During many centuries, while the materials were most abundant, they remained unused. Many of them were rifled by treasure-seekers, carted away by builders, or destroyed by the plough. Even when the Renaissance8 turned men’s minds to the study of the past, they had no thought of any sources of information except the written documents which they were only beginning to learn how to use. The Italian scholar, Raymond de Marliano, the Dutch geographer9, Abraham Ortels, made futile10 guesses about topographical questions suggested by Caesar’s Commentaries, but never dreamed that there was anything to be learned of a people who had lived in Britain when the South Foreland and Cape11 Grisnez were still undivided. Camden travelled over the length and breadth of England, amassing12 stores of information, much of which he did not know how to interpret, and built up geographical13 theories upon place-names, which, in default of linguistic14 science, were of necessity worthless. Even the great French scholars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries—Chifflet, Du Fresne, Scaliger, Sanson, and d’Anville—although their geographical essays are still worth reading, failed to determine the port from which Caesar had sailed to Britain. Stukeley, who was one of the first to excavate15 barrows and describe their contents and who made valuable observations of some of our megalithic monuments, encumbered16 his folios with fanciful speculations17 which only served to entertain his contemporaries and to mislead posterity18.1 But 3 these men had no access to the sources which are now open to many who are intellectually their inferiors; and, notwithstanding the smallness of their achievement, they did their work as pioneers.
About the middle of the eighteenth century a spirit of antiquarian curiosity was aroused in England. The Society of Antiquaries, which had been founded in 1717, received in 1752 a charter from George the Second; and in 1770 appeared the first number of their principal organ, Archaeologia, which is still in course of publication. Many of the earlier papers were crude and superficial, showing keen interest in the things of the past, but naturally betraying ignorance of the methods by which alone the significance of antiquarian discoveries could be ascertained19. Early in the nineteenth century, however, Sir Richard Colt Hoare and his friend, William Cunnington, began to excavate the barrows of Wiltshire; and with their labours the era of scientific investigation20 may be said to have begun. Hoare had in earlier life been an ardent21 fox-hunter; but, as he grew older, he found that barrow-digging was a pastime more exciting still. Craniology was at that time unborn; and Hoare omitted to measure the numerous skeletons which he discovered or to utilize22 them for the advancement23 of ethnology. Even the work that he professed24 to do was often marred25 by a lack of thoroughness which, although it was inevitable26 in a pioneer, irritated the critical spirit of later explorers.2 But with all its limitations the Ancient History of North and South Wiltshire, the first volume of which appeared in 1812, was an important work. A few years earlier, John Frere had recorded in Archaeologia3 the discoveries of stone implements28 which he had made at Hoxne in Suffolk. Such discoveries had of course in innumerable instances passed unrecorded. In the British Isles29, as in many other lands, flint arrow-heads were regarded by the peasants who found them as fairy-darts; while stone axes, which in Scotland, Ireland, 4 and Cornwall, are still deemed to possess medical virtues30, were said to have fallen from the sky.4 In the time of Charles the Second, however, Sir Robert Sibbald, greatly daring, affirmed that the fairy-darts had been made by man;5 and nearly a century before the time of Frere an implement27, which has since been assigned to the Palaeolithic Age, had been found near Gray’s Inn Lane, and had been vaguely31 described as ‘a British weapon’. But Frere saw that the tools which he had collected were not to be ascribed even to the ‘painted savages’ who had resisted the invasion of Caesar; and although even he did not suspect their immeasurable antiquity33, he declared that they must have belonged to ‘a very remote period indeed’ and to ‘a