Judging from Smeaton’s well known “Reports,” to which all have access, we may conclude that the “professional advice” given by early Engineers was very generally accompanied by a fuller and less reserved discussion of opinion than is to be met with in the brief and technical Engineering reports of the present day. In early times, Engineers did not hesitate to express themselves freely on physics, ?sthetics, or commerce, provided their views had a collateral16 bearing on the subject under discussion, and this often added to the interest of their reports.
These early Engineers were also consulted on a much wider range of subjects than the Engineers of modern times. We know that the larger requirements of modern Engineering demand that its practice should be classified237 under distinct branches, such as harbours, navigations, water works, gas works, lighthouses, or railways, not to mention electrical and sanitary17 engineering, and other branches of modern growth, all of which cannot possibly be advantageously practised by any one member of the profession; for no one mind can grasp the theoretical knowledge, and no one life can compass the practical experience, to enable a man to attain18 eminence19 in all these departments of modern Engineering.
A biographical sketch20 of Mr. Stevenson’s professional life would, it seems to me, be incomplete if it did not convey to the reader some notion, however general, of the wide range of subjects brought under his notice, in these early times, and of his comprehensive and suggestive mode of treating every case on which he was professionally consulted. This object would be only imperfectly attained22 were I to restrict my reference to his reports to the examples given in the preceding chapters; for I have found in his numerous writings casual notices of a miscellaneous and fragmentary character, many of which seem to me to be interesting to the profession, and worthy23 of preservation24, and I propose, in this chapter, to give a few of these extracts, without order of subject or date; and I think they will justify25 my remark as to the great variety and fulness of treatment to be found in the reports of early Engineers.
* * * * *
It appears, for example, that Mr. Stevenson was often called to advise on matters which were more related to architecture than engineering. Of this nature was his238 tour of inspection26 to the jails of England, in company with Sir William Rae, the Sheriff of Edinburgh, in 1813, referred to in a former chapter.
ABERBROTHOCK RUINS.
In like manner he inspected Aberbrothock Abbey, with Sir Walter Scott and the Sheriff of Forfar, in 1809, to advise as to preserving the ruins, some of the turrets27 being in imminent28 danger of falling; and after procuring29 a survey of the whole building he prepared a report, with plans and specification30, which were submitted to the Barons31 of Exchequer32, and the work was thereafter carried out under his direction.
ST. MAGNUS CATHEDRAL AND EARL’S PALACE.
He also reported in a similar way to the Sheriff of Orkney with reference to the repairs of the Earl’s Palace at Kirkwall, estimated at ￡500, and on certain alterations34 at the Cathedral of St. Magnus.
ST. ANDREWS CATHEDRAL AND MONTROSE SPIRE.
With a similar object in view he inspected and reported on the Cathedral of St. Andrews, and the steeple of the Church of Montrose, which was thought to be in danger, and the result of that inquiry35 was the present beautiful spire, built from the designs of James Gillespie Graham.
MELVILLE MONUMENT.
He was also associated with Mr. Burn in the Melville Monument of Edinburgh,—the preparation of the foundation,239 the rubble work for the tower, and the scaffolding and tackling for raising the statue were carried out under Mr. Stevenson’s direction; the whole architectural design being due to Mr. Burn alone.
LIPPING OF JOINTS OF MASONRY WITH CEMENT.
The well known practice of what is termed “lipping” with cement the mortar joints of masonry exposed to the wash of water is described by him as new in his report to the Trustees of Marykirk Bridge, of 16th July 1812, where he says:—
“Upon carefully examining the face joints of the masonry of the south pier37 under water line, some of these were found not to be so full of mortar as could have been wished, and although Mr. Logan (the inspector38 of works) had taken the precaution to cause the joints to be covered with clay to preserve them from the effects of the water, yet this had not altogether answered the purpose, and hence the reporter recommended to the meeting of the 8th current to provide a few casks of Parker’s Roman Cement, to be laid to the breadth of three or four inches upon the bed and end joints under the low water mark of the remaining piers39.”
PROVISION FOR FLOOD WATER IN BRIDGES.
In determining the waterway of his bridges, Mr. Stevenson invariably provided for prospective increase of flooding due to agricultural improvements, as stated in the following extract from a report made in 1811:—
“To preserve an ample waterway the north abutment is placed about twelve feet from the edge of the river,240 leaving a sufficient passage for the water in floods. A less waterway might perhaps have answered the purpose, but as the valleys through which the North Esk passes may come to be meliorated by drainage, and especially those districts of country on each side of the feeders which join the river, the facility with which the surface water may then escape must greatly increase the floods, and although their duration will be shorter, yet their rise must be proportionally higher.”
HYDRAULIC MORTAR.
The following remarks on hydraulic mortar, made in 1811 to the Commissioners41 of Montrose Bridge, are interesting as showing the detail which he brought to bear on all his works:—
“The best mortar for water work is a mixture of Pozzolano earth with lime and sand, but the late interrupted state of commercial intercourse42 with the Mediterranean43 has for years past rendered Pozzolano so scarce an article as hardly to be procured44 on any terms. Your reporter has therefore been induced to make various experiments with preparations of lime and Roman cement, and finds that a mixture may be made which will set under water and answer every purpose. For this mortar the lime ought to be well burned, and put into casks when drawn45 from the kiln46. It should be brought to the work as recently after being burnt as possible. This will be most readily attained by taking the lime from Boddam kilns48. English lime is in general stronger and cleaner, but some of it brought for the purpose of241 agriculture is not so suitable for buildings as Lord Elgin’s lime. These limes, however, cannot be had very newly burnt, and it will be preferable to take lime from some of the kilns in the neighbourhood which are of good character. When brought to the bridge the lime should be kept under cover, opening only one barrel at a time; the shells must be pounded to a state of powder, and immediately before mixing it with the other ingredients it will be proper to sprinkle a little water upon it to dissolve any gritty particles that may remain amongst it.
