of error; for the same subtlety4 of the subject doth cause large possibility and easy failing, and therefore the inquiry5 ought to be the more exact.
(2) To speak, therefore, of medicine, and to resume that we have said, ascending6 a little higher: the ancient opinion that man was microcosmus — an abstract or model of the world — hath been fantastically strained by Paracelsus and the alchemists, as if there were to be found in man’s body certain correspondences and parallels, which should have respect to all varieties of things, as stars, planets, minerals, which are extant in the great world. But thus much is evidently true, that of all substances which nature hath produced, man’s body is the most extremely compounded. For we see herbs and plants are nourished by earth and water; beasts for the most part by herbs and fruits; man by the flesh of beasts, birds, fishes, herbs, grains, fruits, water, and the manifold alterations8, dressings9, and preparations of these several bodies before they come to be his food and aliment. Add hereunto that beasts have a more simple order of life, and less change of affections to work upon their bodies, whereas man in his mansion10, sleep, exercise, passions, hath infinite variations: and it cannot be denied but that the body of man of all other things is of the most compounded mass. The soul, on the other side, is the simplest of substances, as is well expressed:—
“Purumque reliquit
AEthereum sensum atque aurai simplicis ignem.”
So that it is no marvel11 though the soul so placed enjoy no rest, if that principle be true, that Motus rerum est rapidus extra locum, placidus in loco. But to the purpose. This variable composition of man’s body hath made it as an instrument easy to distemper; and, therefore, the poets did well to conjoin music and medicine in Apollo, because the office of medicine is but to tune12 this curious harp13 of man’s body and to reduce it to harmony. So, then, the subject being so variable hath made the art by consequent more conjectural14; and the art being conjectural hath made so much the more place to be left for imposture15. For almost all other arts and sciences are judged by acts or masterpieces, as I may term them, and not by the successes and events. The lawyer is judged by the virtue16 of his pleading, and not by the issue of the cause; this master in this ship is judged by the directing his course aright, and not by the fortune of the voyage; but the physician, and perhaps this politique, hath no particular acts demonstrative of his ability, but is judged most by the event, which is ever but as it is taken: for who can tell, if a patient die or recover, or if a state be preserved or ruined, whether it be art or accident? And therefore many times the impostor is prized, and the man of virtue taxed. Nay17, we see [the] weakness and credulity of men is such, as they will often refer a mountebank18 or witch before a learned physician. And therefore the poets were clear-sighted in discerning this extreme folly19 when they made AEsculapius and Circe, brother and sister, both children of the sun, as in the verses —
“Ipse repertorem medicinae talis et artis
Fulmine Phoebigenam Stygias detrusit ad undas.”
And again —
“Dives inaccessos ubi Solis filia lucos,” &c.
For in all times, in the opinion of the multitude, witches and old women and impostors, have had a competition with physicians. And what followeth? Even this, that physicians say to themselves, as Solomon expresseth it upon a higher occasion, “If it befall to me as befalleth to the fools, why should I labour to be more wise?” And therefore I cannot much blame physicians that they use commonly to intend some other art or practice, which they fancy more than their profession; for you shall have of them antiquaries, poets, humanists, statesmen, merchants, divines, and in every of these better seen than in their profession; and no doubt upon this ground that they find that mediocrity and excellency in their art maketh no difference in profit or reputation towards their fortune: for the weakness of patients, and sweetness of life, and nature of hope, maketh men depend upon physicians with all their defects. But, nevertheless, these things which we have spoken of are courses begotten20 between a little occasion and a great deal of sloth21 and default; for if we will excite and awake our observation, we shall see in familiar instances what a predominant faculty22 the subtlety of spirit hath over the variety of matter or form. Nothing more variable than faces and countenances23, yet men can bear in memory the infinite distinctions of them; nay, a painter, with a few shells of colours, and the benefit of his eye, and habit of his imagination, can imitate them all that ever have been, are, or may be, if they were brought before him. Nothing more variable than voices, yet men can likewise discern them personally: nay, you shall have a buffon or pantomimus will express as many as he pleaseth. Nothing more variable than the differing sounds of words; yet men have found the way to reduce them to a few simple letters. So that it is not the insufficiency or incapacity of man’s mind, but it is the remote standing24 or placing thereof that breedeth these mazes25 and incomprehensions; for as the sense afar off is full of mistaking, but is exact at hand, so is it of the understanding, the remedy whereof is, not to quicken or strengthen the organ, but to go nearer to the object; and therefore there is no doubt but if the physicians will learn and use the true approaches and avenues of nature, they may assume as much as the poet saith:—
“Et quoniam variant26 morbi, variabimus artes; Mille mali species, mille salutis erunt.”