people who had not the use of metals’. In 1824 Dr. Buckland, who had spent some years in exploring ossiferous caves, published an account of his work in Reliquiae Diluvianae, a book which, by attributing the phenomena34 that it recorded to an universal deluge35, impelled36 geological research in a wrong direction, and delayed for many years the recognition of the truth that the earlier human occupants of the caves had been contemporary with the mammoth37 and other extinct animals. Soon afterwards MacEnery, whose example was followed by Godwin Austen, examined Kent’s Cavern38 near Torquay, a task which was systematically39 completed some five-and-twenty years ago by a committee of the British Association. It was not, however, before the middle of the nineteenth century that the knowledge of the Stone Ages began to be built up on a sound foundation. From 1841 to 1860 Boucher de Perthes was patiently exploring in the neighbourhood of Abbeville and Amiens the gravels40 which the river Somme had deposited in the Pleistocene Period, and collecting flints which were proved to have been shaped by the hands of man. Lyell, Prestwich, John Evans, Lubbock, and Flower visited the scene of his labours, and testified to the authenticity41 5 of his discoveries; and after long controversy42 the most reluctant were forced to admit that the human race had existed at a period infinitely43 more remote than had hitherto been imagined. Similar discoveries were soon made in England, in various European countries, in Africa, Asia, and America. In our islands, as well as on the Continent, as antiquarian zeal44 became more widely diffused45, the need of organized effort was felt; and, side by side with the leading academies—the Society of Antiquaries, the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, the Royal Archaeological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, the Royal Irish Academy, the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, and the Cambrian Archaeological Association—local societies were gradually formed in every important provincial46 town. Accident from time to time revealed objects for which no search had been made. Ploughmen guiding their teams, navvies working upon roads or in railway-cuttings, miners and quarrymen, labourers draining land, sportsmen groping after game which they had shot, came upon antiquities47 of the nature of which they were ignorant. Evans, in the intervals48 of leisure which he could win from a busy life, indefatigably49 collected implements of stone, bone, and bronze, systematized the discoveries of a host of minor50 workers, and marshalled facts and deductions51 in volumes which have become classical; and, not content with this, he supplemented the labours of Akerman, Hawkins, Roach Smith, and others, and revealed to his countrymen the origin, the varieties, and the geographical distribution of the coins which their British ancestors had minted, and the historical value of which he was the first to emphasize. His son, who has lately become famous as the explorer of Crete, carried his researches further afield, but often found time to grapple with British problems; contributed to our knowledge of Stonehenge and other megalithic circles; and by his discoveries at Aylesford in Kent threw a beam of light upon the history of the Celtic Iron Age. Boyd Dawkins explored the caves of Somersetshire, Derbyshire, and Wales. Bateman, Thurnam, Davis, Warne, Greenwell, Mortimer, and Atkinson of Danby continued in a more 6 scientific spirit the labours of Hoare,6 and recorded the discoveries which they had made in numerous barrows. General Pitt-Rivers brought the experience of a soldier, the sagacity of a man of the world, and the genius which was his own to the investigation of archaeological and anthropological52 problems; demonstrated the value of thorough excavation7 and of accurate pictorial54 illustration; impressed upon the rising school of students the need of precision in recording55 the circumstances of every find; and by expending56 a considerable fortune in adding to knowledge set an example of enlightened generosity57. Sir Arthur Mitchell, in a series of lectures8 which have been described as a masterpiece of sceptical irony58, warned antiquaries, but in no didactic spirit, to think, and to