“The sand for this work, though fine, must nevertheless be sharp; it must also be passed through a sieve50, and cleaned of all impurities51 by washing, if found necessary. For ramming52 the joints and pointing under water, let equal parts of lime in its powdered state and of Roman cement be used, with one fourth part of prepared sand, but for the upper works the quantity of Roman cement in the mortar may be reduced to one third part.
“The mortar must be mixed in small quantities and quickly beaten up into a consistency53 suitable for the work. All white specks54, which are apt to swell55 and spoil the joints, must be carefully rejected from the mortar.”
PROTECTION OF FORESHORES.
Some suggestive remarks on the protection of foreshores, made in 1812, in a report to Lord Rosebery, on his Lordship’s property at Barnbougle Castle on the Firth of Forth56, are given in the following terms:—
“If the operation of the waters of the ocean be242 attended to in the formation of the shores, some useful hints may be gained. These shores will be found to be so many inclined planes, varying in declivity57 according to the tenacity58 of the matter of which they, are composed. Hence it is that the minute grains of sand and the light sea shell become a lasting59 barrier against the rapid river current and the tumultuous ocean, while the erect60 sea wall is levelled with the ground. For the truth of this it were needless to refer to the works of nature in different quarters of the world, or in distant parts of this country; it is only necessary to examine the shores on each side of Barnbougle Castle, where the beautiful beach, consisting of sand and shells, between the Cockle Burn and the sea, forms a complete defence to the low grounds behind it, while to the northward61 of the castle the massive wall is in danger of being completely thrown down. Without waiting to inquire into the causes which regulate these appearances, it will be more consonant62 to the business of this report to point out how their simple forms may be imitated and turned to advantage.”
CYCLOIDAL SEAWALL.
In reporting on the defence of the lands of Trinity, on the Firth of Forth, Mr. Stevenson recommended the adoption63 of a cycloidal talus wall, which was executed under his direction in 1821:—
“In giving an opinion relative to the best mode of defending and preserving this property, the reporter observes that it fortunately happens that the beach is pretty closely covered with large boulder64 stones, which now form a kind of chevaux de frise in breaking the force243 of the sea, and making it fall more gently towards high water mark. Were it not that these stones are proposed to be employed in the erection of a more effectual barrier against the waves, the reporter would not fail to disapprove65 of their removal for any other purpose.
Fig66. 20.
“The reporter proposes that a Talus wall or bulwark67 should be built of these boulder stones, roughly dressed and laid so as to form a cycloidal curve in the central part, as nearly as may be, as represented in the section with its tangents (Fig. 20). The properties of the cycloid as applicable to a sea wall in an exposed situation are very important. In particular, if compared with any other curve, in the same vertical68 line and down through the same points, it will be found of swiftest descent under similar circumstances, therefore the water in its rise must be proportionally retarded69. The lower tangent to the curve alluded70 to also forms a wall towards low water, best adapted for admitting the sea to flow gently over it, while that connected with the upper extremity71 of the cycloidal part, tending towards the perpendicular72, brings gravity into action against the rise of the waves.244 The practical execution of a wall upon this construction is simple, while the aggregate73 quantity of materials is less than for any of the curves of the conic sections of similar extent, and it seems upon the whole to be peculiarly applicable for the defence of the sea beach in question.
“If we examine the numerous works of this kind erected74 for similar purposes along this coast, we shall find that the general process or action of the waves is to undermine the seaward courses of the walls. In some cases, however, where due attention has not been paid to making up the backing of the face wall in a compact and firm manner, the central parts have been found to sink and give way. But the more common mode of failure is by the undermining of the seaward courses, arising from too sudden a slope being given to the face wall, which has a direct tendency to produce additional agitation75 in the waters at the bottom of the wall, by which the beach is excavated76, and the foundation, being exposed to the wash of the sea, its destruction soon follows. If we attend to the distribution which nature makes of the matters composing a sea beach, unless where special local causes occur, we find them laid with a very gradual descent towards low water mark. The sands of Portobello, in this neighbourhood, form a striking example of this. Here small quartzose grains mixed with light sea shells prove, in their effects, a more effectual barrier against the overwhelming force of the waves than perpendicular and massive walls of masonry.”
245
CHECKING DRIFT SAND.
Mr. Stevenson recommended Lord Palmerston to introduce the Pinus maritima major, as a check for sand drift, on his estate of Mullaghmore, in the following report, dated 21st July 1835:—
“During the reporter’s visit to Mullaghmore, his advice was also asked regarding the operations at present going on for the improvement of the land. He had then much satisfaction in viewing the interesting improvements of reclaiming77 bog78 lands, and checking the inroads of the sand flood or drift, by planting ‘bent79’ grass upon the shores of this estate. The system of dibbling the bent grass, pursued by Mr. Lynch, is in the best style which the reporter has anywhere met with; and he has been so impressed with the national importance of this scheme, from the success already experienced at Mullaghmore, that he has already taken the opportunity of recommending this system as applicable to the entrance of Ballyshannon, and in other quarters, particularly to the Highland80 and Agricultural Society of Scotland.
“The question chiefly submitted to the consideration of the reporter, in regard to these operations, was the best mode of defending the margin81 of the bent grass towards the sea. For such purposes, buildings or fences of any kind are not only expensive in their formation, but are also in constant need of repair. Mr. Lynch seems so much at home in all planting operations that the reporter begs simply to bring under your Lordship’s notice the French mode of planting a species of fir (Pinus maritima major),246 which was originally suggested to the Government by the late M. Bremonteuil, Ingénieur des Ponts et Chaussées. This system has been extensively tried along the stormy shores of the Bay of Biscay, particularly in the district of Grave, at the entrance of the Garonne, where the arid82 and sterile83 sands have been covered with extensive forests, which thrive quite close to the water’s edge. From the climate and exposure of the shores at Mullaghmore, the reporter has no doubt of the success of similar plantations84 in arresting the progress of the sand flood. It is believed that Mr. Lawson, seedsman to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, is taking measures to import the seeds of the Pinus maritima major, with a view to trying it on some of the exposed sandy districts of Scotland.”
