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CHAPTER XVI. CONTRIBUTIONS ON ENGINEERING AND SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS.
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    Contributions to Encyclop?dia Britannica and Edinburgh Encyclop?dia—The alveus or bed of the German Ocean—Sectio planography—Wasting effects of the sea at the Mersey and Dee—Density1 of fresh and salt water—The Hydrophore.

We have seen that Mr. Stevenson’s college education was mainly, if not altogether, due to his own thirst for knowledge, and his education being voluntarily undertaken, could hardly fail to issue in good results. That his early studies were of incalculable value to him no one can doubt; and his own conviction of this may explain the solicitude2 with which, in after life, he impressed on his sons the extreme importance of being properly grounded in every branch of study, scientific and practical, which a well trained engineer has to call to his aid in the practice of his profession.

Fortified3 by this valuable training, Mr. Stevenson had also that unselfish love of his profession which alone can move a man to give the results of his experience freely to others, and this he did to the Edinburgh Encyclop?dia and the Encyclop?dia Britannica, in articles on “Roads,” “Lighthouses,” “Railways,” “Dredging,” “Blasting,” and other engineering subjects.

204 But he did not confine his literary labours to matters purely4 professional. His love for nature in all its aspects led him also to make communications to the Scientific Journals of the day on subjects of more general interest. Of these his papers “On the Alveus or Bed of the German Ocean,” in which by an investigation5 of many evidences he is led to the conclusion that the sea is gradually encroaching on the land, may be quoted as an example.

Mr. Stevenson’s first communication on this subject was published in 1816, in vol. ii. of the Wernerian Transactions, in which he gives examples, from actual observation, of the wasting effects of the sea on various parts of the coasts of the British Isles6. His second communication was made to the Wernerian Society in March 1820, and published in the Edinburgh Philosophical8 Journal of that year.

In the fifth edition of Baron9 Cuvier’s “Essay on the Theory of the Earth,” reference is made to Mr. Stevenson’s theory. His papers are several times quoted in Lyell’s Principles of Geology, and the General Committee of the British Association at York in 1834 passed a resolution, “that Mr. Stevenson be requested to report to the next meeting upon the waste and extension of the land on the east coast of Britain, and upon the general question of the permanence of the level of the sea and land, and that individuals who may be able to supply information upon the subject be requested to correspond with him.”

Without discussing in how far Mr. Stevenson’s theory may be sound (for on such questions it is notorious that205 the views of geologists10 do not always coincide), it cannot be denied that his mode of dealing11 with the subject is original and interesting, and as the papers are not now accessible to the general reader, it may be excusable to give one of them in extenso. I also notice another feature which gives interest to the subject. In his illustrations he adopted a mode of representation which was peculiarly suitable for the object in view. It will be seen from Plate XII. that the sections are laid down on what is now known by engineers as sectio planography, which it is believed was used for the first time in illustrating12 this paper.
“On the Bed of the German Ocean, or North Sea. (Read before the Wernerian Natural History Society, 25th March 1820.)”

“The efforts of man in exploring the more occult processes of nature are necessarily much circumscribed13, especially when his attempts are directed to the investigation of regions which his senses cannot penetrate14. It has accordingly been with the utmost difficulty that his exertions15 have been rendered in any degree successful in prying16 into the bowels17 of the earth, or in his endeavours to ascend18 to the a?rial regions. In proof of this, the limited excavations19 even of the most extensive mining works, have required the lapse20 of ages, and the powerful stimulus21 of commercial enterprise, for their accomplishment22. From these the philosopher has not hitherto derived23 much light, to enable him to compare the theories which have been assigned by geologists to account for the various and206 discordant24 appearances of the structure of the globe. It has also been with much difficulty, and at no small personal hazard, that the philosophical inquirer has ventured to climb the highest mountains, to examine into the phenomena25 of the atmosphere. The balloon has indeed enabled us to attain26 still higher points of elevation27; but as yet we do not seem to have made proportional progress in knowledge. In all such attempts to ascend the greatest heights or penetrate the deepest excavations, we still breathe in our own element, though under different modifications28. If, however, we would explore the depths of the Ocean, we immediately encounter an element to which the organisation29 of our lungs is not at all adapted; the density of air, compared with water on a level with the surface of the sea, being in the ratio of one to about 850; and our difficulties must consequently increase in a very rapid proportion. Here therefore we are unavoidably left to conjecture30 on many points of our inquiries31 regarding this highly interesting subject. Even the ingenious contrivance of the diving bell contributes but little towards our investigations32 for ascertaining33 the nature of the bottom of the sea, at least to any considerable depth, on account of the difficulty of its application in situations exposed to stormy weather, and also of the increasing ratio of the pressure of the fluid as we descend34. This curious machine, it is believed, was invented and employed, about the year 1720, by a Captain Rowe for raising the wreck35 of ships upon the coast of Scotland; and in the year 1778, the active mind of Smeaton first applied36 it to the operations of the engineer.

PLATE XII.

CHART
of the
NORTH SEA OR GERMAN OCEAN
with SECTIONS of the
DEPTHS of WATER
Illustrative of Observations
by
ROBERT STEVENSON
Civil Engineer
1820.

W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinburgh.

207 “Our knowledge of the bottom of the ocean, therefore, remains37 still very imperfect, and, with little exception, the simple apparatus38 of the mariner39, consisting of a plummet41 and line, continues to be chiefly in use for ascertaining the depth of the sea and the nature of the ground. With these, and the addition of a little grease applied to the lower extremity42 of the plummet, which strikes against the bottom, we learn the quality of the soil, though imperfectly, by the particles which adhere to the grease. What the navigator has yet been able to discover regarding the depth and the nature of the bottom of the German Ocean, I shall now endeavour to notice, being myself enabled to offer the result of a pretty extensive acquaintance with this field of inquiry44.

“It may be necessary to premise45, in treating of a subject so extensive, and in comparing great things with small, that we are obliged to speak of the North Sea as a bay or basin, and of the immense collection of débris which we meet with, extending over a great proportion of its bottom, under the common appellation46 of sand banks. We must also be allowed to consider the undulating line, or the irregularities of the bottom, to arise chiefly from the accumulation of deposited matters; and in most of the situations connected with these banks, we are supported and borne out in this conclusion, by their local positions relatively47 to the openings of firths, and the line of their direction in regard to the set or current of the ebb48 tide.

“The accompanying map (Plate XII.) of the eastern coast of Great Britain, with the opposite Continent, though208 upon a small scale, exhibits numerous soundings of the depth of the German Ocean; and the sections delineated on it will perhaps be found to give a pretty distinct view of the subject. This chart extends from the coast of France, in latitude49 50° 57′ to 61° N. On the east, this great basin is bounded by Denmark and Norway, on the west by the British Isles, on the south by Germany, Holland, and France, and on the north by the Shetland Islands and the Great Northern or Arctic Ocean. The term German Ocean, though in very common use, is certainly not so comprehensive in its application to this great basin as that of North Sea, now more generally used by the navigator. The extent of this sea from south to north, between the parallels of latitude quoted above, is 233 leagues, and its greatest breadth from west to east, reckoning from St. Abb’s Head, on the coast of Scotland, to Ringhjo?bing Fiord, on the opposite shore of Denmark, is 135 leagues. The greatest depth of the water in this basin seems to be upon the Norwegian side, where the soundings give 190 fathoms50; but the mean depth of the whole may be stated at only about 31 fathoms.

“To be more particular with regard to the depth of the German Ocean, or North Sea, it will be observed by the sections and soundings marked upon the chart, that the water gradually deepens as we sail from south to north. The first of these sections which we shall notice is on the parallel of three degrees of east longitude51, running from Ostend to the latitude of the northmost of the Shetland Islands, being an extent of 227 leagues. The depth, as will be seen from this section (which, to avoid confusion209 in the body of the chart, is traced along the western side of it), varies rather after an irregular progression, from 120 fathoms towards the northern extremity of this sectional line, to 58, 38, 24, and 18 fathoms, as we proceed southwards, to within five miles of the shore, nearer which we do not approach in our remarks regarding the soundings. Notwithstanding the irregularity of the depth from the occurrence of numerous sandbanks, it is curious to observe the increase upon the whole as we proceed from south to north, by which this sea exhibits all the characteristic features of a great bay, encumbered52 with numerous sandbanks.

“In the same manner, though not strictly53 connected with our present purpose, we may observe that the English Channel deepens progressively from Dover to its entrance, formed by the Land’s End of England and the Isle7 of Ushant, on the coast of France; so that the Strait between Dover and Calais may be said to form a point of partition between two great inclined planes, forming the bottom of these seas.

“Besides the longitudinal, or north and south sectional line described above, we have also six other sections delineated in an easterly and westerly direction, across the accompanying chart, which are as follow. One between the Shetland Islands and the coast of Norway; a second between Tarbetness in Ross-shire and the Naze of Norway; a third extends from the Firth of Forth54 to the coast of Denmark; a fourth from the mouth of the river Tyne to Sylt Island, also in Denmark; a fifth from Flamborough Head, in Yorkshire, to the mouth of the210 River Elbe; and the sixth is from Yarmouth to Egmond-op-Zee, on the coast of Holland. Other sections of this sea have also been made, which include the general elevation of the land, as, for example, one of these extends from Holland across the German Ocean to the Thames, and through the interior of the country to the Bristol Channel; then crossing St. George’s Channel, this sectional line passes through the southern extremity of Ireland, and falls into the Atlantic Ocean; but this will be more particularly noticed, when I come to speak of the bed of the English Channel, in a future paper.

“On examining the accompanying cross sections of the depths of water on the same parallel they will be found to vary considerably55. It may, however, be stated as a general conclusion, that there is a greater depth of water on the eastern and western sides of the German Ocean than in its central parts, and that, upon the whole, it is deeper on the British than on the continental56 shores, the coast of Norway excepted.

“We have already observed, that this sea is much encumbered with sandbanks, or great accumulations of débris, especially in the middle or central parts, and also along the shores towards what may be termed the apex57 of the bay, extending from the river Thames along the shores of Holland, etc., to the Baltic. One of these great central banks, delineated on the chart, and known to mariners58 as the Long Forties, trends north-east in the direction of the ebb tide from the entrance of the Firth of Forth no less than 110 miles, while the Denmark and Jutland banks may also be traced on the chart from the211 entrance of the Baltic, upwards59 of 105 miles in a north-western direction. Besides these, we have also another great central range of banks, which is crossed by no fewer than four of our sectional lines. These are known under the common appellation of the Dogger Bank, which is subdivided60 by the navigator into the Long Bank, the White Bank, and the Well Bank, including an extent of upwards of 354 miles from north to south. There are also a vast number of shoals and sandbanks, lying wholly to the southward of our section, between Flamborough Head and Heligoland. Altogether, therefore, the superficies of these extensive banks is found to occupy no inconsiderable portion of the whole area of the German Ocean; the surface of which, in making these investigations, has been estimated to contain about 153,709 square miles, while the aggregate61 superficial contents of the sandbanks alone amount to no less than 27,443 square miles, or include an area of about 5? of the whole surface of the North Sea.

“But to render these dimensions a little more familiar by comparison, we may notice, that the Island of Great Britain contains about 77,244 square miles, being not quite one half of the area of the North Sea; so that the area of the sandbanks bears a proportion equal to about one third of the whole terra firma of England and Scotland; and they are, therefore, perhaps, far more considerable in their extent than has been generally imagined.