think again, before they drew conclusions from the records which the spade had revealed. The Devonshire Association appointed committees to examine the antiquities of their richly dowered county, and printed a series of reports upon the megalithic monuments, the graves, and the ‘hut-circles’ of Dartmoor. John Abercromby traced from Great Britain to the original seat of manufacture the sites where the so-called drinking-cups, which accompanied so many British interments of the earlier round barrows, have been found; while Romilly Allen, following in the steps of Wollaston Franks, helped to elucidate59 the development of the art of the Bronze Age and the Late Celtic Period. Professor Gowland disclosed by excavation53 the origins of Stonehenge, 7 and by his metallurgical knowledge enabled us to understand the methods of prehistoric miners. Charles Read made intelligible60, even to casual visitors, the collection of antiquities in the British Museum which illustrates61 the culture of the Ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron. Francis Haverfield, scholar, archaeologist, and practical excavator, while making himself the foremost authority on the history of Roman Britain, incidentally enlarged the records of pre-Roman times. Joseph Anderson carried on the work which Daniel Wilson had begun, and described the successive stages of culture through which the inhabitants of Scotland had passed from the earliest to the beginning of the historic period. Coles, Christison, and Bryce added significant details to the information which his lectures had given. But it would be tedious to prolong the list of workers. Everywhere the success with which the last resting-places of the dead had been made to tell their tale stimulated62 antiquaries to search for fresh relics63 that might help them to realize more fully64 how those dead had lived. Flint quarries65 and workshops, where primitive66 tools were fabricated, hut-circles, Scottish brochs, lake-dwellings, pits, and ‘earth-houses’ were explored; and, in response to the exhortations67 of Pitt-Rivers, camps and other earthworks were patiently excavated68, although, for lack of funds, research of this kind has not progressed very far. The exploration of the far-famed marsh-village at Glastonbury is nearly complete; and the results which have been obtained, collated69 with those that were yielded by the examination of the camps of Cissbury, Lewes, Hod Hill, and Hunsbury, have done much to dispel70 the old fancy that the ancient Briton was a savage32.
But perhaps no intelligent man ever progressed far in archaeological study without discovering for himself this caution:—though the relics of man’s handiwork, unlike his written history, cannot lie, their meaning may in divers71 ways be misinterpreted. They will not yield it up except to the trained and discerning eye.9 8
Meanwhile toilers in other fields were co-operating with the archaeologists. Physical anthropology72 began to make strides. Since Davis, Thurnam, and Rolleston described the skeletons which had reposed73 in the long barrows and the round barrows of Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Yorkshire, and Northumberland, since Huxley wrote his memoirs74 on the river-bed skulls75 of England and Ireland, greater accuracy of method has been evolved, and Beddoe, Turner, Garson, and Haddon have supplemented and corrected their predecessors’ work. Geologists76 endeavoured to determine the configuration77 of the land at the time when man first lived in Britain; and a definite result was attained78 when borings made in implement-bearing beds showed the relative chronology of the period during which palaeolithic hunters had inhabited the eastern counties. Burial customs revealed by the opening of barrows and cists, holes drilled in the stones of dolmens, strange devices sculptured on graves and on rocks, suggested problems as to the religious ideas of the Neolithic79 and Bronze Ages, which the archaeologist, the ethnographer, and the folklorist80 attempted to solve. Philologists81 studied the Celtic languages, and succeeded in some measure in deducing from place-names and other relics of the ancient dialects information bearing upon the history of the invasions and the distribution of the two great branches of the Celtic stock.