From the following extract of a letter from Mr. Kincaid of Dublin, who was Lord Palmerston’s Commissioner40, it is interesting to know that the experiment was entirely85 satisfactory, proving that the Pinus maritima major is well adapted to the climate of the coasts of the British Isles:—
“The Mullaghmore plantations extend to about 200 acres. About eighty of these were planted twenty-five years ago. Some of the trees are thirty feet in height, and vary from that height to about twenty or twenty-five feet. The remainder were planted ten years ago, and are making fair progress. All the pine plantations from opposite Newtown Cliffony to Mullaghmore are in a most healthy condition, the trees making growths of from twelve to twenty inches each year. The storms have no bad effect on the south side of the great sand hill, but on its summit, and towards the west side, the spray and247 gales88 of the Atlantic will not allow the young trees to make any progress.”
NIGHT SIGNAL LAMPS.
In a report to the Trustees for improving the Queensferry passage, made in 1811, Mr. Stevenson proposes a set of signals as described in the following extract, his proposal being, in fact, the signal now in use on all British railways:—
“Upon the supposition of its being the intention of this Honourable89 Trust to have an establishment on the south side of the Firth similar to that which is now proposed for the north side, the reporter takes the liberty of observing that much advantage, as the Trustees know, might be derived90 by the public from a few simple and well appointed signals, both for night and day.
“Those intended for the day may be constructed upon a modified scale, after the common telegraphic method; while the night signals can be rendered extremely simple and effective by interposing at pleasure between the observer and the reflector a shade of coloured glass. By connecting these partial obscurations of colouring the light with an index that shall be understood on both sides of the passage, orders may be communicated in a very expeditious91 manner.”
CAUSE OF HEAVY SEAS IN IRISH CHANNEL.
In a report to the Right Honourable Viscount Cathcart, Commander of His Majesty’s Forces, made on Portpatrick harbour in 1812, he gives the following explanation of the well-known rough sea between Portpatrick and Donaghadee:—
248 “In describing the harbour of Portpatrick, it may be noticed that although the coast on which it is situated92 is not directly exposed to the Atlantic Ocean, yet the opposing tides of the north and south channels meet there and separate to flow up the Clyde and Solway Firths, which, independent of storms, must occasion a very considerable commotion93 in the waters of the channel between Portpatrick and Donaghadee.
“Accordingly we find that the sea has made a great impression upon the coast of Wigtonshire; and though the shores between Loch Ryan and the Bay of Glenluce consist chiefly of whinstone (the greenstone of mineralogists), which is one of the most indestructible rocks we have, yet the figure of the coast is indented94 with many small cuts or creeks95, and rocks are all along the shore found jutting96 into the sea. At the head of one of these creeks, which is about a hundred fathoms97 in length, and thirty fathoms in breadth, the harbour of Portpatrick is situated between two insulated rocks, upon one of which the piers are built, the harbour being formed by an excavation98, chiefly in the solid rock.”
SEA ROUTES ACROSS IRISH CHANNEL.
In the same report he states the relative advantages of various routes of communication across the Irish Channel:—
“A further extension of the intercourse between Scotland and Ireland could be made with much advantage to both by a regular establishment of packets between Ardrossan, Troon, or Dunure in Ayrshire, and Larne in the county of Antrim. Between the two last places,249 viz., Dunure and Larne, the distance would only be about sixty miles, being ten miles shorter, and unquestionably much safer, than the passage from Holyhead to Dublin.
“Under all the views of this subject, from the greater contiguity99 of Portpatrick and Donaghadee than of Lochs Ryan and Larne, and the former places having more immediate49 access to the open sea than the latter, and also from the intercourse being now fully36 organised by long establishment, it were perhaps better, even at a much greater expense, to continue the present system than to change it. Portpatrick harbour may be rendered incomparably better by the plan now proposed, and Donaghadee is also capable and stands much in want of improvement, by an extension of its piers and the erection of a permanent light to direct the packets into the harbour under night.”
BUILD OF SHIPS.
In reporting to the Royal Burgh of Dundee as to the improvement of the harbour in 1814, Mr. Stevenson takes occasion to introduce one of those collateral questions to which I have referred:—
“It is curious to observe the changes and to trace the progressive improvements which have taken place in the form and build of ships. When we contrast those of early navigators with ships of modern times, among the many alterations, none seems more striking than the difference of their depth. The draught100 of water that was required for a ship of 300 tons burden would hardly be found enough to float a modern built vessel10 of 100 tons.250 This alteration33 in the construction of ships, which is mainly calculated to improve their sailing, by giving them a better hold of the water, seems gradually to have advanced, as the mariner101 became more adventurous103 in his voyages; and is only now restrained by certain considerations of convenience, of which the most prominent is the want of a sufficient depth of water in the havens104 and harbours on the coast for their reception,—a circumstance which arises partly from the natural position of harbours, but is chiefly owing to the difficulties and expense attending the necessary engineering operations, which increase enormously with the depth of water. Hence it is that many of the ancient seaport105 towns of this country, which at one time possessed106 an extensive trade, have, from neglecting their harbours, sunk into a state of insignificancy107; while others, by proper exertions108 in this respect, have, under the most inauspicious circumstances, attained to great commercial importance.”