Which that they should do, the nobleness of their art doth deserve: well shadowed by the poets, in that they made AEsculapius to be the son of [the] sun, the one being the fountain of life, the other as the second-stream; but infinitely27 more honoured by the example of our Saviour28, who made the body of man the object of His miracles, as the soul was the object of His doctrine29. For we read not that ever He vouchsafed30 to do any miracle about honour or money (except that one for giving tribute to Caesar), but only about the preserving, sustaining, and healing the body of man.
(3) Medicine is a science which hath been (as we have said) more professed31 than laboured, and yet more laboured than advanced; the labour having been, in my judgment32, rather in circle than in progression. For I find much iteration, but small addition. It considereth causes of diseases, with the occasions or impulsions; the diseases themselves, with the accidents; and the cures, with the preservations33. The deficiences which I think good to note, being a few of many, and those such as are of a more open and manifest nature, I will enumerate34 and not place.
(4) The first is the discontinuance of the ancient and serious diligence of Hippocrates, which used to set down a narrative35 of the special cases of his patients, and how they proceeded, and how they were judged by recovery or death. Therefore having an example proper in the father of the art, I shall not need to allege36 an example foreign, of the wisdom of the lawyers, who are careful to report new cases and decisions, for the direction of future judgments37. This continuance of medicinal history I find deficient38; which I understand neither to be so infinite as to extend to every common case, nor so reserved as to admit none but wonders: for many things are new in this manner, which are not new in the kind; and if men will intend to observe, they shall find much worthy39 to observe.
(5) In the inquiry which is made by anatomy40, I find much deficience: for they inquire of the parts, and their substances, figures, and collocations; but they inquire not of the diversities of the parts, the secrecies41 of the passages, and the seats or nestling of the humours, nor much of the footsteps and impressions of diseases. The reason of which omission42 I suppose to be, because the first inquiry may be satisfied in the view of one or a few anatomies43; but the latter, being comparative and casual, must arise from the view of many. And as to the diversity of parts, there is no doubt but the facture or framing of the inward parts is as full of difference as the outward, and in that is the cause continent of many diseases; which not being observed, they quarrel many times with the humours, which are not in fault; the fault being in the very frame and mechanic of the part, which cannot be removed by medicine alterative44, but must be accommodated and palliated by diets and medicines familiar. And for the passages and pores, it is true which was anciently noted45, that the more subtle of them appear not in anatomies, because they are shut and latent in dead bodies, though they be open and manifest in life: which being supposed, though the inhumanity of anatomia vivorum was by Celsus justly reproved; yet in regard of the great use of this observation, the inquiry needed not by him so slightly to have been relinquished46 altogether, or referred to the casual practices of surgery; but might have been well diverted upon the dissection47 of beasts alive, which notwithstanding the dissimilitude of their parts may sufficiently48 satisfy this inquiry. And for the humours, they are commonly passed over in anatomies as purgaments; whereas it is most necessary to observe, what cavities, nests, and receptacles the humours do find in the parts, with the differing kind of the humour so lodged49 and received. And as for the footsteps of diseases, and their devastations of the inward parts, impostumations, exulcerations, discontinuations, putrefactions, consumptions, contractions50, extensions, convulsions, dislocations, obstructions51, repletions, together with all preternatural substances, as stones, carnosities, excrescences, worms, and the like; they ought to have been exactly observed by multitude of anatomies, and the contribution of men’s several experiences, and carefully set down both historically according to the appearances, and artificially with a reference to the diseases and symptoms which resulted from them, in case where the anatomy is of a defunct52 patient; whereas now upon opening of bodies they are passed over slightly and in silence.