A great advance was made when the Comparative Method was brought to bear upon the study of primitive culture. It was recognized that the antiquities of our own island 9 could not be adequately comprehended without reference to those of other lands. For at every turn the inquirer found himself arrested by obstinate82 questionings. Whence had the immigrants of the Old and the New Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Early Iron Age set out? Whence was the knowledge of bronze derived83? What was the starting-point of the culture of the Iron Age? What were the first beginnings of Late Celtic Art? How was one to account for the existence in remote countries of this or that British custom? The British archaeologist who would intelligently ponder these questions must take account of the work which has been done by Cartailhac, the brothers Siret, Bertrand, Edouard Piette, Salomon Reinach, Montelius, Sophus Müller, Arthur Evans, Ridgeway, Myres, and Flinders Petrie in elucidating84 the antiquities of France, Spain, Italy, Central Europe, Scandinavia, the Aegean Sea, North Africa, and Egypt; and the British ethnologist cannot afford to be ignorant of what Broca, Hamy, de Quatrefages, Salmon85, Hervé, Manouvrier, Virchow, Ranke, and Sergi have done for the ethnology of Europe. Pitt-Rivers saw that ethnography, which informs us about the arts and crafts, the manners and customs of surviving savage tribes, can give archaeology86 indispensable aid;10 and all who have compared the contents of the American Room and the Ethnographical Gallery in the British Museum with what they have seen in the Prehistoric Room will believe the Keeper when he assures them that ‘in all probability the resemblance between the perishable87 productions of the modern savage and those of prehistoric man, which are now lost, was as great as that which undoubtedly88 exists in the case of implements of stone and bone which have remained’:11 but in endeavouring to apply their knowledge to the elucidation89 of the antiquities of a particular country they will not forget to be on their guard. Nor may we neglect the facts which folk-lore 10 societies have in late years so diligently90 collected; but those who have learned from the great works of Tylor how much of primitive custom still lingers in the depths of modern civilization will become sceptical when they are invited by less sober reasoners to trace the origin of this or that surviving superstition91 to any one race or tribe or period of the remote past; and readers who have accepted with enthusiastic admiration92 the seductive theories of The Golden Bough93 should weigh well the criticism which Sir Alfred Lyall, qualified94 by intimacy95 with primitive peoples as well as by a sceptical and cultivated intellect, has published of that brilliant and truly epoch-making book.
When we have finished our survey of prehistoric times we shall find that while we can still rely upon the aid of the archaeologist and the anthropologist96, other materials have been accumulating which will enable us to read our classical texts with an insight that was impossible for the old-fashioned historian. The texts themselves have been purified and restored. Inscriptions97 have yielded new information on matters of history, ethnology, and religion; and the vast labour which has been expended98 by those who have striven to elucidate the most interesting of all subjects cannot wholly fail to help us when we inquire what the British Celts thought of man’s relation to the universe. As one scholar after another has noted99 the significance of dates recorded in Cicero’s correspondence, and compared them with the relevant passages in the Commentaries and other ancient writings, chronological100 difficulties have gradually disappeared. Physical geography and geology, supported partly by written documents, partly by archaeological discoveries, have combined to reconstruct the map of the coast on which Caesar landed. Astronomers101 and hydrographers have perfected our knowledge of tidal streams, and thereby102 forged a key which, for those who possess the indispensable knowledge of seamanship and of ancient military history, can unlock the secrets of Caesar’s voyages. Military experts and soldiers who have served in the field are willing to help us to understand the story of his campaigns. 11
But after the student has digested all the information which he can extract from books and manuscripts, from museums, from travel and observation, perhaps from practical experience in digging, and, above all, from those who combine learning with knowledge of the world, of affairs, and of men, he will find that his materials are still, and on certain points must always remain inadequate103. Some branches of research, indeed, are virtually complete. All, or nearly all, that sepulchres and skulls and coins can teach us of Ancient Britain and its inhabitants we know. Many more implements, weapons, ornaments104, and urns105 will be accumulated; but it may be doubted whether they will add sensibly to that knowledge which is really worth having. But much still remains106 to be learned. The geological record is still incomplete; and one of our most accomplished107 field-geologists is hopefully looking forward to a time when it may be possible to determine the uttermost antiquity of man and to illuminate108 the dark era that intervened between the Pleistocene Period and the apparent commencement of the Neolithic Age.12 His experience has enabled him to tell archaeologists that in order to solve chronological problems, they cannot afford to neglect even the shells which abound109 in many burial-mounds.13 There is room also for many labourers in excavating110 stone circles, camps, and earthworks, and determining their age, in exploring habitations, wherever they can be found, and learning what they can teach about those who constructed them.14 What has been already done in this department has produced the most fruitful results: the speculations of Dr. Guest, for instance, in regard to the so-called ‘Belgic ditches’, have been stultified111 by pick and shovel112.15 But such work, which in other civilized113 countries is an object of national concern, languishes114 here for want of funds. No British Government can expect support from the intelligence and the public spirit of its constituents115 in spending 12 money upon archaeological research, or has the courage to give them a lead;16 and where are the wealthy Englishmen who will follow the example of their American cousins in endowing such work?
