War, God knows, is bad enough, but far worse are the diseases that follow in its wake. The dead on the “field of honor,” which is soon naught8 but a vast cemetery9, are, as I have said above, inhumed as rapidly as possible. There is no time to lose. Hurriedly thousands of fallen braves are thrown into large pits, and barely covered with earth. The comrades who have rendered them this last service move onward10 to bury others, and leave them to vitiate the air and to form a terrible herd11 of infection. Thus it is that a country which has already been devastated12 by war is again brought to the verge13 of despair by the appearance of 130typhus fever, dysentery, and other equally serious maladies. Unfortunately, these diseases do not confine themselves to the country in which the war has been waged, but also invade the lands of the peaceful neighbors.
THE CREMATORIUM AT ROME
(From Dr. Pini’s Work.)
131There is much evidence to prove that what I say is true. Immediately after the defeat of Darius, Alexander the Great was advised by the sage14 Aristoteles to leave Arbela, to secure himself and his army from the pestilential emanations of the dead.
When Syracuse was besieged15 by Hannibal, he decided17 to wound the feelings of the Syracusans by desecrating18 their dead, who had been buried, as was the custom in most ancient cities, outside of the city gates. He ordered his troops to dig up the ill-fated corpses20, cut them to pieces, and strew21 them all over the field of battle, in full sight of their horror-stricken relatives and friends. But this barbarous act was followed by deserved punishment. Pestilence22 decimated the beleaguerers, and scores upon scores of the soldiers fell victims to the fatal power that arose, slow but sure, from the outraged23 dead.
Lucan has furnished us with an account of the terrible scourge24 that befell the army of Pompey at Durazzo, because it had neglected to bury the cadavers25 of the horses killed in the battle. For the same reason the camp of Constantine the Great was once devastated by the plague.
Mr. William Eassie, the honorary secretary of the Cremation28 Society of England, states (vide his “Cremation of the Dead,” page 19):—
“With the ancient Athenians, when soldiers fell in battle, it was the custom to collect them into tents, where they lay for a few days, to ensure recognition. Each tribe then conveyed their dead in cypress29 shells to the ceramicos, or places of public burning, an empty hearse following behind, in memory of the missing.”
The first epidemic30 of spotted31 fever on record occurred 132in Spain, in 1490, and was due to the emanations arising from the decaying bodies which had been left unburied on the battle-ground.
In 1796 (according to Desgenettes), a military surgeon by the name of Vaidy supervised the burial of the soldiers and horses that had been killed in a combat near Nuremberg. While the work was in progress, he was attacked by colic and nausea32, and afterwards suffered for several days from a severe dysentery. His horse, after having been tortured by severe abdominal33 pains, died on the evening of the day when he was taken sick. Persons who were with Vaidy complained of the same symptoms as he.
During the campaign in Russia in 1812 many of the French soldiers who perished in the disastrous34 retreat were burned by the enemy.
After the battle of Waterloo 4000 bodies were reduced to ashes on funeral piles of resinous35 wood on the field of carnage.
The ravages36 of the typhus fever in the armies battling during the Crimean War are yet well remembered, and were too great to be easily forgotten.
An eye-witness (Trusen) of the siege of Sebastopol reported at the time that: “Those who were but lately our brave soldiers have become greater enemies of their successors in arms than the Russians themselves. Barely, and sometimes not at all, covered by earth, their bodies emit a pestilential miasma37, which kills far better than powder and bullet, and is more reliable than a gun. A bishop38 has been sent out to consecrate39 the trenches in which the dead are piled up, yet the infection will resist consecration40 and holy water. Unfortunately, the danger does not come from our own troops alone. The 133wind carries the emanations of the Russian dead into our intrenchments. We besiege16 Sebastopol, but pestilence besieges41 us. The same Frenchmen who came to our rescue with their sabres now poison us by their putrefaction42. Animal remains43 also vitiate the air. The cadaver26 of the noble battle-horse that carried its rider bravely through the day of Balaklava now lies in the road, and threatens the victorious44 dragoon who rode upon it with an inevitable45 fate. Burial-ground and camp adjoin each other. Where the soldier fought and fell is his grave, which is seldom far from the tents of the surviving.”