(6) In the inquiry of diseases, they do abandon the cures of many, some as in their nature incurable53, and others as past the period of cure; so that Sylla and the Triumvirs never proscribed54 so many men to die, as they do by their ignorant edicts: whereof numbers do escape with less difficulty than they did in the Roman prescriptions55. Therefore I will not doubt to note as a deficience, that they inquire not the perfect cures of many diseases, or extremities56 of diseases; but pronouncing them incurable do enact57 a law of neglect, and exempt58 ignorance from discredit59.
(7) Nay further, I esteem60 it the office of a physician not only to restore health, but to mitigate61 pain and dolors; and not only when such mitigation may conduce to recovery, but when it may serve to make a fair and easy passage. For it is no small felicity which Augustus Caesar was wont62 to wish to himself, that same Euthanasia; and which was specially63 noted in the death of Antoninus Pius, whose death was after the fashion, and semblance64 of a kindly65 and pleasant sheep. So it is written of Epicurus, that after his disease was judged desperate, he drowned his stomach and senses with a large draught66 and ingurgitation of wine; whereupon the epigram was made, Hinc Stygias ebrius hausit aquas; he was not sober enough to taste any bitterness of the Stygian water. But the physicians contrariwise do make a kind of scruple67 and religion to stay with the patient after the disease is deplored68; whereas in my judgment they ought both to inquire the skill, and to give the attendances, for the facilitating and assuaging69 of the pains and agonies of death.
(5) In the consideration of the cures of diseases, I find a deficience in the receipts of propriety70, respecting the particular cures of diseases: for the physicians have frustrated71 the fruit of tradition and experience by their magistralities, in adding and taking out and changing quid pro7 qua in their receipts, at their pleasures; commanding so over the medicine, as the medicine cannot command over the disease. For except it be treacle72 and mithridatum, and of late diascordium, and a few more, they tie themselves to no receipts severely73 and religiously. For as to the confections of sale which are in the shops, they are for readiness and not for propriety. For they are upon general intentions of purging74, opening, comforting, altering, and not much appropriate to particular diseases. And this is the cause why empirics and old women are more happy many times in their cures than learned physicians, because they are more religious in holding their medicines. Therefore here is the deficience which I find, that physicians have not, partly out of their own practice, partly out of the constant probations reported in books, and partly out of the traditions of empirics, set down and delivered over certain experimental medicines for the cure of particular diseases, besides their own conjectural and magistral descriptions. For as they were the men of the best composition in the state of Rome, which either being consuls75 inclined to the people, or being tribunes inclined to the senate; so in the matter we now handle, they be the best physicians, which being learned incline to the traditions of experience, or being empirics incline to the methods of learning.
(9) In preparation of medicines I do find strange, specially considering how mineral medicines have been extolled76, and that they are safer for the outward than inward parts, that no man hath sought to make an imitation by art of natural baths and medicinable fountains: which nevertheless are confessed to receive their virtues77 from minerals; and not so only, but discerned and distinguished78 from what particular mineral they receive tincture, as sulphur, vitriol, steel, or the like; which nature, if it may be reduced to compositions of art, both the variety of them will be increased, and the temper of them will be more commanded.
(10) But lest I grow to be more particular than is agreeable either to my intention or to proportion, I will conclude this part with the note of one deficience more, which seemeth to me of greatest consequence: which is, that the prescripts in use are too compendious79 to attain80 their end; for, to my understanding, it is a vain and flattering opinion to think any medicine can be so sovereign or so happy, as that the receipt or miss of it can work any great effect upon the body of man. It were a strange speech which spoken, or spoken oft, should reclaim81 a man from a vice82 to which he were by nature subject. It is order, pursuit, sequence, and interchange of application, which is mighty83 in nature; which although it require more exact knowledge in prescribing, and more precise obedience84 in observing, yet is recompensed with the magnitude of effects. And although a man would think, by the daily visitations of the physicians, that there were a pursuance in the cure, yet let a man look into their prescripts and ministrations, and he shall find them but inconstancies and every day’s devices, without any settled providence85 or project. Not that every scrupulous86 or superstitious87 prescript is effectual, no more than every straight way is the way to heaven; but the truth of the direction must precede severity of observance.