Nevertheless, enough is already known to justify116 an attempt to create a synthetical117 work, the aim of which shall be to portray118 in each successive stage and to trace the evolution of the culture—nay, in some sort even to construct a history—of prehistoric Britain, and to rewrite the history of the period which is illustrated119 by contemporary records. Not only is the subject fascinating; it is an indispensable introduction to the history of England. I have tried to bear ever in mind the interdependence of all the sciences which can help to restore the past, and to remember the warning, ‘Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed120 lest he fall.’ It is easy to laugh at the guesses of Camden and the theories of Stukeley; but they were only framing the hypotheses which are as necessary for the progress of archaeology as of other sciences; and certain theories which in our own day have been acclaimed121 with enthusiasm, while serving their purpose like theirs, will, like theirs, be found open to criticism.
But we need not exercise ourselves overmuch in the region of theory. Though we must be content to remain ignorant of many things, the story of Ancient Britain, gaining as it progresses firmness of outline and fullness of detail, can be constructed upon a basis of fact.
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1
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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ply
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| v.(搬运工等)等候顾客，弯曲 | |
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elicit
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| v.引出,抽出,引起 | |
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prehistoric
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| adj.（有记载的）历史以前的，史前的，古老的 | |
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narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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sifted
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| v.筛( sift的过去式和过去分词 )；筛滤；细查；详审 | |
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8
renaissance
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| n.复活，复兴，文艺复兴 | |
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geographer
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| n.地理学者 | |
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futile
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| adj.无效的，无用的，无希望的 | |
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cape
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| n.海角，岬；披肩，短披风 | |
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amassing
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| v.积累，积聚( amass的现在分词 ) | |
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geographical
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| adj.地理的；地区(性)的 | |
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linguistic
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| adj.语言的，语言学的 | |
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excavate
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| vt.挖掘，挖出 | |
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encumbered
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| v.妨碍，阻碍，拖累( encumber的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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speculations
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| n.投机买卖( speculation的名词复数 )；思考；投机活动；推断 | |
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posterity
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| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
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ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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utilize
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| vt.使用，利用 | |
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advancement
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| n.前进，促进，提升 | |
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professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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marred
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| adj. 被损毁, 污损的 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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implement
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| n.(pl.)工具，器具；vt.实行，实施，执行 | |
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implements
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| n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效 | |
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isles
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| 岛( isle的名词复数 ) | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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vaguely
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| adv.含糊地，暖昧地 | |
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savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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deluge
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| n./vt.洪水，暴雨，使泛滥 | |
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impelled
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| v.推动、推进或敦促某人做某事( impel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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mammoth
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| n.长毛象；adj.长毛象似的，巨大的 | |
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cavern
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| n.洞穴，大山洞 | |
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systematically
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| adv.有系统地 | |
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gravels
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| 沙砾( gravel的名词复数 )； 砾石； 石子； 结石 | |
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authenticity
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| n.真实性 | |
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42
controversy
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| n.争论，辩论，争吵 | |
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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diffused
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| 散布的，普及的，扩散的 | |
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provincial
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| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
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antiquities
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| n.古老( antiquity的名词复数 )；古迹；古人们；古代的风俗习惯 | |
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48
intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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49
indefatigably
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| adv.不厌倦地，不屈不挠地 | |
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50
minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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51
deductions
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| 扣除( deduction的名词复数 )； 结论； 扣除的量； 推演 | |
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52
anthropological
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| adj.人类学的 | |
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53
excavation
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| n.挖掘，发掘；被挖掘之地 | |
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pictorial
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| adj.绘画的；图片的；n．画报 | |
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55
recording
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| n.录音，记录 | |
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56
expending
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| v.花费( expend的现在分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
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57
generosity