PROSPECTIVE INCREASE OF POPULATION.
Another case of the same kind occurs in his report on the harbour of North Berwick, made in 1812:—
“Before closing this report it may be noticed that North Berwick has considerable advantages, which if acted upon would infallibly lead to the rapid improvement of the town and neighbourhood. Situated upon an extensive flat which skirts along the high land of North Berwick Law, on a beautiful sandy bay, which is intersected by the street leading to the harbour, few251 towns will more easily admit of elegant extension or are better calculated for becoming a sea-bathing retreat.”
It has now the well-known reputation of being the best frequented watering place on the east coast of Scotland.
TIDAL SCOUR.
In the report, of 1814, on Dundee we find the following remarks on tidal scour:—
“To put this matter in a clearer point of view, let us see what nature does upon the great scale, as for example in the extensive basin forming the Firth of Tay. We there find that in consequence of the rapidity of the current at the narrow passage in the neighbourhood of Broughty Castle, which may be viewed as the scouring109 aperture110 of the basin of the Tay, the water is from forty to eighty feet in depth, and moves with a velocity111 which carries a great quantity of sandy particles along with it. But no sooner are the waters of this current allowed to spread and cover the basin of the Tay, than the velocity ceases, and the foreign matters fall to the bottom and form the various sandbanks which appear at low water. In a similar way the deposition112 of silt113 and earthy particles brought down the river in speats is accounted for. Now, this view of the case is equally applicable to the harbour of Dundee, for so long as the water preserves the velocity it acquires in the scouring apertures114 or arches in the quays115, it carries all its foreign matters along with it; but the moment it is allowed to expand over the extent of the harbour the deposition of these earthy particles begins.252 And in every case the well-known law in hydraulics holds good, that the scouring effect of a fluid is in the ratio of the square of the velocity.”
UNSCREWING OF BOLTS.
The following observations made in 1807 on the action of the waves in unscrewing bolts, are interesting:—
“The unlocking of screws, where washers had been introduced as a security was rather unexpected, and the writer took an opportunity of conversing116 with his much respected friend Professor Playfair regarding this circumstance. The Professor observed, that he had experienced some inconvenience of this kind from the unlocking of almost all the screws of a telescope which had been sent to him from London by the mail coach. Indeed, from the spiral form of the screw, which is, in fact, an inclined plane, Mr. Playfair readily accounted for such an occurrence, and, when reflected upon, it seems to be an effect rather to be looked for, and is a reason why riveting117 the point of a bolt in preference to screwing it should generally be resorted to, where much motion is to be apprehended118.”
CEMENT RUBBLE COFFERDAMS.
I give his description of the cement rubble cofferdams, first used in 1808, at the erection of the Bell Rock Lighthouse:—
“At seven o’clock this morning, the tide proving more favourable119, the artificers began to work. At nine o’clock the rock was again overflowed120, and the boats253 returned to the tender after two hours’ work. Part of the operations of this morning’s tide consisted in building up the crevices121 and inequalities of the rock round the margin of the foundation with Pozzolano mortar and the chips produced from excavation, with the view to dam out the water. These little walls varied122 from six to eighteen inches in height; a small sluice123 or aperture being formed in one of them, by which the water, during ebb124 tide, was allowed to drain off.
“It formed part of the writer’s original design to erect a cast iron cofferdam of about five feet in height round the site of the building; but the surface of the rock was so irregular that the difficulty of tightening125 it, and also of emptying the contained water, so as to get the benefit of it during ebb tide, would have been so great, that taking these circumstances into account, together with the loss of time which would attend the erection of such a preparatory work, the idea of a cofferdam was laid aside, soon after entering upon the actual execution of the work.”
BUOYAGE SYSTEM.
In his report on the Forth Navigation, made to the Magistrates126 of Stirling in 1828, Mr. Stevenson proposed a system of buoyage, which has since been adopted by the several Lighthouse Boards of the United Kingdom:—
“The channels proposed to be cleared through the different fords are coloured red on the Plan, in reference to the sectional line. For the use and guidance of river pilots, buoys127 and perches128 or beacons129 are likewise intended254 to be placed in the positions shown in the Plan; those coloured red are to be taken on the starboard, and those coloured black upon the larboard side, in going up the river; and the whole are to be so placed in connection with the clearing and deepening of the fords as to be approached with safety.”
OBSERVATIONS ON FOG SIGNALS.
At a very early period Mr. Stevenson’s attention was directed to the dangers of fog at sea, and the best means of providing an effective fog signal for the mariner, and so long ago as 1808 he had come to the conclusion that the best signal adapted for the purpose was the sustained sound of a horn, which, as is well known, has within the last few years been so much employed in the fog signals which are now being established at many of the lighthouse stations in this and foreign countries. The following extracts give an idea of the difficulties he encountered, and his views on the subject:—
“The boats landed this evening (23d June 1808), when the artificers had again two hours’ work. The weather still continuing very thick and foggy, more difficulty was experienced in getting on board of the vessels to-night than had occurred on any previous occasion, owing to a light breeze of wind which carried the sound of the bell, and the other signals made on board of the vessels, away from the rock. Having fortunately made out the position of the sloop131 “Smeaton,” at the north-east buoy9, to which we were much assisted by the barking of the ship’s dog, we parted with the Smeaton’s boat, when the255 boats of the tender took a fresh departure for that vessel, which lay about half a mile to the south westward132. Yet such is the very deceiving state of the tides that although there was a small binnacle and compass in the landing master’s boat, we had nevertheless passed the ‘Sir Joseph’ a good way, when fortunately one of the sailors caught the sound of a blowing horn. The only fire-arms on board were a pair of swivels of one inch calibre; but it is quite surprising how much the sound is lost in foggy weather, as the report was heard but at a very short distance. The sound from the explosion of gunpowder133 is so instantaneous that the effect of the small guns was not so good as either the blowing of a horn or the tolling134 of a bell, which afforded a more constant and steady direction for the pilot. It may here be noticed that larger guns would have answered better, but these must have induced the keeping of a greater stock of gunpowder, which in a service of this kind might have been attended with risk. A better signal would have been a bugle135 horn, the tremulous sound of which produces a more powerful effect in fog than the less sonorous136 and more sudden report of ordnance137.”