(11) For cosmetic, it hath parts civil, and parts effeminate: for cleanness of body was ever esteemed88 to proceed from a due reverence89 to God, to society, and to ourselves. As for artificial decoration, it is well worthy of the deficiences which it hath; being neither fine enough to deceive, nor handsome to use, nor wholesome90 to please.
(12) For athletic, I take the subject of it largely, that is to say, for any point of ability whereunto the body of man may be brought, whether it be of activity, or of patience; whereof activity hath two parts, strength and swiftness; and patience likewise hath two parts, hardness against wants and extremities, and endurance of pain or torment91; whereof we see the practices in tumblers, in savages92, and in those that suffer punishment. Nay, if there be any other faculty which falls not within any of the former divisions, as in those that dive, that obtain a strange power of containing respiration93, and the like, I refer it to this part. Of these things the practices are known, but the philosophy that concerneth them is not much inquired; the rather, I think, because they are supposed to be obtained, either by an aptness of nature, which cannot be taught, or only by continual custom, which is soon prescribed which though it be not true, yet I forbear to note any deficiences; for the Olympian games are down long since, and the mediocrity of these things is for use; as for the excellency of them it serveth for the most part but for mercenary ostentation94.
(13) For arts of pleasure sensual, the chief deficience in them is of laws to repress them. For as it hath been well observed, that the arts which flourish in times while virtue is in growth, are military; and while virtue is in state, are liberal; and while virtue is in declination, are voluptuary: so I doubt that this age of the world is somewhat upon the descent of the wheel. With arts voluptuary I couple practices joculary; for the deceiving of the senses is one of the pleasures of the senses. As for games of recreation, I hold them to belong to civil life and education. And thus much of that particular human philosophy which concerns the body, which is but the tabernacle of the mind.
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cosmetic
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| n.化妆品；adj.化妆用的；装门面的；装饰性的 | |
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athletic
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| adj.擅长运动的，强健的；活跃的，体格健壮的 | |
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susceptible
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| adj.过敏的，敏感的；易动感情的，易受感动的 | |
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subtlety
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| n.微妙，敏锐，精巧；微妙之处，细微的区别 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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ascending
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| adj.上升的，向上的 | |
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pro
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| n.赞成，赞成的意见，赞成者 | |
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alterations
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| n.改动( alteration的名词复数 )；更改；变化；改变 | |
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dressings
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| n.敷料剂；穿衣( dressing的名词复数 )；穿戴；（拌制色拉的）调料；（保护伤口的）敷料 | |
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mansion
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| n.大厦，大楼；宅第 | |
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marvel
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| vi.(at)惊叹vt.感到惊异；n.令人惊异的事 | |
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tune
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| n.调子；和谐，协调；v.调音，调节，调整 | |
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harp
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| n.竖琴；天琴座 | |
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conjectural
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| adj.推测的 | |
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imposture
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| n.冒名顶替，欺骗 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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mountebank
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| n.江湖郎中；骗子 | |
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folly
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| n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话 | |
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begotten
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| v.为…之生父( beget的过去分词 )；产生，引起 | |
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sloth
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| n.[动]树懒；懒惰，懒散 | |
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faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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countenances
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| n.面容( countenance的名词复数 )；表情；镇静；道义支持 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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mazes
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| 迷宫( maze的名词复数 )； 纷繁复杂的规则； 复杂难懂的细节； 迷宫图 | |
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variant
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| adj.不同的，变异的；n.变体，异体 | |
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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saviour
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| n.拯救者，救星 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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vouchsafed
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| v.给予，赐予( vouchsafe的过去式和过去分词 )；允诺 | |
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professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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preservations
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| n.保藏( preservation的名词复数 )；储藏；保持 | |
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enumerate
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| v.列举，计算，枚举，数 | |
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narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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allege
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| vt.宣称，申述，主张，断言 | |
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judgments
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| 判断( judgment的名词复数 )； 鉴定； 评价； 审判 | |
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deficient
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| adj.不足的，不充份的，有缺陷的 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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anatomy