“In speaking of the dimensions of sandbanks situate in the middle of the ocean, we are aware that great allowance must be made in forming a proper estimate of their212 extent, especially in speaking of their cubical contents. From a vast number of observations and comparisons relative to this subject, I have, however, been enabled to determine, that the average height of these banks measures about seventy-eight feet, from a mean taken of the whole. In ascertaining their height above the surrounding bottom, the measurement has been taken from the general depth around each respectively. Now, upon taking the aggregate cubical contents of the whole of these immense collections of débris, supposing the mass to be uniformly the same throughout, it is found to amount to no less a quantity than 2,241,248,563,110 of cubic yards, being equal to about fourteen feet of the depth of the whole German Ocean, or to a portion of the firm ground of Great Britain, on a level with the sea, taken twenty-eight feet in perpendicular62 height or depth, supposing the surface to be a level plane.

“These calculations at least tend to show that an immense body of water must be displaced, in consequence of these banks occupying so very considerable a proportion of the bed of the North Sea, the unavoidable effect of which must give a direct tendency to the tidal waters, and the flux63 produced by storms in the Atlantic, to overflow64 the bed of the German Ocean, in the same manner as if stones or other matter were thrown into a vessel65 already nearly brimful of water. This may further be illustrated66 by considering the actual state of any of the great inland lakes, as those of Geneva, Lochness, Lochlomond, etc., which for ages past have been receiving the débris of the surrounding mountains. We must doubtless213 allow that they contain a smaller portion of water, or are actually of a less depth than they were at an earlier period of the history of the globe. Accordingly, from inquiries, which, in the prosecution67 of this subject, I have been led to make regarding the two last mentioned lakes, it has satisfactorily appeared that their waters are subject to overflow or rise upon their banks. On Lochlomond, in particular, the site of a house at the village of Luss was pointed68 out to me, which is now permanently69 under the summer water mark, while the gable of another house in its neighbourhood is in danger of being washed down by the increase of the waters of the loch. Whether this striking appearance is to be attributed wholly to natural causes, or partly to artificial operations upon the bed of the river Leven, flowing from the loch, I have had no opportunity of inquiring. But the great bench or flat space round the margin70 of the loch, which is left partly dry during summer, forms altogether such a receptacle for débris as to be sufficient to affect the surface of the loch, and indeed permanently to raise its waters. We also infer, though by a different process, that the constant deposition71 going forward in the bed of the German Ocean must likewise displace its waters, and give them a tendency to enlarge their bed and to overflow their banks or boundary.

“In this view of the subject, it will appear that we have not only to account for the supply of an immense quantity of débris, but we must also dispose of the water displaced by the process of deposition which is continually going forward at the bottom of the ocean.

214 “With regard, then, to the supply of the débris of which these banks are composed.—We find that a very great portion of it consists of siliceous matters in the form of sand, varying in size from the finest grains to coarse bulky particles, mixed with coral and pounded shells, the quantity of these calcareous matters being altogether astonishingly great; and being specifically lighter72 than the particles of sand, the shells generally cover the surface of these sunken banks. With regard to the vast collection of siliceous particles connected with the banks, our surprise ceases when we consider the receptacle which the North Sea forms, to an almost unlimited73 extent of drainage from the surrounding countries, on which the change of the seasons, and the succession of rain and of drought upon the surface of the earth, are unceasingly producing their destructive effects. All have remarked the quantity of mud and débris with which every rill and river is charged, even after the gentlest shower; especially wherever the hand of the agriculturist is to be found. His labours in keeping up the fertilising quality of the ground consist in a great measure in preparing a fresh matrix for the chemical process or the germination74 of the seeds of the earth, in lieu of that portion of the finely pulverised soil which the rains are perpetually carrying to the sea, as the grand receptacle and storehouse of nature for these exuvi? of the globe. From the effect of rills and rivulets75, we should, perhaps, rather be apt to expect a greater deposition in the bed of sheltered bays and arms of the sea than we really observe. So that we can readily believe that the quantity of débris, even for a single year,215 along such an extent of coast, may bear some consideration in respect to the bed of the German Ocean; what, then, must these effects produce in the lapse of ages?

“Whatever be the cause, the fact is certain, that on almost every part of the shores of Great Britain and Ireland, and their connecting islands, from the northernmost of the Shetland to the southernmost of the Scilly Islands, and also upon the shores of Holland, and part of France, particularly in the neighbourhood of Cherbourg, this wasting effect is going forward. These shores I have myself examined. But my inquiries have not been confined to the coasts which I have personally visited, having also, through the kind attentions of some nautical76 friends, been enabled to extend my investigations even to the remotest parts of the globe. The general result has been, that equally in the most sheltered seas, such as the Baltic and Mediterranean77, and on the most exposed points and promontories78 of the coasts of North and South America, and the West India Islands, abundant proofs occur, all tending to show the general waste of the land by the encroachments of the sea. Such wasting effects are quite familiar to those locally acquainted with particular portions of the shores; and I have often received their testimony80 to these facts, as the sad experience of the removal of buildings, and the inundation81 of extensive tracts82 of land by the encroachment79 of the sea.

“Indeed, by a closer inquiry into this department of the subject, we shall, perhaps, find ourselves rather at a loss to account for the smallness of the quantity of this deposition, considering the waste which is constantly216 going forward in the process of nature, and even be led to seek for its wider distribution over the whole expanse of the bed of the ocean, as has been supposed in that theory of the globe, so beautifully and so ably defended by our late illustrious countryman Professor Playfair.

“One of the most striking and general examples of this kind may perhaps be found in the abrupt83 and precipitous headlands and shores which we everywhere observe along the coast, and which we suppose to have once been of the same sloping form and declining aspect with the contiguous land. In the production of these effects alone, an immense quantity of débris must have been thrown into the bed of the ocean. The channels which are cut by the sea in the separation of parts of the mainland, and the formation of islands, no doubt make way for a considerable portion of the displaced fluid; but still these channels, when filled with water, come far short, in point of bulk, when compared with the portions of the elevated land which are thus removed. Now, it has been alleged84 by some, that while the land is wasting at certain points, it is also gaining in others; and this is a state of things which is freely admitted to take place in various quarters; yet these apparent acquisitions are no more to be compared with the waste alluded85 to, than the drop is to the water of the bucket. But accurate observations regarding the formation of extensive sandbanks, and the accumulation of the débris, of which they are formed, are not to be made in a few years, perhaps not in a century, nor indeed in several centuries; for although the short period of the life of man is sufficient to afford the most incontrovertible217 proofs of the waste of the land where we become observers, yet when we extend our views to the depths of the ocean, and speak of the events and changes which are there going forward, we must not be supposed to set limits to time.

“We have many convincing proofs in the natural history of the globe, that the sea has at one time occupied a much higher elevation than at present. On the banks of the Firth of Forth, near Borrowstounness, for example, I have seen a bed of marine40 shells, which is several feet in thickness, and has been found to extend about three miles in length, and which is now situate many feet above the present level of the waters of the Forth. A recent illustration of this subject occurred also in the remarkable86 discovery of the skeleton of a large whale, found in the lands of Airthrey, near Stirling,—the present surface of the ground where the remains of this huge animal were deposited, having been ascertained87 (by my assistants, when lately in that neighbourhood) to be no less than twenty-four feet nine inches above the present level of the Firth of Forth at high water of spring tides. Now, whether we are to consider these as proofs of the higher elevation of the waters of the ocean in the most general acceptation of the word, at a former period, I will not here attempt to inquire. But aside from these anomalous88 appearances, there is reason for thinking that the waters of the higher parts of the Firth of Forth, like those of the Moray Firth, may, at one time, have formed a succession of lakes, with distinct barriers, as we find in the case of Lochness, and the other lakes forming the track of the Caledonian Canal. My object on the present occasion,218 however, is simply to notice the wasting effects of the North Sea upon the surrounding land, its deposition in the bottom of the sea, and the consequent production of surplus waters at the surface, and to endeavour to account for these appearances consistently with the laws of nature. The opinion accordingly which I have formed, and the theory which I have humbly89 to suggest (for I am not aware that this subject has been before particularly noticed) is, that the silting90 up of the great basin of the North Sea has a direct tendency to cause its waters to overflow their banks.

“Referring to the chart, we find that the North Sea is surrounded with land, excepting at two inlets or apertures91, the one extending about 100 leagues, between the Orkney Islands and the Norwegian coast, and the other between Dover and Calais, which is of the width of seven leagues. The aggregate waterway of these two passages forms the track for the tidal waters, and also for the surplus waters produced during storms which affect the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. It is also obvious that this waterway must remain nearly the same, and admit a constant quantity; or, to speak more correctly, by allowing these inlets to follow the general law, they must be enlarged by the waste or wearing of their sides, in a ratio perhaps greater than the silting up of the bottom in those particular parts, while the interior and central portions of the German Ocean are continually acquiring additional quantities of débris, along with the drainage water of the widely surrounding countries. If therefore the same, or a greater quantity of tidal and surplus219 waters continue to be admitted from the Atlantic and Arctic Seas into this great basin, where the process of deposition is constantly going forward, it is evident that the surface of the German Ocean must be elevated in a temporary and proportionate degree, and hence the production of those wasting and destructive effects which are everywhere observable upon its shores.

“This reasoning is also applicable, in a greater or less degree, to all parts of the world; for as the same cause everywhere exists, the same effects, when narrowly examined, must everywhere be produced. In the Southern or Pacific Ocean we have wonderful examples of great masses of land formed by madrepores and extensive coral banks, which in time assume all the characteristic features of islands. These occupy considerable portions of the watery93 bed of the ocean, and displace corresponding portions of the fluid. Immense quantities of mud are also said to be deposited in the Yellow Sea of China, in the great deltas95 formed at the mouths of the Ganges, the Plate, the Amazon, the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Nile, the Rhine, and other large rivers, whose joint96 operations, both at the surface and bottom of the ocean, are continually carrying forward the same great process of displacing the waters of the ocean; for it matters not to this question whether the débris of the higher country which is carried down by the rains and rivers, or is occasioned by the direct waste produced by the ocean itself on the margin of the land, be deposited at the bottom or surface of the ocean, it must still be allowed to displace an equal or greater bulk of the fluid, and has therefore220 a direct tendency to produce the derangement97 which we are here endeavouring to describe.

“A striking illustration of this doctrine98 may be drawn99 from M. Girard’s able and ingenious observations on the delta94 of Egypt, made in 1799, and published in the Mem. de l’Acad. for 1817, in a memoir100 Observations sur la Vallée d’égypte, et sur l’exhaussement séculaire du sol qui la recouvre. It appears that the whole soil of the “Valley of the Nile” is very considerably increased by the alluvium deposited annually101 by the inundations of the Nile, as ascertained by the marks on some ancient Nilometers and statues, the dates of which have been traced and compared by Girard, with the corresponding historical periods. In the quarter of Thebes, where the statue of Memnon is erected102, the increase of the soil since the commencement of the Christian103 era is lm. 924 (6 feet 3·7 inches), or this process may be stated as going forward at the rate of 0m. 106 (4·17 inches) in the course of each century. The magnitude of the deposits at the mouths of the Nile, in the bed of the Mediterranean, appears to be no less surprising. It is remarked that the Isle of Pharos, which in the time of Homer was a day’s journey from the coast of Egypt, is now united to the continent.