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| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
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58
irony
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| n.反语，冷嘲；具有讽刺意味的事，嘲弄 | |
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59
elucidate
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| v.阐明，说明 | |
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intelligible
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| adj.可理解的，明白易懂的，清楚的 | |
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61
illustrates
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的第三人称单数 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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stimulated
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| a.刺激的 | |
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relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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quarries
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| n.（采）石场( quarry的名词复数 )；猎物（指鸟，兽等）；方形石；（格窗等的）方形玻璃v.从采石场采得( quarry的第三人称单数 )；从（书本等中）努力发掘（资料等）；在采石场采石 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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exhortations
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| n.敦促( exhortation的名词复数 )；极力推荐；（正式的）演讲；（宗教仪式中的）劝诫 | |
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excavated
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| v.挖掘( excavate的过去式和过去分词 )；开凿；挖出；发掘 | |
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collated
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| v.校对( collate的过去式和过去分词 )；整理；核对；整理（文件或书等） | |
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dispel
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| vt.驱走，驱散，消除 | |
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divers
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| adj.不同的；种种的 | |
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anthropology
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| n.人类学 | |
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reposed
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| v.将（手臂等）靠在某人（某物）上( repose的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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memoirs
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| n.回忆录；回忆录传( mem,自oir的名词复数) | |
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skulls
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| 颅骨( skull的名词复数 )； 脑袋； 脑子； 脑瓜 | |
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geologists
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| 地质学家，地质学者( geologist的名词复数 ) | |
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configuration
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| n.结构，布局，形态，(计算机)配置 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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neolithic
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| adj.新石器时代的 | |
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folklorist
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| 民俗学研究者 | |
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philologists
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| n.语文学( philology的名词复数 ) | |
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obstinate
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| adj.顽固的，倔强的，不易屈服的，较难治愈的 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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elucidating
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| v.阐明，解释( elucidate的现在分词 ) | |
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salmon
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| n.鲑，大马哈鱼，橙红色的 | |
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archaeology
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| n.考古学 | |
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perishable
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| adj.（尤指食物）易腐的，易坏的 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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elucidation
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| n.说明，阐明 | |
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diligently
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| ad.industriously;carefully | |
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superstition
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| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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bough
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| n.大树枝，主枝 | |
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qualified
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| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
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intimacy
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| n.熟悉，亲密，密切关系，亲昵的言行 | |
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anthropologist
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| n.人类学家，人类学者 | |
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inscriptions
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| （作者）题词( inscription的名词复数 )； 献词； 碑文； 证劵持有人的登记 | |
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expended
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| v.花费( expend的过去式和过去分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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chronological
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| adj.按年月顺序排列的，年代学的 | |
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astronomers
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| n.天文学者，天文学家( astronomer的名词复数 ) | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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urns
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| n.壶( urn的名词复数 )；瓮；缸；骨灰瓮 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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illuminate
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| vt.照亮，照明；用灯光装饰；说明，阐释 | |
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abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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excavating
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| v.挖掘( excavate的现在分词 )；开凿；挖出；发掘 | |
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stultified
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| v.使成为徒劳，使变得无用( stultify的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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shovel
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| n.铁锨，铲子，一铲之量；v.铲，铲出 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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languishes
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| 长期受苦( languish的第三人称单数 )； 受折磨； 变得（越来越）衰弱； 因渴望而变得憔悴或闷闷不乐 | |
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constituents
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| n.选民( constituent的名词复数 )；成分；构成部分；要素 | |
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justify
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| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
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synthetical
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| adj.综合的，合成的 | |
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portray
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| v.描写，描述；画(人物、景象等) | |
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illustrated
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| adj. 有插图的，列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词 | |
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heed
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| v.注意，留意；n.注意，留心 | |
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acclaimed
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| adj.受人欢迎的 | |
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