And again he says:—
“In the course of this morning’s work two or three apparently138 distant peals139 of thunder were heard, and the atmosphere suddenly became thick and foggy. But as the Smeaton, our present tender, was moored140 at no great distance from the rock, the crew on board continued blowing a horn, and occasionally fired a musket141, so that the boats got to the ship without difficulty. The occurrence256 of thick weather, however, became a serious consideration in looking forward to the necessary change of quarters to the Pharos, distant about one mile from the rock, instead of a few hundred yards, as in the case of the Smeaton.
“The weather towards the evening became thick and foggy, and there was hardly a breath of wind to ruffle142 the surface of the water; had it not therefore been the noise from the anvils143 of the smiths, who had been left on the beacon130 throughout the day, which afforded a guide for the boats, a landing could not have been attempted this evening, especially with so large a company of artificers. This circumstance confirmed the writer’s opinion with regard to the propriety144 of connecting large bells to be rung with machinery145 in the lighthouse, to be tolled146 day and night during the continuance of foggy weather, by which the mariner may be forewarned of too near an approach to the rock, while every distant object is obscured in the mist.”
Following out this subject, Mr. Stevenson caused observations to be made at the Calf147 of Man—a small island at the south of the Isle86 of Man, and separated from the main island by a narrow “sound.” The place is noted148 for its fogs, on which Mr. Stevenson says:—
“I sent Mr. Macurich, a shipmaster in the lighthouse service, to the Calf of Man, with directions to reside there, and make monthly returns of the state of the weather, agreeably to a printed form. During his stay of seven months, it appears upon the whole that the fog rested only twice upon the highest land of the Calf Island, while257 it cleared partially149 below. On one of these occasions I was on board of the lighthouse yacht, then at anchor off the island, when the fog was for a time general; and as the weather became clear, I observed that it first disappeared upon the lower parts of the island, and that in half an hour the whole of the Calf was seen. In the monthly returns made by Mr. Macurich, the Calf island is represented as often perfectly21 free of fog, while the higher parts of the opposite mainland of the Isle of Man were hid in mist. To account for this, it may be noticed that the mass of matter in the Calf Island is much less, and the land is also much lower than in the main island. Part of this effect may also be ascribed to the rapidity of the tides, which create a current of wind, particularly in the narrow channel between the main and Calf islands, which have a direct tendency to clear away the fog, as I have observed at the Skerries in the Pentland Firth, and in similar situations on different parts of the coast, where rapid currents prevail.”
These extracts are given to show the attention Mr. Stevenson gave to the subject of fogs, which, as already noticed, led him to recommend the horn, the instrument now so much used in giving signals to the mariner.
Akin47 to this may be mentioned his expression of regret that no means existed for determining the force of the wind, as noticed in the following paragraph:—
“We cannot enough regret the want of an efficient anemometer, or instrument for measuring the force of the wind. Indeed, we hardly know any desideratum of more universal interest, for, notwithstanding the labours of258 Lind and others on this subject, from the want of a proper scale we are still groping in the dark with the use of such indefinite terms as ‘light airs inclining to calm,’ ‘fresh breezes,’ ‘fresh gales,’ ‘hard gales,’ and ‘very hard gales;’ for it rarely happens that the sailor will admit the term ‘storm’ into his nomenclature.”
REGULATIONS FOR STEAM VESSELS.
The loss of the ‘Comet’ steamer by collision on the Clyde, in 1825, led the Lord Advocate to entertain the idea of introducing a Bill for the regulation of steamers, and to issue a circular in the following terms, of which Mr. Stevenson received a copy:—
“Edinburgh, 4th Feby. 1826.
I annex150 a copy of the heads of such a Bill as, in my opinion, may be calculated to afford sufficient security to steamboats, and thereby151 alike promote the interests of the owners of such vessels and that of the public. I feel noways wedded152 to any of the proposed provisions, and am anxious to submit them to the consideration of the better informed on such subjects, so as to obtain suggestions either as to the additions or amendments153 which the Bill may be fitted to receive.
“In directing your attention to this important subject, I need hardly remind you that in our endeavours to render such vessels perfectly secure in so far as respects the passengers, we must not lose sight of the interest of the owners, or attempt to clog154 the trade with unnecessarily embarrassing regulations. Such restrictions155 are259 seldom enforced, and, if they should receive effect, might lead to such harassing156 consequences as would injure this useful description of property, and thereby to a certain extent deprive the public of the great benefit which is now derived from the use of vessels navigated157 by steam.—I have the honour to be your most obedient servant,
“Wm. Rae.”
The only account I can find of Mr. Stevenson’s views on this important subject is contained in the following extract from a letter, dated 3d November 1825, to Captain Foulerton, one of the Wardens158 of the Trinity House, with whom he appears to have had much correspondence, in which he explains views which are very much in accordance with the regulations for steamers now issued by the Board of Trade. His letter says:—
“We lately had a melancholy159 accident, as you would see, by the running down of the ‘Comet’ steam packet, by which, it is believed, that about seventy people lost their lives. The Lord Advocate attended himself at the taking of the precognition, and is, I believe, to bring some of the parties to trial. He has also in view some regulations by an Act on this new and important subject.