“If, then, we compare these effects with the same process, going forward in a certain proportionate rate over all parts of the globe, and where the same facilities for these depositions104 being made on firm ground are not afforded, we shall find that the quantity of deposit in the bottom of the ocean must be so considerable as to affect the level of the waters of the ocean.

221 “In thus disposing of the waste of the surrounding land beyond the accumulation of the sunken banks in the German Ocean, we are not left at any loss for a distributing cause, as this is provided by the tides and currents of the sea; and with regard to their action we have many proofs, even at very considerable depths, by the breaking up of the wrecks105 of ships, the occasional drift of seaweed, and also drift timber, nuts, etc., into regions far distant from those in which they are spontaneously produced. The dispersion of fishes, evinced by their disappearance106 from the fishing grounds in stormy weather, tends to show the disturbance107 of the waters of the ocean to the depth of thirty or forty fathoms. This observation I have frequently had an opportunity of making near the entrance of the Firth of Forth. Numerous proofs of the sea being disturbed to a considerable depth have also occurred since the erection of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, situate upon a sunken rock in the sea, twelve miles off Arbroath, in Forfarshire. Some drift stones of large dimensions, measuring upwards of thirty cubic feet, or more than two tons weight, have, during storms, been often thrown upon the rock from the deep water. These large boulder108 stones are so familiar to the lightkeepers at this station as to be by them termed travellers. It is therefore extremely probable, that a large portion of the débris is carried down with the drainage water of the higher country, as before noticed, and ultimately washed out of the North Sea into the expanse of the ocean.

“The question which naturally arises as to the result222 of all this waste or transposition of the solid matters of a large portion of the globe, is to inquire what has become of the body of water displaced by this wasting process. Without attempting to go into all the minuti? of this part of the subject, I shall here briefly109 observe, that there seems to exist (if I may be allowed so to express myself) a kind of compensating110 arrangement between the solid or earthy particles of the globe in the one case, and the waters of the ocean in the other. Thus by the process of evaporation111, and the universal application of water, which enters so largely, in its simple or chemical state, into the whole animate112 and inanimate creation, the surface of the ocean may be kept nearly at a uniform level. Phenomena of this description are, no doubt, difficult in their solution upon the great scale, being met by the process of decomposition113, which resolves bodies into their constituent114 parts, and also by our theory of the atmosphere, by which its limits and operations are determined115. But were we to abstract our attention from the more general view of the subject, and confine our inquiries to the German Ocean, the Baltic, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, or to any other inland and circumscribed parts of the ocean, this difficulty seems to be lessened116. Indeed, the probability is, and it is a pretty generally received opinion, that a greater quantity of water is actually admitted at the Straits of Gibraltar and of Babelmandel than flows out of the Mediterranean and Red Seas. We consider water, therefore, as the great pabulum of nature, which, as before noticed, enters either simply or chemically into the constitution of all223 bodies, and appears to be held, almost exclusively, in solution, in the formation and maintenance of the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms, and is found to exist largely in the composition of all mineral substances. The quantity of water, consequently, that is required, and is continually supplied from the ocean by the process of evaporation, both for the support and reanimation of nature, must be immense, and may of course be supposed permanently to absorb a very large proportion of the surplus waters of these circumscribed seas, while the remaining portion of surplus water, if not thus wholly accounted for, may be distributed over the general expanse of the ocean.

“But if we suppose with some, that in nature there is neither an excess nor diminution117 of the waters of the globe, and that the united and counterbalancing processes of evaporation, condensation118, decomposition, and regeneration, so completely equalise each other, that the surplus waters, arising from the displacement119 of a portion of the solid surface of the globe, must again be wholly distributed and intermixed with the waters of the ocean, the portion of water remaining thus to be accounted for becomes more considerable, and, upon the great scale, must be permanently disposed of, independently of the process of evaporation.

“Another view has been suggested as applicable to the distribution of the surplus waters produced by the gradual filling up of the bed of the ocean. These waters, in place of being elevated in any sensible degree, may be naturally disposed to find their level in the great polar224 basins, or oblate portions of the surface of the globe which are known to exist next the poles. The oblate figure of the earth at the poles makes these imaginary points the nearest to the centre of the earth, and consequently, with regard to level, they are also the lowest. It therefore appears to follow, that any filling up of the bed of the sea near the equator, or at a distance from the poles, will have the effect of promoting the retiring of the surplus waters to the polar regions by their own gravity, while the centrifugal force occasioned by the earth’s diurnal121 motion will prevent their being further removed from the earth’s centre, without a corresponding elevation of the waters in the great polar basins.

“In this manner, such an accumulation of water may, at a former period of time, have taken place at the then poles of the globe, as to have altered the position of these points, and given rise to the Flood, or temporary general overflowing122 of the waters over the earth’s surface, producing a change in the beds of the seas or oceans of former times. In this way may have been produced many of the phenomena observable in the crust of the earth, which are otherwise with much difficulty accounted for.

“Of what has now been advanced, regarding the waste of the land by the operations of the sea, it will be proper to notice that much consists with my own personal observation. The consequences of this process must be the deposition of débris, and a tendency to raise the bottom of the ocean and produce a proportional elevation of the water. With regard, however, to the distribution of the surplus waters that is produced, what I have now said is225 offered with much deference123, in the hope that some one better qualified125 than myself will turn his attention to this curious subject.”
* * * * *

In connection with this discussion I give the following interesting account of observations on the estuary126 of the Mersey:—
“Wasting Effects of the Sea on the Shore of Cheshire between the Rivers Mersey and Dee. (Read before the Wernerian Society, 8th March 1828.)

“On a former occasion I had the honour to make a few observations which appeared in the second volume of the Society’s Memoirs127 regarding the encroachment of the sea upon the land generally. The present notice refers only to that portion of the coast which lies between the rivers Mersey and Dee, extending to about seven miles.

“To this quarter my attention, with that of Mr. Nimmo, Civil Engineer, had been professionally directed in the course of last month. In our preambulatory survey we were accompanied by Sir John Tobin and William Laird, Esq., of Liverpool, along the Cheshire shore and its connecting sandbanks between Wallasey Pool in the Mersey, and Dalpool in the river Dee.

“Within these estuaries128 the shores may be described as abrupt, consisting of red clay and marl, containing many land or boulder stones of the cubic contents of several tons, and very many of much smaller size, diminishing to coarse gravel129. But the foreland or northern shore between these rivers, which I am now to notice, is226 chiefly low ground, and to a great extent is under the level of the highest tides. The beach or ebb extends from 300 to 400 yards seaward, and toward low water mark exposes a section of red clay; but toward high water it consists of bluish coloured marl, with peat or moss130 overlaid by sand. This beach, at about tide level, presents a curious and highly interesting spectacle of the remains of a submarine forest. The numerous roots of trees, which have not been washed away by the sea, or carried off by the neighbouring inhabitants for firewood, are in a very decayed state. The trees seem to have been cut off about two feet from the ground, after the usual practice in felling timber, and the roots are seen ramifying from their respective stumps131 in all directions, and dipping towards the clay subsoil. They seem to have varied132 in size from eighteen inches to perhaps thirty inches in diameter, and when cut with a knife appear to be oak. Several of the boles or trunks have also been left upon the ground, and being partly immersed in the sand and clay, are now in such a decomposed133 state that, when dug into with a common spade, great numbers of the shell fish called Pholas candida, measuring about three fourths of an inch in length and two inches in breadth, were found apparently134 in a healthy state. These proofs of the former state of this ebb or shore—now upwards of twenty feet under full tide—having been once dry land to a considerable extent beyond the region of these large forest trees were rendered still more evident by the occurrence of large masses of greenstone, which, at a former period, had been embedded135 in the firm ground227 here, and especially on the shore within the river Dee. It may further deserve notice that the inhabitants of this district have a traditional rhyme expressive136 of the former wooded state of this coast, where not a tree is now to be seen, viz., “From Birkenhead to Helbre a squirrel may hop124 from tree to tree;” that is, from the Dee to the Mersey, now presenting a submarine forest.

“As these evidences of great changes upon the state and former appearances of the land were highly interesting to the party, and intimately connected with the professional inquiries of myself and colleague, it seemed desirable, if possible, to get them corroborated137 by oral testimony. Sir John Tobin accordingly very obligingly took measures for examining the oldest people in the neighbourhood as to their recollection of the former state of these shores. In particular, Thomas Barclay, aged138 ninety-three, “all but two months,” by profession a mason and measurer of country work; Henry Youd, labourer, aged eighty-six; and John Crooksan, labourer, aged eighty, were examined. Barclay stated that he had been employed at the erection of the Leasowe landward lighthouse in the year 1764; that there were then two lighthouses near the shore, for a leading direction to shipping139 through the proper channel to Liverpool; and that the seaward light became uninhabitable from its being surrounded by the sea. A new light was then built upon Bidstone Hill, and the present Leasowe Lighthouse, formerly140 the landward light which he had assisted in building, became the sea light. He could not condescend141 upon the distance between the two original lights, but was certain that it must have been228 several hundred yards; that he knows that in the course of thirty years the shore of the Leasowe lost by measurement eleven Cheshire roods or eighty-eight yards; and verily believes that, since he knew this shore, it has lost upwards of half a mile of firm ground. To the correctness of these statements the other two aged men gave ample testimony, Henry Youd having also worked at the lighthouse.

“As to the present state of things, the party alluded to were eye-witnesses of the tides on the 16th, 17th, and 18th of February 1828, having exhibited a very alarming example of the encroachment of the sea upon the Leasowe shore. At high water it came over the bank, and ran in a stream of about half a mile in breadth surrounding the lighthouse, and continued its course through the low grounds toward Wallasey Pool on the Mersey, thereby142 forming a new channel, and threatening to lay several thousands of acres of rich arable143 and pasture lands into the state of a permanent salt lake. The present Leasowe Lighthouse, which, in 1764, was considered far above the reach of the sea, upon the 17th of February last was thus surrounded by salt water, and must soon be abandoned unless some very extensive works be undertaken for the defence of the beach, the whole of the interior lands of the Leasowe being considerably under the level of high water of spring tides.

“This coast, with its sandbanks in the offing, its submarine forest, and the evidence of living witnesses as to the encroachment of the sea upon the firm ground, is altogether highly interesting to the geological and scientific229 inquirer. The remains of forests in the bed of the ocean occur in several parts of the British coast, particularly off Lincoln, on the banks of the Tay near Flisk, at Skail in the mainland of Orkney, and in other places noticed in the Transactions of this Society, and are strong proofs of the encroachments of the sea upon the land. However difficult, therefore, it may be to reconcile the varied appearances in nature regarding the sea having at one time occupied a higher level than at present, yet its encroachment as a general and almost universal principle seems to be beyond doubt in the present day.

“Since I had last the honour of addressing the Society on this subject, opportunities have been afforded me of making many additional observations on the British shores, and of personally extending these to almost every port on the Continent between the Texel and the Garonne. I have also, through the obliging communications of friends, been enabled to extend my inquiries to other quarters of the globe, and I am now prepared to state that, with a few comparatively trifling144 exceptions, the sea appears to be universally gaining upon the land, tending to confirm the theory that débris arising from the general degradation145 of the land, being deposited in the bed of the minor146 seas, is the cause of their present tendency to overflow their banks.”
DENSITY OF SALT AND FRESH WATER.