During the expedition to Morea, the French made intrenchments in a cemetery outside of Patras. All those who were ordered into the trenches experienced first malarial46 symptoms, and were finally attacked by typhoid fever.
The cholera47 mowed48 down more soldiers in the war between Austria and Prussia, in 1866, than the missiles of either army.
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 was accompanied by dysentery and typhus fever. After the battle of Gravelotte the German troops had to camp for weeks upon the graves of their comrades, subjected all the time to the most dangerous effluvia from the slain. The bodies of those that fell at Metz were in many instances dug up by the Germans and re-interred; since the hasty and superficial way in which they had been buried in the first place caused contamination of the watercourses near by, and pollution of the air.
The evils of earth burial were especially apparent in besieged forts, for instance in Metz and Paris, 1870–71.
134The communists at Paris evaded49 the evils of inhumation by burning their dead in the casemates.
On July 14, 1877, during the war between Turkey and Russia, General Tergankassoff informed his government at St. Petersburg, by despatch50, that the air in and about Bayazid was so contaminated by the decomposition51 of the dead, that it would not only be unwise, but also dangerous, to prolong the stay of the troops there.
On August 24 of the same year, the naval52 correspondent of the London Times stated that thousands of soldiers who fell in the Shipka Pass were so superficially inhumed that relics53 of the dead, such as arms and knees, protruded54 from the earth-heaps.
On the 14th of September following, the correspondent of the London Daily Telegraph declared that the stenches of the villages around Hasankioe were unendurable; that the retreating invaders55 had cut off the water-supply by filling up the wells with corpses; and that in consequence the water had to be brought from a great distance. And on the seventeenth of the same month, the Times correspondent reported that fever had broken out at Kezanlik; and that, within 600 yards of his tent, some hundreds of uninhumed dead could be seen, relics of the battle which took place some weeks previously56. In order to lessen57 the danger, the couriers passing along the Yemi Saghra road had actually to ride with camphor in their mouths. This state of things is not only deplorable, but pre-eminently shameful58.
It is plain from the above that interment en masse, as it is practiced during war at the present time, is very unsatisfactory, and often leads to disastrous consequences. 135Unfortunately, burial in single graves is impossible, for several reasons. In the first place, it would take up too much time; secondly59, too much room; and, thirdly, it would remove too many men from the ranks of the combatants. Nothing remains to us, therefore, but to look about us for some other mode of disposing of the dead. The list of methods from which we may select one is not very large. Various schemes have been proposed. One erratic60 genius actually proposed to blow up the victims of human strife61 with dynamite62. Of all the ways of disposing of the slain, none is so good and advantageous63 as cremation. History records many instances in which cremation was made use of to destroy the dead after a battle.
Mr. Wm. Eassie reports: “During the wars between the English and the Burgundians and the French,—the latter led by Joan of Arc,—the dead were on one occasion piled up outside the city of Paris, and consumed in one huge pyre.”
Twelve days after the battle of Paris, on the 30th of March, 1814, 4000 horses, killed during the combat, were burnt by the Germans in the environs of Paris,—the woods of Montfaucon.
In the battle at Rivas, Nicaragua, on the 28th of June, 1855, between government troops and Walker’s Filibusters64, the latter lost their commander, 12 officers, and 100 men, all of whom were cremated65.
Many dead were reduced to ashes by the Carlists, after the battle of Cuenca.