“From my seeming marine102 habits his Lordship has desired me to state what occurs on the subject of lights. If we need this on the Forth and Clyde, you must be in a worse state in the Thames. I have no doubt you had this under the notice of your House. I think there should be two lights, one in each bow, but under deck, in order to keep the lights entirely out of the view of those on260 deck. I am not for interfering160 with their head sails. I would have them licensed161 like stage coaches, and placed under the inspection of an officer of the navy, not below the rank of a lieutenant162. Six or eight officers might do the duty for the whole United Kingdom for a time.”
The accident seems to have led to a further investigation163 into the general question of the saving of life in cases of shipwreck12 on the coasts of Scotland; and on this subject Mr. Stevenson made the following replies to the queries164 submitted to him by the authorities:—
“Query.—Are shipwrecks frequent on the coasts of Scotland and its islands?”
“Wrecks15 between the Firths of Forth and Moray are more frequent than on any other part of the coast of Scotland. This may probably be accounted for by the great number of vessels passing and repassing along that coast. In the month of December 1799, a strong gale87 from the south-east occasioned serious disasters on these shores, when upwards165 of seventy sail were wrecked166 on the eastern coast of Scotland, and many of their crews perished. This lamentable167 catastrophe168 was the means of causing lifeboats upon Greathead’s plan to be fitted out at St. Andrews, Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen, Peterhead, and other places, which have been found highly useful in saving the lives of mariners169. This gale was also the immediate cause of the erection of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, which may be said almost entirely to have prevented shipwreck, so frequent in St. Andrews Bay and the entrance of the Firth of Forth in general.
261 “From the Moray Firth along the shores of the mainland to the entrance of the Firth of Clyde, wrecks cannot be said to be very frequent, although the navigation is rather difficult; but the safety of shipping170 on this coast depends upon the great number of excellent natural bays and harbours upon it.
“In the Orkney and Shetland Islands few seasons pass without wrecks occurring. On the Lewis and Western Hebrides shipwrecks frequently occur.”
“Query.—Are the coasts of Scotland in general well provided with the means of giving assistance in case of shipwreck, or are they deficient171 in such provision?”
“The coast of Scotland is provided with no other means of saving the crews of vessels than the assistance they accidentally meet with from the inhabitants along shore. The only lifeboats established are those at the ports already mentioned.
“If Captain Manby’s apparatus172 was generally known and applied173 upon the coast, it would be found highly beneficial.”
“Query.—Are any instances remembered of total shipwrecks where lives lost might have been saved by the lifeboat or by Captain Manby’s apparatus, at the distance of 350 or 400 yards off the coast?”
“In the year 1813 the ‘Oscar,’ Greenland ship of Aberdeen, Captain Innes, went ashore174 upon Girdleness, at the entrance of Aberdeen Harbour. There were on board fifty-four persons, of whom only two were saved, by262 dropping from the bowsprit end. The ship was very near the shore. She broke up about twenty minutes after she struck, and I have no doubt that, if an active person had been on the spot with Captain Manby’s apparatus, the greater part of the crew of this ship might have been saved.
“In the winter of 1824 the ‘Deveron’ of Aberdeen, Captain Scott, went ashore upon the sands three miles north of Aberdeen in a gale at south-east. She was only about 300 yards from the shore, and here the whole crew must have perished had it not been for the prompt use of Captain Manby’s apparatus.
“Every one who has seen this apparatus must have admired its simplicity175 and effect. It is however difficult to see how its application can be very generally introduced so as to be useful along the whole extent of chequered coasts of the British dominions176. Certainly at all principal ports it would naturally be expected that both this and the lifeboat would be provided.
“A time seems to be approaching when the coast will be much more complete in all such provision from the hands of the humane177 for the safety of the mariner. We also hail with pleasure the extending efforts of the respective Lighthouse Boards on the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, as a certain means of adding to the security of that useful body of men, as well as to the facilities of her enterprising merchants. Nor can we withhold178 the notice of the effect of the operations of the Scots Board in this respect. At the entrance to the Firth of Forth, prior to the erection of the Bell Rock263 Lighthouse, few winters passed without some disastrous179 shipwreck.
“Even after the completion of this arduous180 undertaking181, until the beacon was erected on the Carr Rock, off Fifeness, the fisherman’s observation was—‘The Carr has always her wreck14: if she misses one year, she is sure to have two the next.’ But since the erection of this beacon in 1820 till this date (1825), not a single wreck has happened on this part of the coast.”