Mr. Stevenson’s discovery that the salt water of the ocean flows up the beds of rivers in a stream quite distinct from the outflowing fresh water, was made in 1812, when230 investigating a question regarding salmon147 fishings on the Dee. It is described in the following extract from his Report:—

“The reporter observed in the course of his survey that the current of the river continued to flow towards the sea with as much apparent velocity148 during flood as during ebb tide, while the surface of the river rose and fell in a regular manner with the waters of the ocean. He was led from these observations to inquire more particularly into this phenomenon, and he accordingly had an apparatus prepared under his directions at Aberdeen, which, in the most satisfactory manner, showed the existence of two distinct layers or strata149 of water; the lower stratum150 consisting of salt or sea water, and the upper one of the fresh water of the river, which, from its specific gravity being less, floated on the top during the whole of flood as well as ebb tide. This apparatus consisted of a bottle or glass jar, the mouth of which measured about two and a half inches in diameter, and was carefully stopped with a wooden plug, and luted with wax; a hole about half an inch in diameter was then bored in the plug, and to this an iron peg151 was fitted. To prevent accident in the event of the jar touching152 the bottom, it was coated with flannel153. The jar so prepared was fixed154 to a spar of timber, which was graduated to feet and inches, for the convenience of readily ascertaining the depth to which the instrument was plunged155, and from which the water was brought up. A small cord was attached to the iron pin for the purpose of drawing it, at pleasure, for the admission of the water. When an experiment was made the bottle was plunged231 into the water; by drawing the cord at any depth within the range of the rod to which it was attached, the iron peg was lifted or drawn, and the bottle was by this means filled with water. The peg was again dropped into its place, and the apparatus raised to the surface, containing a specimen156 of water of the quality at the depth to which it was plunged. In this manner the reporter ascertained that the salt or tidal water of the ocean flowed up the channel of the river Dee, and also up Footdee and Torryburn, in a distinct stratum next the bottom and under the fresh water of the river, which, owing to the specific gravity being less, floated upon it, continuing perfectly43 fresh, and flowing in its usual course towards the sea, the only change discoverable being in its level, which was raised by the salt water forcing its way under it. The tidal water so forced up continued salt; and when the specimens157 from the bottom, obtained in the manner described, were compared with those taken at the surface by means of the common hydrometer of the brewer158 (the only instrument to which the reporter had access at the time), the lower stratum was always found to possess the greater specific gravity due to salt over fresh water.”
THE HYDROPHORE.

The instrument Mr. Stevenson then invented and used was that to which the term hydrophore has been applied. Figs159. 18 and 19 show two forms of hydrophores made under his directions.
Fig120. 18.

Fig. 18 is used for procuring160 specimens of water from moderate depths, drawn on a scale of one-tenth of the full232 size. It consists of a tight tin cylinder161, a, having a conical valve in its top, b, which is represented in the diagram as being raised for the admission of water. The valve is fixed dead, or immoveable, on a rod working in guides, the one resting between two uprights of brass162 above the cylinder, and the other in its interior, as shown in faintly dotted lines. The valve rod is by this means caused to move in a truly vertical163 line, and the valve attached to it consequently fills or closes the hole in the top of the cylinder with greater accuracy than if its motion was undirected. A graduated pole or rod of iron, c, which in the diagram is shown broken off, is attached to the instrument, its end being inserted into the small tin cylinder at the side of the large water cylinder, and there fixed by the clamp screws shown in the diagram; the bottom of the water cylinder may be loaded with lead to any extent required, for the purpose of causing the apparatus to sink; but this, when an iron rod is used for lowering it, is hardly necessary. The spindle carrying the valve has an eye in its upper extremity, to which a cord is attached for the purpose of opening the valve when the water is to be admitted, and on releasing the cord, it again closes by its own weight. When the hydrophore is to be used, it is lowered to the required depth by the pole which is fixed to its side, or, if the depth be greater than the range of the pole, it is233 loaded with weights, and let down by means of a rope so attached as to keep it in a vertical position. When the apparatus has been lowered as far as is required, the small cord is pulled, and the vessel is immediately filled with the water which is to be found at that depth. The cord being then thrown slack, the valve descends164 and closes the opening, and the instrument is slowly raised to the surface by means of the rod or rope, as the case may be, care being taken to preserve it in a vertical position.
Fig. 19.

The form of hydrophore represented in Fig. 19 is used in deep water, to which the small one just described is inapplicable. It consists of an egg-shaped vessel a, made of thick lead to give the apparatus weight, having two valves, b and c, one in the top and another in the bottom, both opening upwards; these valves (which are represented as open in the diagram) are, to insure more perfect fitting, fixed on separate spindles, which work in guides, in the same manner as in the instrument shown in Fig. 18. The valves, however, in this instrument are not opened by means of a cord, but by the impact of the projecting part, d, of the lower spindle on the bottom, when the hydrophore is sunk to that depth. By this means the lower valve is forced upwards, and the upper spindle (the lower extremity of which is made nearly to touch the upper extremity of the lower one, when the valves are shut) is at the same time forced up, carrying along with it the upper valve, which allows the air to escape, and the water rushing in fills the vessel. On234 raising the instrument from the bottom, both valves again shut by their own weight, and that of the mass of lead, d, which forms part of the lower spindle. The mode of using this hydrophore is sufficiently165 obvious; it is lowered by means of a rope, made fast to a ring at the top, as shown in Fig. 19, until it strikes on the bottom, when the valves are opened in the manner described, and the vessel is filled; on raising it the valves close, and the vessel can be drawn to the surface without its contents being mixed with the superincumbent water through which it has to pass. This instrument, shown on a scale of one twentieth of full size, weighs about half a hundredweight, and has been easily used in from thirty to forty fathoms water.
* * * * *

Mr. Stevenson subsequently extended his experiments on the density of salt and fresh water to several firths and tidal rivers, and gave the results in a paper communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in May 1817, of which the following digest is given in Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy:14—

“The waters of the Thames opposite the London Dock gates were found to be perfectly fresh throughout; at Blackwall, even in spring tides, the water was found to be only slightly saline; at Woolwich the proportion of salt water increases, and so on to Gravesend. But the strata of salt and fresh water are less distinctly marked in the Thames than in any of those rivers on which Mr. Stevenson has hitherto had an opportunity of making his observations. But these inquiries are meant to be extended235 to most of the principal rivers in the kingdom, when an account of the whole will be given.

“From the series of observations made at and below London Bridge, compared with the river as far up as Kew and Oxford166, Mr. Stevenson is of opinion that the waters of the Thames seldom change, but are probably carried up and down with the turn of the alternate tides for an indefinite period, which, he is of opinion, may be one, if not the principal cause of what is termed the extreme softness of the waters of the Thames.

“Mr. Stevenson has made similar experiments on the rivers Forth and Tay, and at Loch Eil, where the Caledonian Canal joins the Western Sea. The aperture92 at Corran Ferry, for the tidal waters of that Loch, being small compared with the surface of Loch Eil, which forms the drainage of a great extent of country, it occurred to him that the waters of the surface must have less saline particles than the waters of the bottom. He accordingly lifted water from the surface at the anchorage off Fort William, and found it to be 1008·2; at the depth of 9 fathoms 1025·5; at the depth of 30 fathoms, in the central parts of the Loch, it was 1027·2; being the specific gravity of sea water.”

The hydrophore, which was originally devised and used by Mr. Stevenson, in 1812, at Aberdeen, has now reached its height of excellence167 of construction and scientific importance in the famous ‘Challenger’ Expedition.