More than 40,000 human and animal remains had been inhumed in a very superficial manner after the battle of Sedan, during the late Franco-Prussian War. In consequence, the Belgian villages in the neighborhood 136were visited by epidemics66 and infectious diseases. The Belgian government was petitioned to remove the evil. It despatched Colonel Creteur to examine into the grievances67, and, if possible, remove them. One’s hair stands on end when one reads the report of the colonel on the condition of the Sedan battle-field. The only way to remedy the evil was to destroy the dangerous cadavers by cremation, which was a difficult task, under the circumstances, but which was nevertheless accomplished68 by the ingenious Creteur. The colonel’s report is full of horrible facts. The bodies of German soldiers in a trench4 at Laid-Trou were covered so little by earth that carnivorous animals had already devoured69 part of the hands and faces. Rain-water had caused 30 large pits, containing the remains of Bavarians, to cave in, and had laid bare the bodies. Between Belan and Bazailles, the owners of a field had leveled the elevation70 of a Bavarian grave. Relics of the dead protruded from the ground. The bodies were covered only by a thin layer of earth, in which corn flourished luxuriantly. Wild bears, foxes, and dogs, relishing71 the human flesh, helped to scratch away the soil over the remains, as did the numerous crows upon the pit in which the horses had been buried. Dogs, having once feasted on this fare, would not eat anything else. Creteur at first could not obtain men to carry out his plans, as every one who attempted to open the trenches contracted phlyct?na, an eruption72 of the skin. Finally, by promising73 good pay, he enlisted74 27 workmen, whom he endeavored to protect by saturating75 their clothing and moistening the graves with a solution of carbolic acid. But this only intensified76 the phlyct?na. He then determined77 to cover the graves with a 137layer of chloride of lime, and to pour diluted78 muriatic acid upon them subsequently. By this means he succeeded in laying bare the topmost layer of the corpses. He then had large quantities of coal tar27 poured into the pit, which trickled79 down among the bodies to the bottom, thoroughly80 covering the remains. He then had more chloride of lime heaped upon the corpses, and finally had bundles of hay, previously saturated81 with kerosene82, thrown burning into the pit. Creteur declares that from 200 to 300 bodies were consumed within 50 to 60 minutes. The smoke, impregnated with the smell of the carbolic acid that was formed by the combination of the chloride of lime and coal tar, was not offensive, and proved entirely83 harmless to the workmen. About one-fourth of all the contents remained in the pits, consisting of calcined bones and a dry mass. These were again covered with chloride of lime, and then the trenches were closed. In this way, 45,855 human and equine bodies were disposed of.
THE MILAN CINERARIUM.
138Incineration in war-time should be obligatory—must be so in fact. At present, cremation in portable furnaces is out of the question, because it would take too long. Only the bodies of prominent officers might be thus cremated and sent to the rear, so that they might rest under a monument erected84 by the grateful people of the country that they served. Under the existing circumstances, I think Creteur’s method would be the best. By this means, several hundred bodies could be destroyed at once. There ought to be a cremation corps19 in every division of an army. Better yet it would be to organize a neutral society, like the Red Cross Association, and call it the Society of the Black Cross. 139The members might wear a black cross on their caps and on the left arm. After a battle, the various corps of this society would begin their work, gathering85 the dead and committing them to the flames. Thus we would protect our brave soldiers, who offer up their lives for their beloved country and our sake, from pestilence and disease.