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1
spire
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| n.(教堂)尖顶，尖塔，高点 | |
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2
joints
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| 接头( joint的名词复数 )； 关节； 公共场所（尤指价格低廉的饮食和娱乐场所） （非正式）； 一块烤肉 （英式英语） | |
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3
masonry
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| n.砖土建筑；砖石 | |
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4
hydraulic
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| adj.水力的；水压的，液压的；水力学的 | |
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5
mortar
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| n.灰浆，灰泥；迫击炮；v.把…用灰浆涂接合 | |
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6
prospective
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| adj.预期的，未来的，前瞻性的 | |
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7
scour
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| v.搜索；擦，洗，腹泻，冲刷 | |
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8
rubble
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| n.（一堆）碎石，瓦砾 | |
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9
buoy
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| n.浮标；救生圈；v.支持，鼓励 | |
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10
vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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12
shipwreck
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| n.船舶失事，海难 | |
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13
shipwrecks
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| 海难，船只失事( shipwreck的名词复数 )； 沉船 | |
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14
wreck
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| n.失事，遇难；沉船；vt.(船等)失事，遇难 | |
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15
wrecks
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| n.沉船( wreck的名词复数 )；（事故中）遭严重毁坏的汽车（或飞机等）；（身体或精神上）受到严重损伤的人；状况非常糟糕的车辆（或建筑物等）v.毁坏[毁灭]某物( wreck的第三人称单数 )；使（船舶）失事，使遇难，使下沉 | |
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16
collateral
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| adj.平行的；旁系的；n.担保品 | |
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17
sanitary
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| adj.卫生方面的，卫生的，清洁的，卫生的 | |
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18
attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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19
eminence
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| n.卓越，显赫；高地，高处；名家 | |
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20
sketch
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| n.草图；梗概；素描；v.素描；概述 | |
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21
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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22
attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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23
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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24
preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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25
justify
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| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
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26
inspection
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| n.检查，审查，检阅 | |
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27
turrets
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| （六角）转台( turret的名词复数 )； （战舰和坦克等上的）转动炮塔； （摄影机等上的）镜头转台； （旧时攻城用的）塔车 | |
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28
imminent
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| adj.即将发生的，临近的，逼近的 | |
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29
procuring
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的现在分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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30
specification
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| n.详述；[常pl.]规格，说明书，规范 | |
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31
barons
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| 男爵( baron的名词复数 )； 巨头； 大王； 大亨 | |
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32
exchequer
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| n.财政部；国库 | |
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33
alteration
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| n.变更，改变；蚀变 | |
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34
alterations
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| n.改动( alteration的名词复数 )；更改；变化；改变 | |
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35
inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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36
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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37
pier
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| n.码头；桥墩，桥柱；[建]窗间壁，支柱 | |
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38
inspector
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| n.检查员，监察员，视察员 | |
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39
piers
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| n.水上平台( pier的名词复数 )；（常设有娱乐场所的）突堤；柱子；墙墩 | |
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40
commissioner
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| n.（政府厅、局、处等部门）专员，长官，委员 | |
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41
commissioners
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| n.专员( commissioner的名词复数 )；长官；委员；政府部门的长官 | |
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42
intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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43
Mediterranean
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| adj.地中海的；地中海沿岸的 | |
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44
procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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45
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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46
kiln
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| n.（砖、石灰等）窑，炉；v.烧窑 | |
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47
akin
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| adj.同族的，类似的 | |
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48
kilns
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| n.窑( kiln的名词复数 )；烧窑工人 | |
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49
immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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50
sieve
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| n.筛，滤器，漏勺 | |
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51
impurities
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| 不纯( impurity的名词复数 )； 不洁； 淫秽； 杂质 | |
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52
ramming
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| n.打结炉底v.夯实（土等）( ram的现在分词 )；猛撞；猛压；反复灌输 | |
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53
consistency
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| n.一贯性，前后一致，稳定性；(液体的)浓度 | |
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54
specks
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| n.眼镜；斑点，微粒，污点( speck的名词复数 ) | |
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55
swell
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| vi.膨胀，肿胀；增长，增强 | |
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56
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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57
declivity
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| n.下坡，倾斜面 | |
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58
tenacity
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| n.坚韧 | |
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59
lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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60
erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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61
northward
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| adv.向北；n.北方的地区 | |
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62
consonant
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| n.辅音；adj.[音]符合的 | |
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63
adoption
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| n.采用，采纳，通过；收养 | |
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64
boulder
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| n.巨砾；卵石，圆石 | |
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65
disapprove
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| v.不赞成，不同意，不批准 | |
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66
fig
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| n.无花果(树) | |
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67
bulwark
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| n.堡垒，保障，防御 | |
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68
vertical
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| adj.垂直的，顶点的，纵向的；n.垂直物，垂直的位置 | |
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69
retarded
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| a.智力迟钝的，智力发育迟缓的 | |
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70
alluded
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| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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71
extremity
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| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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72
perpendicular
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| adj.垂直的，直立的；n.垂直线，垂直的位置 | |
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73
aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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74
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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75
agitation
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| n.搅动；搅拌；鼓动，煽动 | |
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76
excavated
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| v.挖掘( excavate的过去式和过去分词 )；开凿；挖出；发掘 | |
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77
reclaiming
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| v.开拓( reclaim的现在分词 )；要求收回；从废料中回收（有用的材料）；挽救 | |
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78
bog
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| n.沼泽；室...陷入泥淖 | |
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79
bent
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| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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80
highland
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| n.(pl.)高地，山地 | |
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81
margin
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| n.页边空白；差额；余地，余裕；边，边缘 | |
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82
arid
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| adj.干旱的；(土地)贫瘠的 | |
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83
sterile
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| adj.不毛的，不孕的，无菌的，枯燥的，贫瘠的 | |
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84
plantations
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| n.种植园，大农场( plantation的名词复数 ) | |
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85
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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86
isle
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| n.小岛，岛 | |
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87
gale
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| n.大风，强风，一阵闹声（尤指笑声等） | |
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88
gales
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| 龙猫 | |
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89
honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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90
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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91
expeditious
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| adj.迅速的，敏捷的 | |
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92
situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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commotion
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| n.骚动，动乱 | |