点击收听单词发音收听单词发音  

1 density rOdzZ     
n.密集,密度,浓度
参考例句:
  • The population density of that country is 685 per square mile.那个国家的人口密度为每平方英里685人。
  • The region has a very high population density.该地区的人口密度很高。
2 solicitude mFEza     
n.焦虑
参考例句:
  • Your solicitude was a great consolation to me.你对我的关怀给了我莫大的安慰。
  • He is full of tender solicitude towards my sister.他对我妹妹满心牵挂。
3 fortified fortified     
adj. 加强的
参考例句:
  • He fortified himself against the cold with a hot drink. 他喝了一杯热饮御寒。
  • The enemy drew back into a few fortified points. 敌人收缩到几个据点里。
4 purely 8Sqxf     
adv.纯粹地,完全地
参考例句:
  • I helped him purely and simply out of friendship.我帮他纯粹是出于友情。
  • This disproves the theory that children are purely imitative.这证明认为儿童只会单纯地模仿的理论是站不住脚的。
5 investigation MRKzq     
n.调查,调查研究
参考例句:
  • In an investigation,a new fact became known, which told against him.在调查中新发现了一件对他不利的事实。
  • He drew the conclusion by building on his own investigation.他根据自己的调查研究作出结论。
6 isles 4c841d3b2d643e7e26f4a3932a4a886a     
岛( isle的名词复数 )
参考例句:
  • the geology of the British Isles 不列颠群岛的地质
  • The boat left for the isles. 小船驶向那些小岛。
7 isle fatze     
n.小岛,岛
参考例句:
  • He is from the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea.他来自爱尔兰海的马恩岛。
  • The boat left for the paradise isle of Bali.小船驶向天堂一般的巴厘岛。
8 philosophical rN5xh     
adj.哲学家的,哲学上的,达观的
参考例句:
  • The teacher couldn't answer the philosophical problem.老师不能解答这个哲学问题。
  • She is very philosophical about her bad luck.她对自己的不幸看得很开。
9 baron XdSyp     
n.男爵;(商业界等)巨头,大王
参考例句:
  • Henry Ford was an automobile baron.亨利·福特是一位汽车业巨头。
  • The baron lived in a strong castle.男爵住在一座坚固的城堡中。
10 geologists 1261592151f6aa40819f7687883760a2     
地质学家,地质学者( geologist的名词复数 )
参考例句:
  • Geologists uncovered the hidden riches. 地质学家发现了地下的宝藏。
  • Geologists study the structure of the rocks. 地质学家研究岩石结构。
11 dealing NvjzWP     
n.经商方法,待人态度
参考例句:
  • This store has an excellent reputation for fair dealing.该商店因买卖公道而享有极高的声誉。
  • His fair dealing earned our confidence.他的诚实的行为获得我们的信任。
12 illustrating a99f5be8a18291b13baa6ba429f04101     
给…加插图( illustrate的现在分词 ); 说明; 表明; (用示例、图画等)说明
参考例句:
  • He upstaged the other speakers by illustrating his talk with slides. 他演讲中配上幻灯片,比其他演讲人更吸引听众。
  • Material illustrating detailed structure of graptolites has been etched from limestone by means of hydrofluoric acid. 表明笔石详细构造的物质是利用氢氟酸从石灰岩中侵蚀出来。
13 circumscribed 7cc1126626aa8a394fa1a92f8e05484a     
adj.[医]局限的:受限制或限于有限空间的v.在…周围划线( circumscribe的过去式和过去分词 );划定…范围;限制;限定
参考例句:
  • The power of the monarchy was circumscribed by the new law. 君主统治的权力受到了新法律的制约。
  • His activities have been severely circumscribed since his illness. 自生病以来他的行动一直受到严格的限制。 来自《简明英汉词典》
14 penetrate juSyv     
v.透(渗)入;刺入,刺穿;洞察,了解
参考例句:
  • Western ideas penetrate slowly through the East.西方观念逐渐传入东方。
  • The sunshine could not penetrate where the trees were thickest.阳光不能透入树木最浓密的地方。
15 exertions 2d5ee45020125fc19527a78af5191726     
n.努力( exertion的名词复数 );费力;(能力、权力等的)运用;行使
参考例句:
  • As long as they lived, exertions would not be necessary to her. 只要他们活着,是不需要她吃苦的。 来自辞典例句
  • She failed to unlock the safe in spite of all her exertions. 她虽然费尽力气,仍未能将那保险箱的锁打开。 来自辞典例句
16 prying a63afacc70963cb0fda72f623793f578     
adj.爱打听的v.打听,刺探(他人的私事)( pry的现在分词 );撬开
参考例句:
  • I'm sick of you prying into my personal life! 我讨厌你刺探我的私生活!
  • She is always prying into other people's affairs. 她总是打听别人的私事。 来自《简明英汉词典》
17 bowels qxMzez     
n.肠,内脏,内部;肠( bowel的名词复数 );内部,最深处
参考例句:
  • Salts is a medicine that causes movements of the bowels. 泻盐是一种促使肠子运动的药物。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • The cabins are in the bowels of the ship. 舱房设在船腹内。 来自《简明英汉词典》
18 ascend avnzD     
vi.渐渐上升,升高;vt.攀登,登上
参考例句:
  • We watched the airplane ascend higher and higher.我们看着飞机逐渐升高。
  • We ascend in the order of time and of development.我们按时间和发展顺序向上溯。
19 excavations 185c90d3198bc18760370b8a86c53f51     
n.挖掘( excavation的名词复数 );开凿;开凿的洞穴(或山路等);(发掘出来的)古迹
参考例句:
  • The excavations are open to the public. 发掘现场对公众开放。
  • This year's excavations may reveal ancient artifacts. 今年的挖掘可能会发现史前古器物。 来自辞典例句
20 lapse t2lxL     
n.过失,流逝,失效,抛弃信仰,间隔;vi.堕落,停止,失效,流逝;vt.使失效
参考例句:
  • The incident was being seen as a serious security lapse.这一事故被看作是一次严重的安全疏忽。
  • I had a lapse of memory.我记错了。
21 stimulus 3huyO     
n.刺激,刺激物,促进因素,引起兴奋的事物
参考例句:
  • Regard each failure as a stimulus to further efforts.把每次失利看成对进一步努力的激励。
  • Light is a stimulus to growth in plants.光是促进植物生长的一个因素。
22 accomplishment 2Jkyo     
n.完成,成就,(pl.)造诣,技能
参考例句:
  • The series of paintings is quite an accomplishment.这一系列的绘画真是了不起的成就。
  • Money will be crucial to the accomplishment of our objectives.要实现我们的目标,钱是至关重要的。
23 derived 6cddb7353e699051a384686b6b3ff1e2     
vi.起源;由来;衍生;导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 );(从…中)得到获得;源于;(从…中)提取
参考例句:
  • Many English words are derived from Latin and Greek. 英语很多词源出于拉丁文和希腊文。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • He derived his enthusiasm for literature from his father. 他对文学的爱好是受他父亲的影响。 来自《简明英汉词典》
24 discordant VlRz2     
adj.不调和的
参考例句:
  • Leonato thought they would make a discordant pair.里奥那托认为他们不适宜作夫妻。
  • For when we are deeply mournful discordant above all others is the voice of mirth.因为当我们极度悲伤的时候,欢乐的声音会比其他一切声音都更显得不谐调。
25 phenomena 8N9xp     
n.现象
参考例句:
  • Ade couldn't relate the phenomena with any theory he knew.艾德无法用他所知道的任何理论来解释这种现象。
  • The object of these experiments was to find the connection,if any,between the two phenomena.这些实验的目的就是探索这两种现象之间的联系,如果存在着任何联系的话。
26 attain HvYzX     
vt.达到,获得,完成
参考例句:
  • I used the scientific method to attain this end. 我用科学的方法来达到这一目的。
  • His painstaking to attain his goal in life is praiseworthy. 他为实现人生目标所下的苦功是值得称赞的。
27 elevation bqsxH     
n.高度;海拔;高地;上升;提高
参考例句:
  • The house is at an elevation of 2,000 metres.那幢房子位于海拔两千米的高处。
  • His elevation to the position of General Manager was announced yesterday.昨天宣布他晋升总经理职位。
28 modifications aab0760046b3cea52940f1668245e65d     
n.缓和( modification的名词复数 );限制;更改;改变
参考例句:
  • The engine was pulled apart for modifications and then reassembled. 发动机被拆开改型,然后再组装起来。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • The original plan had undergone fairly extensive modifications. 原计划已经作了相当大的修改。 来自《简明英汉词典》
29 organisation organisation     
n.组织,安排,团体,有机休
参考例句:
  • The method of his organisation work is worth commending.他的组织工作的方法值得称道。
  • His application for membership of the organisation was rejected.他想要加入该组织的申请遭到了拒绝。
30 conjecture 3p8z4     
n./v.推测,猜测
参考例句:
  • She felt it no use to conjecture his motives.她觉得猜想他的动机是没有用的。
  • This conjecture is not supported by any real evidence.这种推测未被任何确切的证据所证实。
31 inquiries 86a54c7f2b27c02acf9fcb16a31c4b57     
n.调查( inquiry的名词复数 );疑问;探究;打听
参考例句:
  • He was released on bail pending further inquiries. 他获得保释,等候进一步调查。
  • I have failed to reach them by postal inquiries. 我未能通过邮政查询与他们取得联系。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》
32 investigations 02de25420938593f7db7bd4052010b32     
(正式的)调查( investigation的名词复数 ); 侦查; 科学研究; 学术研究
参考例句:
  • His investigations were intensive and thorough but revealed nothing. 他进行了深入彻底的调查,但没有发现什么。
  • He often sent them out to make investigations. 他常常派他们出去作调查。
33 ascertaining e416513cdf74aa5e4277c1fc28aab393     
v.弄清,确定,查明( ascertain的现在分词 )
参考例句:
  • I was ascertaining whether the cellar stretched out in front or behind. 我当时是要弄清楚地下室是朝前还是朝后延伸的。 来自辞典例句
  • The design and ascertaining of permanent-magnet-biased magnetic bearing parameter are detailed introduced. 并对永磁偏置磁悬浮轴承参数的设计和确定进行了详细介绍。 来自互联网
34 descend descend     
vt./vi.传下来,下来,下降
参考例句:
  • I hope the grace of God would descend on me.我期望上帝的恩惠。
  • We're not going to descend to such methods.我们不会沦落到使用这种手段。
35 wreck QMjzE     
n.失事,遇难;沉船;vt.(船等)失事,遇难
参考例句:
  • Weather may have been a factor in the wreck.天气可能是造成这次失事的原因之一。
  • No one can wreck the friendship between us.没有人能够破坏我们之间的友谊。
36 applied Tz2zXA     
adj.应用的;v.应用,适用
参考例句:
  • She plans to take a course in applied linguistics.她打算学习应用语言学课程。
  • This cream is best applied to the face at night.这种乳霜最好晚上擦脸用。
37 remains 1kMzTy     
n.剩余物,残留物;遗体,遗迹
参考例句:
  • He ate the remains of food hungrily.他狼吞虎咽地吃剩余的食物。
  • The remains of the meal were fed to the dog.残羹剩饭喂狗了。
38 apparatus ivTzx     
n.装置,器械;器具,设备
参考例句:
  • The school's audio apparatus includes films and records.学校的视听设备包括放映机和录音机。
  • They had a very refined apparatus.他们有一套非常精良的设备。
39 mariner 8Boxg     
n.水手号不载人航天探测器,海员,航海者
参考例句:
  • A smooth sea never made a skillful mariner.平静的大海决不能造就熟练的水手。
  • A mariner must have his eye upon rocks and sands as well as upon the North Star.海员不仅要盯着北极星,还要注意暗礁和险滩。
40 marine 77Izo     
adj.海的;海生的;航海的;海事的;n.水兵
参考例句:
  • Marine creatures are those which live in the sea. 海洋生物是生存在海里的生物。
  • When the war broke out,he volunteered for the Marine Corps.战争爆发时,他自愿参加了海军陆战队。