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1
succumb
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| v.屈服，屈从；死 | |
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slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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interred
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| v.埋，葬( inter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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trench
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| n./v.(挖)沟，(挖)战壕 | |
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trenches
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| 深沟，地沟( trench的名词复数 )； 战壕 | |
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decompose
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| vi.分解；vt.（使）腐败，（使）腐烂 | |
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calamity
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| n.灾害，祸患，不幸事件 | |
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naught
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| n.无，零 [=nought] | |
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cemetery
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| n.坟墓，墓地，坟场 | |
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onward
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| adj.向前的，前进的；adv.向前，前进，在先 | |
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herd
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| n.兽群，牧群；vt.使集中，把…赶在一起 | |
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devastated
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| v.彻底破坏( devastate的过去式和过去分词)；摧毁；毁灭；在感情上（精神上、财务上等）压垮adj.毁坏的；极为震惊的 | |
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verge
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| n.边，边缘；v.接近，濒临 | |
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sage
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| n.圣人，哲人；adj.贤明的，明智的 | |
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besieged
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| 包围，围困，围攻( besiege的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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besiege
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| vt.包围，围攻，拥在...周围 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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desecrating
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| 毁坏或亵渎( desecrate的现在分词 ) | |
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corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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corpses
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| n.死尸，尸体( corpse的名词复数 ) | |
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strew
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| vt.撒；使散落；撒在…上，散布于 | |
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pestilence
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| n.瘟疫 | |
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outraged
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| a.震惊的，义愤填膺的 | |
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scourge
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| n.灾难，祸害；v.蹂躏 | |
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cadavers
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| n.尸体( cadaver的名词复数 ) | |
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cadaver
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| n.尸体 | |
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tar
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| n.柏油，焦油；vt.涂或浇柏油/焦油于 | |
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cremation
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| n.火葬，火化 | |
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cypress
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| n.柏树 | |
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epidemic
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| n.流行病；盛行；adj.流行性的，流传极广的 | |
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spotted
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| adj.有斑点的，斑纹的，弄污了的 | |
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nausea
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| n.作呕，恶心；极端的憎恶(或厌恶) | |
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abdominal
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| adj.腹（部）的，下腹的；n.腹肌 | |
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disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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resinous
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| adj.树脂的，树脂质的，树脂制的 | |
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ravages
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| 劫掠后的残迹，破坏的结果，毁坏后的残迹 | |
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miasma
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| n.毒气；不良气氛 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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consecrate
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| v.使圣化，奉…为神圣；尊崇；奉献 | |
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consecration
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| n.供献，奉献，献祭仪式 | |
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besieges
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| 包围，围困，围攻( besiege的第三人称单数 ) | |
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putrefaction
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| n.腐坏，腐败 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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victorious
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| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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malarial
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| 患疟疾的，毒气的 | |
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cholera
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| n.霍乱 | |
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mowed
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| v.刈，割( mow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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evaded
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| 逃避( evade的过去式和过去分词 )； 避开； 回避； 想不出 | |
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despatch
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| n./v.(dispatch)派遣；发送；n.急件；新闻报道 | |
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decomposition
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| n. 分解, 腐烂, 崩溃 | |
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naval
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| adj.海军的，军舰的，船的 | |
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relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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protruded
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| v.（使某物）伸出，（使某物）突出( protrude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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invaders
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| 入侵者，侵略者，侵入物( invader的名词复数 ) | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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lessen
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| vt.减少，减轻；缩小 | |
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shameful
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| adj.可耻的，不道德的 | |
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secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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erratic
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| adj.古怪的，反复无常的，不稳定的 | |
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strife
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| n.争吵，冲突，倾轧，竞争 | |
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62
dynamite
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| n./vt.(用)炸药(爆破) | |
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advantageous
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| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
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filibusters
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| n.掠夺兵( filibuster的名词复数 )；暴兵；（用冗长的发言）阻挠议事的议员；会议妨碍行为v.阻碍或延宕国会或其他立法机构通过提案( filibuster的第三人称单数 )；掠夺 | |
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cremated
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| v.火葬，火化（尸体）( cremate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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epidemics
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| n．流行病 | |
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grievances
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| n.委屈( grievance的名词复数 )；苦衷；不满；牢骚 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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devoured
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| 吞没( devour的过去式和过去分词 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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elevation
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| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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relishing
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| v.欣赏( relish的现在分词 )；从…获得乐趣；渴望 | |
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eruption
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| n.火山爆发；（战争等）爆发；（疾病等）发作 | |
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promising
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| adj.有希望的，有前途的 | |
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enlisted
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| adj.应募入伍的v.（使）入伍， （使）参军( enlist的过去式和过去分词 )；获得（帮助或支持） | |
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saturating
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| 浸湿，浸透( saturate的现在分词 )； 使…大量吸收或充满某物 | |
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intensified
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| v.（使）增强， （使）加剧( intensify的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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diluted
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| 无力的，冲淡的 | |
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trickled
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| v.滴( trickle的过去式和过去分词 )；淌；使)慢慢走；缓慢移动 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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81
saturated
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| a.饱和的，充满的 | |
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82
kerosene
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| n.(kerosine)煤油，火油 | |
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83
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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84
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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85
gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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