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| n.解剖学，解剖；功能，结构，组织 | |
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secrecies
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| 保密（secrecy的复数形式） | |
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omission
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| n.省略，删节；遗漏或省略的事物，冗长 | |
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anatomies
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| n.解剖( anatomy的名词复数 )；（详细的）分析；（生物体的）解剖结构；人体 | |
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alterative
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| adj.（趋于）改变的，变质的，使体质逐渐康复的n.变质剂，体质改善疗法 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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relinquished
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| 交出，让给( relinquish的过去式和过去分词 )； 放弃 | |
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dissection
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| n.分析；解剖 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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lodged
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| v.存放( lodge的过去式和过去分词 )；暂住；埋入；（权利、权威等）归属 | |
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contractions
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| n.收缩( contraction的名词复数 )；缩减；缩略词；（分娩时）子宫收缩 | |
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obstructions
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| n.障碍物( obstruction的名词复数 )；阻碍物；阻碍；阻挠 | |
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defunct
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| adj.死亡的；已倒闭的 | |
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incurable
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| adj.不能医治的，不能矫正的，无救的；n.不治的病人，无救的人 | |
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proscribed
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| v.正式宣布（某事物）有危险或被禁止( proscribe的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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prescriptions
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| 药( prescription的名词复数 )； 处方； 开处方； 计划 | |
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extremities
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| n.端点( extremity的名词复数 )；尽头；手和足；极窘迫的境地 | |
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enact
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| vt.制定(法律)；上演，扮演 | |
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exempt
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| adj.免除的；v.使免除；n.免税者，被免除义务者 | |
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discredit
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| vt.使不可置信；n.丧失信义；不信，怀疑 | |
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esteem
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| n.尊敬，尊重；vt.尊重，敬重；把…看作 | |
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mitigate
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| vt.（使）减轻，（使）缓和 | |
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wont
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| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
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specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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semblance
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| n.外貌，外表 | |
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kindly
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| adj.和蔼的，温和的，爽快的；adv.温和地，亲切地 | |
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draught
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| n.拉，牵引，拖；一网（饮，吸，阵)；顿服药量，通风；v.起草，设计 | |
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scruple
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| n./v.顾忌，迟疑 | |
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deplored
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| v.悲叹，痛惜，强烈反对( deplore的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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assuaging
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| v.减轻( assuage的现在分词 )；缓和；平息；使安静 | |
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propriety
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| n.正当行为；正当；适当 | |
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frustrated
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| adj.挫败的，失意的，泄气的v.使不成功( frustrate的过去式和过去分词 )；挫败；使受挫折；令人沮丧 | |
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72
treacle
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| n.糖蜜 | |
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severely
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| adv.严格地；严厉地；非常恶劣地 | |
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purging
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| 清洗； 清除； 净化； 洗炉 | |
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consuls
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| 领事( consul的名词复数 )； （古罗马共和国时期）执政官 （古罗马共和国及其军队的最高首长，同时共有两位，每年选举一次） | |
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extolled
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| v.赞颂，赞扬，赞美( extol的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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compendious
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| adj.简要的，精简的 | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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reclaim
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| v.要求归还，收回；开垦 | |
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vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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providence
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| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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scrupulous
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| adj.审慎的，小心翼翼的，完全的，纯粹的 | |
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superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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wholesome
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| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
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torment
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| n.折磨；令人痛苦的东西(人)；vt.折磨；纠缠 | |
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savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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respiration
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| n.呼吸作用；一次呼吸；植物光合作用 | |
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ostentation
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| n.夸耀，卖弄 | |
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