41 plummet s2izN     
vi.(价格、水平等)骤然下跌;n.铅坠;重压物
参考例句:
  • Mengniu and Yili have seen their shares plummet since the incident broke.自事件发生以来,蒙牛和伊利的股票大幅下跌。
  • Even if rice prices were to plummet,other brakes on poverty alleviation remain.就算大米价格下跌,其它阻止导致贫困的因素仍然存在。
42 extremity tlgxq     
n.末端,尽头;尽力;终极;极度
参考例句:
  • I hope you will help them in their extremity.我希望你能帮助在穷途末路的他们。
  • What shall we do in this extremity?在这种极其困难的情况下我们该怎么办呢?
43 perfectly 8Mzxb     
adv.完美地,无可非议地,彻底地
参考例句:
  • The witnesses were each perfectly certain of what they said.证人们个个对自己所说的话十分肯定。
  • Everything that we're doing is all perfectly above board.我们做的每件事情都是光明正大的。
44 inquiry nbgzF     
n.打听,询问,调查,查问
参考例句:
  • Many parents have been pressing for an inquiry into the problem.许多家长迫切要求调查这个问题。
  • The field of inquiry has narrowed down to five persons.调查的范围已经缩小到只剩5个人了。
45 premise JtYyy     
n.前提;v.提论,预述
参考例句:
  • Let me premise my argument with a bit of history.让我引述一些史实作为我立论的前提。
  • We can deduce a conclusion from the premise.我们可以从这个前提推出结论。
46 appellation lvvzv     
n.名称,称呼
参考例句:
  • The emperor of Russia Peter I was given the appellation " the Great ".俄皇彼得一世被加上了“大帝”的称号。
  • Kinsfolk appellation is the kinfolks system reflection in language.亲属称谓是亲属制度在语言中的反应。
47 relatively bkqzS3     
adv.比较...地,相对地
参考例句:
  • The rabbit is a relatively recent introduction in Australia.兔子是相对较新引入澳大利亚的物种。
  • The operation was relatively painless.手术相对来说不痛。
48 ebb ebb     
vi.衰退,减退;n.处于低潮,处于衰退状态
参考例句:
  • The flood and ebb tides alternates with each other.涨潮和落潮交替更迭。
  • They swam till the tide began to ebb.他们一直游到开始退潮。
49 latitude i23xV     
n.纬度,行动或言论的自由(范围),(pl.)地区
参考例句:
  • The latitude of the island is 20 degrees south.该岛的纬度是南纬20度。
  • The two cities are at approximately the same latitude.这两个城市差不多位于同一纬度上。
50 fathoms eef76eb8bfaf6d8f8c0ed4de2cf47dcc     
英寻( fathom的名词复数 )
参考例句:
  • The harbour is four fathoms deep. 港深为四英寻。
  • One bait was down forty fathoms. 有个鱼饵下沉到四十英寻的深处。
51 longitude o0ZxR     
n.经线,经度
参考例句:
  • The city is at longitude 21°east.这个城市位于东经21度。
  • He noted the latitude and longitude,then made a mark on the admiralty chart.他记下纬度和经度,然后在航海图上做了个标记。
52 encumbered 2cc6acbd84773f26406796e78a232e40     
v.妨碍,阻碍,拖累( encumber的过去式和过去分词 )
参考例句:
  • The police operation was encumbered by crowds of reporters. 警方的行动被成群的记者所妨碍。
  • The narrow quay was encumbered by hundreds of carts. 狭窄的码头被数百辆手推车堵得水泄不通。 来自辞典例句
53 strictly GtNwe     
adv.严厉地,严格地;严密地
参考例句:
  • His doctor is dieting him strictly.他的医生严格规定他的饮食。
  • The guests were seated strictly in order of precedence.客人严格按照地位高低就座。
54 forth Hzdz2     
adv.向前;向外,往外
参考例句:
  • The wind moved the trees gently back and forth.风吹得树轻轻地来回摇晃。
  • He gave forth a series of works in rapid succession.他很快连续发表了一系列的作品。
55 considerably 0YWyQ     
adv.极大地;相当大地;在很大程度上
参考例句:
  • The economic situation has changed considerably.经济形势已发生了相当大的变化。
  • The gap has narrowed considerably.分歧大大缩小了。
56 continental Zazyk     
adj.大陆的,大陆性的,欧洲大陆的
参考例句:
  • A continental climate is different from an insular one.大陆性气候不同于岛屿气候。
  • The most ancient parts of the continental crust are 4000 million years old.大陆地壳最古老的部分有40亿年历史。
57 apex mwrzX     
n.顶点,最高点
参考例句:
  • He reached the apex of power in the early 1930s.他在三十年代初达到了权力的顶峰。
  • His election to the presidency was the apex of his career.当选总统是他一生事业的顶峰。
58 mariners 70cffa70c802d5fc4932d9a87a68c2eb     
海员,水手(mariner的复数形式)
参考例句:
  • Mariners were also able to fix their latitude by using an instrument called astrolabe. 海员们还可使用星盘这种仪器确定纬度。
  • The ancient mariners traversed the sea. 古代的海员漂洋过海。
59 upwards lj5wR     
adv.向上,在更高处...以上
参考例句:
  • The trend of prices is still upwards.物价的趋向是仍在上涨。
  • The smoke rose straight upwards.烟一直向上升。
60 subdivided 9c88c887e396c8cfad2991e2ef9b98bb     
再分,细分( subdivide的过去式和过去分词 )
参考例句:
  • The compound was subdivided into four living areas. 那个区域被划分成4个居住小区。
  • This part of geologic calendar has not been satisfactorily subdivided. 这部分地质年代表还没有令人满意地再细分出来。
61 aggregate cKOyE     
adj.总计的,集合的;n.总数;v.合计;集合
参考例句:
  • The football team had a low goal aggregate last season.这支足球队上个赛季的进球总数很少。
  • The money collected will aggregate a thousand dollars.进帐总额将达一千美元。
62 perpendicular GApy0     
adj.垂直的,直立的;n.垂直线,垂直的位置
参考例句:
  • The two lines of bones are set perpendicular to one another.这两排骨头相互垂直。
  • The wall is out of the perpendicular.这墙有些倾斜。
63 flux sg4zJ     
n.流动;不断的改变
参考例句:
  • The market is in a constant state of flux.市场行情在不断变化。
  • In most reactors,there is a significant flux of fast neutrons.在大部分反应堆中都有一定强度的快中子流。
64 overflow fJOxZ     
v.(使)外溢,(使)溢出;溢出,流出,漫出
参考例句:
  • The overflow from the bath ran on to the floor.浴缸里的水溢到了地板上。
  • After a long period of rain,the river may overflow its banks.长时间的下雨天后,河水可能溢出岸来。
65 vessel 4L1zi     
n.船舶;容器,器皿;管,导管,血管
参考例句:
  • The vessel is fully loaded with cargo for Shanghai.这艘船满载货物驶往上海。
  • You should put the water into a vessel.你应该把水装入容器中。
66 illustrated 2a891807ad5907f0499171bb879a36aa     
adj. 有插图的,列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词
参考例句:
  • His lecture was illustrated with slides taken during the expedition. 他在讲演中使用了探险时拍摄到的幻灯片。
  • The manufacturing Methods: Will be illustrated in the next chapter. 制作方法将在下一章说明。
67 prosecution uBWyL     
n.起诉,告发,检举,执行,经营
参考例句:
  • The Smiths brought a prosecution against the organizers.史密斯家对组织者们提出起诉。
  • He attempts to rebut the assertion made by the prosecution witness.他试图反驳原告方证人所作的断言。
68 pointed Il8zB4     
adj.尖的,直截了当的
参考例句:
  • He gave me a very sharp pointed pencil.他给我一支削得非常尖的铅笔。
  • She wished to show Mrs.John Dashwood by this pointed invitation to her brother.她想通过对达茨伍德夫人提出直截了当的邀请向她的哥哥表示出来。
69 permanently KluzuU     
adv.永恒地,永久地,固定不变地
参考例句:
  • The accident left him permanently scarred.那次事故给他留下了永久的伤疤。
  • The ship is now permanently moored on the Thames in London.该船现在永久地停泊在伦敦泰晤士河边。
70 margin 67Mzp     
n.页边空白;差额;余地,余裕;边,边缘
参考例句:
  • We allowed a margin of 20 minutes in catching the train.我们有20分钟的余地赶火车。
  • The village is situated at the margin of a forest.村子位于森林的边缘。
71 deposition MwOx4     
n.免职,罢官;作证;沉淀;沉淀物
参考例句:
  • It was this issue which led to the deposition of the king.正是这件事导致了国王被废黜。
  • This leads to calcium deposition in the blood-vessels.这导致钙在血管中沉积。
72 lighter 5pPzPR     
n.打火机,点火器;驳船;v.用驳船运送;light的比较级
参考例句:
  • The portrait was touched up so as to make it lighter.这张画经过润色,色调明朗了一些。
  • The lighter works off the car battery.引燃器利用汽车蓄电池打火。
73 unlimited MKbzB     
adj.无限的,不受控制的,无条件的
参考例句:
  • They flew over the unlimited reaches of the Arctic.他们飞过了茫茫无边的北极上空。
  • There is no safety in unlimited technological hubris.在技术方面自以为是会很危险。
74 germination e3b6166de2e0bafce0467a9f740b91e3     
n.萌芽,发生;萌发;生芽;催芽
参考例句:
  • At the onset of germination, the hypocotyl elongates rapidly by cell enlargement. 萌发开始时,下胚轴依靠细胞增大而迅速伸长。 来自辞典例句
  • Excessive moisture is unfavourable for soybean germination. 水分过多对于大豆萌发是不利的。 来自辞典例句
75 rivulets 1eb2174ca2fcfaaac7856549ef7f3c58     
n.小河,小溪( rivulet的名词复数 )
参考例句:
  • Rivulets of water ran in through the leaks. 小股的水流通过漏洞流进来。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • Rivulets of sweat streamed down his cheeks. 津津汗水顺着他的两颊流下。 来自辞典例句
76 nautical q5azx     
adj.海上的,航海的,船员的
参考例句:
  • A nautical mile is 1,852 meters.一海里等于1852米。
  • It is 206 nautical miles from our present location.距离我们现在的位置有206海里。
77 Mediterranean ezuzT     
adj.地中海的;地中海沿岸的
参考例句:
  • The houses are Mediterranean in character.这些房子都属地中海风格。
  • Gibraltar is the key to the Mediterranean.直布罗陀是地中海的要冲。
78 promontories df3353de526911b08826846800a29549     
n.岬,隆起,海角( promontory的名词复数 )
参考例句:
79 encroachment DpQxB     
n.侵入,蚕食
参考例句:
  • I resent the encroachment on my time.我讨厌别人侵占我的时间。
  • The eagle broke away and defiantly continued its encroachment.此时雕挣脱开对方,继续强行入侵。
80 testimony zpbwO     
n.证词;见证,证明
参考例句:
  • The testimony given by him is dubious.他所作的证据是可疑的。
  • He was called in to bear testimony to what the police officer said.他被传入为警官所说的话作证。
81 inundation y4fxi     
n.the act or fact of overflowing
参考例句:
  • Otherwise, inundation would ensue to our dismay. 若不疏导,只能眼巴巴看着它泛滥。
  • Therefore this psychology preceded the inundation of Caudillo politics after independence. 在独立后,这一心态助长了考迪罗主义的泛滥。
82 tracts fcea36d422dccf9d9420a7dd83bea091     
大片土地( tract的名词复数 ); 地带; (体内的)道; (尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的)短文
参考例句:
  • vast tracts of forest 大片大片的森林
  • There are tracts of desert in Australia. 澳大利亚有大片沙漠。
83 abrupt 2fdyh     
adj.突然的,意外的;唐突的,鲁莽的
参考例句:
  • The river takes an abrupt bend to the west.这河突然向西转弯。
  • His abrupt reply hurt our feelings.他粗鲁的回答伤了我们的感情。
84 alleged gzaz3i     
a.被指控的,嫌疑的
参考例句:
  • It was alleged that he had taken bribes while in office. 他被指称在任时收受贿赂。
  • alleged irregularities in the election campaign 被指称竞选运动中的不正当行为