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indented
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| adj.锯齿状的，高低不平的；缩进排版 | |
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95
creeks
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| n.小湾( creek的名词复数 )；小港；小河；小溪 | |
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96
jutting
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| v.（使）突出( jut的现在分词 )；伸出；（从…）突出；高出 | |
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97
fathoms
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| 英寻( fathom的名词复数 ) | |
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98
excavation
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| n.挖掘，发掘；被挖掘之地 | |
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contiguity
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| n.邻近，接壤 | |
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100
draught
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| n.拉，牵引，拖；一网（饮，吸，阵)；顿服药量，通风；v.起草，设计 | |
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101
mariner
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| n.水手号不载人航天探测器，海员，航海者 | |
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102
marine
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| adj.海的；海生的；航海的；海事的；n.水兵 | |
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103
adventurous
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| adj.爱冒险的；惊心动魄的，惊险的，刺激的 | |
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104
havens
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| n.港口，安全地方( haven的名词复数 )v.港口，安全地方( haven的第三人称单数 ) | |
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105
seaport
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| n.海港，港口，港市 | |
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106
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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107
insignificancy
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| 不重要的事物； 无关紧要的人； 低微 | |
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exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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109
scouring
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| 擦[洗]净，冲刷，洗涤 | |
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110
aperture
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| n.孔，隙，窄的缺口 | |
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111
velocity
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| n.速度，速率 | |
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112
deposition
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| n.免职，罢官；作证；沉淀；沉淀物 | |
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113
silt
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| n.淤泥，淤沙，粉砂层，泥沙层；vt.使淤塞；vi.被淤塞 | |
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114
apertures
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| n.孔( aperture的名词复数 )；隙缝；（照相机的）光圈；孔径 | |
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115
quays
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| 码头( quay的名词复数 ) | |
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116
conversing
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| v.交谈，谈话( converse的现在分词 ) | |
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117
riveting
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| adj.动听的，令人着迷的，完全吸引某人注意力的；n.铆接（法） | |
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118
apprehended
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| 逮捕，拘押( apprehend的过去式和过去分词 )； 理解 | |
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119
favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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120
overflowed
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| 溢出的 | |
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121
crevices
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| n.（尤指岩石的）裂缝，缺口( crevice的名词复数 ) | |
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122
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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123
sluice
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| n.水闸 | |
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124
ebb
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| vi.衰退，减退；n.处于低潮，处于衰退状态 | |
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125
tightening
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| 上紧，固定，紧密 | |
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126
magistrates
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| 地方法官，治安官( magistrate的名词复数 ) | |
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127
buoys
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| n.浮标( buoy的名词复数 )；航标；救生圈；救生衣v.使浮起( buoy的第三人称单数 )；支持；为…设浮标；振奋…的精神 | |
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128
perches
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| 栖息处( perch的名词复数 )； 栖枝； 高处； 鲈鱼 | |
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129
beacons
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| 灯塔( beacon的名词复数 )； 烽火； 指路明灯； 无线电台或发射台 | |
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130
beacon
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| n.烽火，（警告用的）闪火灯，灯塔 | |
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131
sloop
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| n.单桅帆船 | |
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132
westward
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| n.西方，西部；adj.西方的，向西的；adv.向西 | |
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133
gunpowder
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| n.火药 | |
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134
tolling
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| [财]来料加工 | |
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135
bugle
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| n.军号，号角，喇叭；v.吹号，吹号召集 | |
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sonorous
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| adj.响亮的，回响的；adv.圆润低沉地；感人地；n.感人，堂皇 | |
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137
ordnance
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| n.大炮，军械 | |
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138
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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139
peals
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| n.（声音大而持续或重复的）洪亮的响声( peal的名词复数 )；隆隆声；洪亮的钟声；钟乐v.（使）（钟等）鸣响，（雷等）发出隆隆声( peal的第三人称单数 ) | |
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140
moored
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| adj. 系泊的 动词moor的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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141
musket
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| n.滑膛枪 | |
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142
ruffle
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| v.弄皱，弄乱；激怒，扰乱；n.褶裥饰边 | |
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143
anvils
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| n.（铁）砧( anvil的名词复数 )；砧骨 | |
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144
propriety
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| n.正当行为；正当；适当 | |
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145
machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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146
tolled
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| 鸣钟（toll的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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147
calf
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| n.小牛，犊，幼仔，小牛皮 | |
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148
noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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149
partially
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| adv.部分地，从某些方面讲 | |
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150
annex
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| vt.兼并，吞并；n.附属建筑物 | |
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151
thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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152
wedded
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| adj.正式结婚的；渴望…的，执著于…的v.嫁，娶，（与…）结婚( wed的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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153
amendments
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| （法律、文件的）改动( amendment的名词复数 )； 修正案； 修改； （美国宪法的）修正案 | |
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154
clog
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| vt.塞满，阻塞；n.[常pl.]木屐 | |
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155
restrictions
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| 约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则） | |
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156
harassing
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| v.侵扰，骚扰( harass的现在分词 )；不断攻击（敌人） | |
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157
navigated
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| v.给（船舶、飞机等）引航，导航( navigate的过去式和过去分词 )；（从海上、空中等）横越；横渡；飞跃 | |
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158
wardens
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| n.看守人( warden的名词复数 )；管理员；监察员；监察官 | |
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159
melancholy
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| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
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interfering
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| adj. 妨碍的 动词interfere的现在分词 | |
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161
licensed
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| adj.得到许可的v.许可，颁发执照(license的过去式和过去分词) | |
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162
lieutenant
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| n.陆军中尉，海军上尉；代理官员，副职官员 | |
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163
investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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164
queries
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| n.问题( query的名词复数 )；疑问；询问；问号v.质疑，对…表示疑问( query的第三人称单数 )；询问 | |
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165
upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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166
wrecked
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| adj.失事的，遇难的 | |
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167
lamentable
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| adj.令人惋惜的，悔恨的 | |
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168
catastrophe
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| n.大灾难，大祸 | |
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169
mariners
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| 海员，水手（mariner的复数形式） | |
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170
shipping
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| n.船运（发货，运输，乘船） | |
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171
deficient
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| adj.不足的，不充份的，有缺陷的 | |
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172
apparatus
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| n.装置，器械；器具，设备 | |
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173
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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174
ashore
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| adv.在(向)岸上，上岸 | |
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175
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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176
dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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177
humane
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| adj.人道的，富有同情心的 | |
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178
withhold
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| v.拒绝，不给；使停止，阻挡 | |
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179
disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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180
arduous
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| adj.艰苦的，费力的，陡峭的 | |
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181
undertaking
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| n.保证，许诺，事业 | |
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