85 alluded 69f7a8b0f2e374aaf5d0965af46948e7     
提及,暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 )
参考例句:
  • In your remarks you alluded to a certain sinister design. 在你的谈话中,你提到了某个阴谋。
  • She also alluded to her rival's past marital troubles. 她还影射了对手过去的婚姻问题。
86 remarkable 8Vbx6     
adj.显著的,异常的,非凡的,值得注意的
参考例句:
  • She has made remarkable headway in her writing skills.她在写作技巧方面有了长足进步。
  • These cars are remarkable for the quietness of their engines.这些汽车因发动机没有噪音而不同凡响。
87 ascertained e6de5c3a87917771a9555db9cf4de019     
v.弄清,确定,查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 )
参考例句:
  • The previously unidentified objects have now been definitely ascertained as being satellites. 原来所说的不明飞行物现在已证实是卫星。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • I ascertained that she was dead. 我断定她已经死了。 来自《简明英汉词典》
88 anomalous MwbzI     
adj.反常的;不规则的
参考例句:
  • For years this anomalous behaviour has baffled scientists.几年来这种反常行为让科学家们很困惑。
  • The mechanism of this anomalous vascular response is unknown.此种不规则的血管反应的机制尚不清楚。
89 humbly humbly     
adv. 恭顺地,谦卑地
参考例句:
  • We humbly beg Your Majesty to show mercy. 我们恳请陛下发发慈悲。
  • "You must be right, Sir,'said John humbly. “你一定是对的,先生,”约翰恭顺地说道。
90 silting 29e58c7c11dd83eef776c88a8b7bc23b     
n.淤积,淤塞,充填v.(河流等)为淤泥淤塞( silt的现在分词 );(使)淤塞
参考例句:
  • Mud is silting up the stream. 泥沙把小河淤塞了。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • The harbour is slowly silting up. 港口正在慢慢地被淤泥堵塞。 来自互联网
91 apertures a53910b852b03c52d9f7712620c25058     
n.孔( aperture的名词复数 );隙缝;(照相机的)光圈;孔径
参考例句:
  • These apertures restrict the amount of light that can reach the detector. 这些光阑将会限制到达探测器的光线的总量。 来自互联网
  • The virtual anode formation time and propagation velocity at different pressure with different apertures are investigated. 比较了在不同气压和空心阴极孔径下虚阳极的形成时间和扩展速度。 来自互联网
92 aperture IwFzW     
n.孔,隙,窄的缺口
参考例句:
  • The only light came through a narrow aperture.仅有的光亮来自一个小孔。
  • We saw light through a small aperture in the wall.我们透过墙上的小孔看到了亮光。
93 watery bU5zW     
adj.有水的,水汪汪的;湿的,湿润的
参考例句:
  • In his watery eyes there is an expression of distrust.他那含泪的眼睛流露出惊惶失措的神情。
  • Her eyes became watery because of the smoke.因为烟熏,她的双眼变得泪汪汪的。
94 delta gxvxZ     
n.(流的)角洲
参考例句:
  • He has been to the delta of the Nile.他曾去过尼罗河三角洲。
  • The Nile divides at its mouth and forms a delta.尼罗河在河口分岔,形成了一个三角洲。
95 deltas 43c57dfa20ce8f0825105bdcb3548822     
希腊字母表中第四个字母( delta的名词复数 ); (河口的)三角洲
参考例句:
  • Tidal channels, deltas, and washover fans are characteristically associated with offshore bars. 潮汐水道、三角洲和冲刷扇典型地与滨外砂洲伴生在一起。
  • I know many of the early civilizations prospered on deltas. 我知道很多古老的文明都是在三角洲上蓬勃发展起来的。
96 joint m3lx4     
adj.联合的,共同的;n.关节,接合处;v.连接,贴合
参考例句:
  • I had a bad fall,which put my shoulder out of joint.我重重地摔了一跤,肩膀脫臼了。
  • We wrote a letter in joint names.我们联名写了封信。
97 derangement jwJxG     
n.精神错乱
参考例句:
  • She began to think he was in mental derangement. 她开始想这个人一定是精神错乱了。
  • Such a permutation is called a derangement. 这样的一个排列称为错位排列。
98 doctrine Pkszt     
n.教义;主义;学说
参考例句:
  • He was impelled to proclaim his doctrine.他不得不宣扬他的教义。
  • The council met to consider changes to doctrine.宗教议会开会考虑更改教义。
99 drawn MuXzIi     
v.拖,拉,拔出;adj.憔悴的,紧张的
参考例句:
  • All the characters in the story are drawn from life.故事中的所有人物都取材于生活。
  • Her gaze was drawn irresistibly to the scene outside.她的目光禁不住被外面的风景所吸引。
100 memoir O7Hz7     
n.[pl.]回忆录,自传;记事录
参考例句:
  • He has just published a memoir in honour of his captain.他刚刚出了一本传记来纪念他的队长。
  • In her memoir,the actress wrote about the bittersweet memories of her first love.在那个女演员的自传中,她写到了自己苦乐掺半的初恋。
101 annually VzYzNO     
adv.一年一次,每年
参考例句:
  • Many migratory birds visit this lake annually.许多候鸟每年到这个湖上作短期逗留。
  • They celebrate their wedding anniversary annually.他们每年庆祝一番结婚纪念日。
102 ERECTED ERECTED     
adj. 直立的,竖立的,笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立,建立
参考例句:
  • A monument to him was erected in St Paul's Cathedral. 在圣保罗大教堂为他修了一座纪念碑。
  • A monument was erected to the memory of that great scientist. 树立了一块纪念碑纪念那位伟大的科学家。
103 Christian KVByl     
adj.基督教徒的;n.基督教徒
参考例句:
  • They always addressed each other by their Christian name.他们总是以教名互相称呼。
  • His mother is a sincere Christian.他母亲是个虔诚的基督教徒。
104 depositions 501b5f2c22877a7ee308222b01cb47b5     
沉积(物)( deposition的名词复数 ); (在法庭上的)宣誓作证; 处置; 罢免
参考例句:
  • The safety problems are more severe for low-pressure depositions because the processes often use concentrated gases. 对于低压淀积来说安全性问题更为突出,因为这种工艺通常使用高浓度的气体。
  • The chief method is to take depositions of parties and witnesses. 主要的方法是录取当事人和证人的宣誓证言。 来自口语例句
105 wrecks 8d69da0aee97ed3f7157e10ff9dbd4ae     
n.沉船( wreck的名词复数 );(事故中)遭严重毁坏的汽车(或飞机等);(身体或精神上)受到严重损伤的人;状况非常糟糕的车辆(或建筑物等)v.毁坏[毁灭]某物( wreck的第三人称单数 );使(船舶)失事,使遇难,使下沉
参考例句:
  • The shores are strewn with wrecks. 海岸上满布失事船只的残骸。 来自《现代英汉综合大词典》
  • My next care was to get together the wrecks of my fortune. 第二件我所关心的事就是集聚破产后的余财。 来自辞典例句
106 disappearance ouEx5     
n.消失,消散,失踪
参考例句:
  • He was hard put to it to explain her disappearance.他难以说明她为什么不见了。
  • Her disappearance gave rise to the wildest rumours.她失踪一事引起了各种流言蜚语。
107 disturbance BsNxk     
n.动乱,骚动;打扰,干扰;(身心)失调
参考例句:
  • He is suffering an emotional disturbance.他的情绪受到了困扰。
  • You can work in here without any disturbance.在这儿你可不受任何干扰地工作。
108 boulder BNbzS     
n.巨砾;卵石,圆石
参考例句:
  • We all heaved together and removed the boulder.大家一齐用劲,把大石头搬开了。
  • He stepped clear of the boulder.他从大石头后面走了出来。
109 briefly 9Styo     
adv.简单地,简短地
参考例句:
  • I want to touch briefly on another aspect of the problem.我想简单地谈一下这个问题的另一方面。
  • He was kidnapped and briefly detained by a terrorist group.他被一个恐怖组织绑架并短暂拘禁。
110 compensating 281cd98e12675fdbc2f2886a47f37ed0     
补偿,补助,修正
参考例句:
  • I am able to set up compensating networks of nerve connections. 我能建立起补偿性的神经联系网。
  • It is desirable that compensating cables be run in earthed conduit. 补偿导线最好在地下管道中穿过。
111 evaporation Pnoxc     
n.蒸发,消失
参考例句:
  • Be careful not to lose too much liquid by evaporation.小心不要因蒸发失去太多水分。
  • Our bodies can sweat,thereby losing heat by evaporation.我们的身体能出汗,由此可以蒸发散热。
112 animate 3MDyv     
v.赋于生命,鼓励;adj.有生命的,有生气的
参考例句:
  • We are animate beings,living creatures.我们是有生命的存在,有生命的动物。
  • The girls watched,little teasing smiles animating their faces.女孩们注视着,脸上挂着调皮的微笑,显得愈加活泼。
113 decomposition AnFzT     
n. 分解, 腐烂, 崩溃
参考例句:
  • It is said that the magnetite was formed by a chemical process called thermal decomposition. 据说这枚陨星是在热分解的化学过程中形成的。
  • The dehydration process leads to fairly extensive decomposition of the product. 脱水过程会导致产物相当程度的分解。
114 constituent bpxzK     
n.选民;成分,组分;adj.组成的,构成的
参考例句:
  • Sugar is the main constituent of candy.食糖是糖果的主要成分。
  • Fibre is a natural constituent of a healthy diet.纤维是健康饮食的天然组成部分。
115 determined duszmP     
adj.坚定的;有决心的
参考例句:
  • I have determined on going to Tibet after graduation.我已决定毕业后去西藏。
  • He determined to view the rooms behind the office.他决定查看一下办公室后面的房间。
116 lessened 6351a909991322c8a53dc9baa69dda6f     
减少的,减弱的
参考例句:
  • Listening to the speech through an interpreter lessened its impact somewhat. 演讲辞通过翻译的嘴说出来,多少削弱了演讲的力量。
  • The flight to suburbia lessened the number of middle-class families living within the city. 随着迁往郊外的风行,住在城内的中产家庭减少了。
117 diminution 2l9zc     
n.减少;变小
参考例句:
  • They hope for a small diminution in taxes.他们希望捐税能稍有减少。
  • He experienced no diminution of his physical strength.他并未感觉体力衰落。
118 condensation YYyyr     
n.压缩,浓缩;凝结的水珠
参考例句:
  • A cloud is a condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere.云是由大气中的水蒸气凝结成的。
  • He used his sleeve to wipe the condensation off the glass.他用袖子擦掉玻璃上凝结的水珠。
119 displacement T98yU     
n.移置,取代,位移,排水量
参考例句:
  • They said that time is the feeling of spatial displacement.他们说时间是空间位移的感觉。
  • The displacement of all my energy into caring for the baby.我所有精力都放在了照顾宝宝上。
120 fig L74yI     
n.无花果(树)
参考例句:
  • The doctor finished the fig he had been eating and selected another.这位医生吃完了嘴里的无花果,又挑了一个。
  • You can't find a person who doesn't know fig in the United States.你找不到任何一个在美国的人不知道无花果的。
121 diurnal ws5xi     
adj.白天的,每日的
参考例句:
  • Kangaroos are diurnal animals.袋鼠是日间活动的动物。
  • Over water the diurnal change in refraction is likely to be small. 在水面上,折光的周日变化可能是很小的。
122 overflowing df84dc195bce4a8f55eb873daf61b924     
n. 溢出物,溢流 adj. 充沛的,充满的 动词overflow的现在分词形式
参考例句:
  • The stands were overflowing with farm and sideline products. 集市上农副产品非常丰富。
  • The milk is overflowing. 牛奶溢出来了。
123 deference mmKzz     
n.尊重,顺从;敬意
参考例句:
  • Do you treat your parents and teachers with deference?你对父母师长尊敬吗?
  • The major defect of their work was deference to authority.他们的主要缺陷是趋从权威。
124 hop vdJzL     
n.单脚跳,跳跃;vi.单脚跳,跳跃;着手做某事;vt.跳跃,跃过
参考例句:
  • The children had a competition to see who could hop the fastest.孩子们举行比赛,看谁单足跳跃最快。
  • How long can you hop on your right foot?你用右脚能跳多远?
125 qualified DCPyj     
adj.合格的,有资格的,胜任的,有限制的
参考例句:
  • He is qualified as a complete man of letters.他有资格当真正的文学家。
  • We must note that we still lack qualified specialists.我们必须看到我们还缺乏有资质的专家。
126 estuary ynuxs     
n.河口,江口
参考例句:
  • We live near the Thames estuary.我们的住处靠近泰晤士河入海口。
  • The ship has touched bottom.The estuary must be shallower than we thought.船搁浅了。这河口的水比我们想像的要浅。
127 memoirs f752e432fe1fefb99ab15f6983cd506c     
n.回忆录;回忆录传( mem,自oir的名词复数)
参考例句:
  • Her memoirs were ghostwritten. 她的回忆录是由别人代写的。
  • I watched a trailer for the screenplay of his memoirs. 我看过以他的回忆录改编成电影的预告片。 来自《简明英汉词典》
128 estuaries 60f47b2d23159196be8449188dca90a4     
(江河入海的)河口,河口湾( estuary的名词复数 )
参考例句:
  • We also recognize the diversity and complexity of controlling in fluences in estuaries. 我们也认识到在河湾内控制影响的多样性和复杂性。
  • Estuaries also contribute to economy through tourism and fishing. 河口还为人类提供了休闲和教育的场所。
129 gravel s6hyT     
n.砂跞;砂砾层;结石
参考例句:
  • We bought six bags of gravel for the garden path.我们购买了六袋碎石用来铺花园的小路。
  • More gravel is needed to fill the hollow in the drive.需要更多的砾石来填平车道上的坑洼。
130 moss X6QzA     
n.苔,藓,地衣
参考例句:
  • Moss grows on a rock.苔藓生在石头上。
  • He was found asleep on a pillow of leaves and moss.有人看见他枕着树叶和苔藓睡着了。
131 stumps 221f9ff23e30fdcc0f64ec738849554c     
(被砍下的树的)树桩( stump的名词复数 ); 残肢; (板球三柱门的)柱; 残余部分
参考例句:
  • Rocks and stumps supplied the place of chairs at the picnic. 野餐时石头和树桩都充当了椅子。
  • If you don't stir your stumps, Tom, you'll be late for school again. 汤姆,如果你不快走,上学又要迟到了。
132 varied giIw9     
adj.多样的,多变化的
参考例句:
  • The forms of art are many and varied.艺术的形式是多种多样的。
  • The hotel has a varied programme of nightly entertainment.宾馆有各种晚间娱乐活动。
133 decomposed d6dafa7f02e02b23fd957d01ced03499     
已分解的,已腐烂的
参考例句:
  • A liquid is decomposed when an electric current passes through it. 当电流通过时,液体就分解。
  • Water can be resolved [decomposed] into hydrogen and oxygen. 水可分解为氢和氧。
134 apparently tMmyQ     
adv.显然地;表面上,似乎
参考例句:
  • An apparently blind alley leads suddenly into an open space.山穷水尽,豁然开朗。
  • He was apparently much surprised at the news.他对那个消息显然感到十分惊异。
135 embedded lt9ztS     
a.扎牢的
参考例句:
  • an operation to remove glass that was embedded in his leg 取出扎入他腿部玻璃的手术
  • He has embedded his name in the minds of millions of people. 他的名字铭刻在数百万人民心中。
136 expressive shwz4     
adj.表现的,表达…的,富于表情的
参考例句:
  • Black English can be more expressive than standard English.黑人所使用的英语可能比正式英语更有表现力。
  • He had a mobile,expressive,animated face.他有一张多变的,富于表情的,生动活泼的脸。
137 corroborated ab27fc1c50e7a59aad0d93cd9f135917     
v.证实,支持(某种说法、信仰、理论等)( corroborate的过去式 )
参考例句:
  • The evidence was corroborated by two independent witnesses. 此证据由两名独立证人提供。
  • Experiments have corroborated her predictions. 实验证实了她的预言。 来自《简明英汉词典》
138 aged 6zWzdI     
adj.年老的,陈年的
参考例句:
  • He had put on weight and aged a little.他胖了,也老点了。
  • He is aged,but his memory is still good.他已年老,然而记忆力还好。
139 shipping WESyg     
n.船运(发货,运输,乘船)
参考例句:
  • We struck a bargain with an American shipping firm.我们和一家美国船运公司谈成了一笔生意。
  • There's a shipping charge of £5 added to the price.价格之外另加五英镑运输费。
140 formerly ni3x9     
adv.从前,以前
参考例句:
  • We now enjoy these comforts of which formerly we had only heard.我们现在享受到了过去只是听说过的那些舒适条件。
  • This boat was formerly used on the rivers of China.这船从前航行在中国内河里。
141 condescend np7zo     
v.俯就,屈尊;堕落,丢丑
参考例句:
  • Would you condescend to accompany me?你肯屈尊陪我吗?
  • He did not condescend to answer.He turned his back on me.他不愿屈尊回答我的问题。他不理睬我。
142 thereby Sokwv     
adv.因此,从而
参考例句:
  • I have never been to that city,,ereby I don't know much about it.我从未去过那座城市,因此对它不怎么熟悉。
  • He became a British citizen,thereby gaining the right to vote.他成了英国公民,因而得到了投票权。
143 arable vNuyi     
adj.可耕的,适合种植的
参考例句:
  • The terrain changed quickly from arable land to desert.那个地带很快就从耕地变成了沙漠。
  • Do you know how much arable land has been desolated?你知道什么每年有多少土地荒漠化吗?
144 trifling SJwzX     
adj.微不足道的;没什么价值的
参考例句:
  • They quarreled over a trifling matter.他们为这种微不足道的事情争吵。
  • So far Europe has no doubt, gained a real conveniency,though surely a very trifling one.直到现在为止,欧洲无疑地已经获得了实在的便利,不过那确是一种微不足道的便利。
145 degradation QxKxL     
n.降级;低落;退化;陵削;降解;衰变
参考例句:
  • There are serious problems of land degradation in some arid zones.在一些干旱地带存在严重的土地退化问题。
  • Gambling is always coupled with degradation.赌博总是与堕落相联系。
146 minor e7fzR     
adj.较小(少)的,较次要的;n.辅修学科;vi.辅修
参考例句:
  • The young actor was given a minor part in the new play.年轻的男演员在这出新戏里被分派担任一个小角色。
  • I gave him a minor share of my wealth.我把小部分财产给了他。
147 salmon pClzB     
n.鲑,大马哈鱼,橙红色的
参考例句:
  • We saw a salmon jumping in the waterfall there.我们看见一条大马哈鱼在那边瀑布中跳跃。
  • Do you have any fresh salmon in at the moment?现在有新鲜大马哈鱼卖吗?
148 velocity rLYzx     
n.速度,速率
参考例句:
  • Einstein's theory links energy with mass and velocity of light.爱因斯坦的理论把能量同质量和光速联系起来。
  • The velocity of light is about 300000 kilometres per second.光速约为每秒300000公里。
149 strata GUVzv     
n.地层(复数);社会阶层
参考例句:
  • The older strata gradually disintegrate.较老的岩层渐渐风化。
  • They represent all social strata.他们代表各个社会阶层。
150 stratum TGHzK     
n.地层,社会阶层
参考例句:
  • The coal is a coal resource that reserves in old stratum.石煤是贮藏在古老地层中的一种煤炭资源。
  • How does Chinese society define the class and stratum?中国社会如何界定阶级与阶层?
151 peg p3Fzi     
n.木栓,木钉;vt.用木钉钉,用短桩固定
参考例句:
  • Hang your overcoat on the peg in the hall.把你的大衣挂在门厅的挂衣钩上。
  • He hit the peg mightily on the top with a mallet.他用木槌猛敲木栓顶。
152 touching sg6zQ9     
adj.动人的,使人感伤的
参考例句:
  • It was a touching sight.这是一幅动人的景象。
  • His letter was touching.他的信很感人。
153 flannel S7dyQ     
n.法兰绒;法兰绒衣服
参考例句:
  • She always wears a grey flannel trousers.她总是穿一条灰色法兰绒长裤。
  • She was looking luscious in a flannel shirt.她穿着法兰绒裙子,看上去楚楚动人。
154 fixed JsKzzj     
adj.固定的,不变的,准备好的;(计算机)固定的
参考例句:
  • Have you two fixed on a date for the wedding yet?你们俩选定婚期了吗?
  • Once the aim is fixed,we should not change it arbitrarily.目标一旦确定,我们就不应该随意改变。
155 plunged 06a599a54b33c9d941718dccc7739582     
v.颠簸( plunge的过去式和过去分词 );暴跌;骤降;突降
参考例句:
  • The train derailed and plunged into the river. 火车脱轨栽进了河里。
  • She lost her balance and plunged 100 feet to her death. 她没有站稳,从100英尺的高处跌下摔死了。
156 specimen Xvtwm     
n.样本,标本
参考例句:
  • You'll need tweezers to hold up the specimen.你要用镊子来夹这标本。
  • This specimen is richly variegated in colour.这件标本上有很多颜色。
157 specimens 91fc365099a256001af897127174fcce     
n.样品( specimen的名词复数 );范例;(化验的)抽样;某种类型的人
参考例句:
  • Astronauts have brought back specimens of rock from the moon. 宇航员从月球带回了岩石标本。
  • The traveler brought back some specimens of the rocks from the mountains. 那位旅行者从山上带回了一些岩石标本。 来自《简明英汉词典》
158 brewer brewer     
n. 啤酒制造者
参考例句:
  • Brewer is a very interesting man. 布鲁尔是一个很有趣的人。
  • I decided to quit my job to become a brewer. 我决定辞职,做一名酿酒人。
159 figs 14c6a7d3f55a72d6eeba2b7b66c6d0ab     
figures 数字,图形,外形
参考例句:
  • The effect of ring dyeing is shown in Figs 10 and 11. 环形染色的影响如图10和图11所示。
  • The results in Figs. 4 and 5 show the excellent agreement between simulation and experiment. 图4和图5的结果都表明模拟和实验是相当吻合的。
160 procuring 1d7f440d0ca1006a2578d7800f8213b2     
v.(努力)取得, (设法)获得( procure的现在分词 );拉皮条
参考例句:
  • He was accused of procuring women for his business associates. 他被指控为其生意合伙人招妓。 来自辞典例句
  • She had particular pleasure, in procuring him the proper invitation. 她特别高兴为他争得这份体面的邀请。 来自辞典例句
161 cylinder rngza     
n.圆筒,柱(面),汽缸
参考例句:
  • What's the volume of this cylinder?这个圆筒的体积有多少?
  • The cylinder is getting too much gas and not enough air.汽缸里汽油太多而空气不足。
162 brass DWbzI     
n.黄铜;黄铜器,铜管乐器
参考例句:
  • Many of the workers play in the factory's brass band.许多工人都在工厂铜管乐队中演奏。
  • Brass is formed by the fusion of copper and zinc.黄铜是通过铜和锌的熔合而成的。
163 vertical ZiywU     
adj.垂直的,顶点的,纵向的;n.垂直物,垂直的位置
参考例句:
  • The northern side of the mountain is almost vertical.这座山的北坡几乎是垂直的。
  • Vertical air motions are not measured by this system.垂直气流的运动不用这种系统来测量。
164 descends e9fd61c3161a390a0db3b45b3a992bee     
v.下来( descend的第三人称单数 );下去;下降;下斜
参考例句:
  • This festival descends from a religious rite. 这个节日起源于宗教仪式。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • The path descends steeply to the village. 小路陡直而下直到村子。 来自《简明英汉词典》
165 sufficiently 0htzMB     
adv.足够地,充分地
参考例句:
  • It turned out he had not insured the house sufficiently.原来他没有给房屋投足保险。
  • The new policy was sufficiently elastic to accommodate both views.新政策充分灵活地适用两种观点。
166 Oxford Wmmz0a     
n.牛津(英国城市)
参考例句:
  • At present he has become a Professor of Chemistry at Oxford.他现在已是牛津大学的化学教授了。
  • This is where the road to Oxford joins the road to London.这是去牛津的路与去伦敦的路的汇合处。
167 excellence ZnhxM     
n.优秀,杰出,(pl.)优点,美德
参考例句:
  • His art has reached a high degree of excellence.他的艺术已达到炉火纯青的地步。
  • My performance is far below excellence.我的表演离优秀还差得远呢。


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